Materials of Construction For Pressure Vessels

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Materials of Construction for Pressure Vessels
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels
File Reference: MEX20202
For additional information on this subject, contact

J.H. Thomas on 875-2230
Vessels
CONTENT
PAGE
HOW MATERIAL SELECTION FACTORS INFLUENCE

MATERIAL SELECTION....................................................................................... 1
Strength, Including Creep............................................................................. 2
Resistance to Corrosion................................................................................ 2
Increasing Resistance to Corrosion................................................... 4
Resistance to Hydrogen Attack......................................................... 5
Fracture Toughness ...................................................................................... 7
Material Fractures ............................................................................. 7
Fracture Toughness Determination................................................... 8
Factors That Influence Fracture Toughness...................................... 9
Control of Fracture Toughness ....................................................... 10
ASME Code and Brittle-Fracture Evaluation ................................. 12
Fabricability................................................................................................ 16
Requirements for Fabricability ....................................................... 16
Postweld Heat Treatment ................................................................ 17
DETERMINING MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESSES ................................. 21
ASME Criteria for Determining Maximum Allowable Stress.................... 21
Division 1 Criteria........................................................................... 22
Division 2 Criteria........................................................................... 25
ASME Maximum Allowable Stress Tables................................................ 25
Maximum Allowable Compressive Stress.................................................. 30
DETERMINING WHETHER PRESSURE VESSEL MATERIALS
MEET SAUDI ARAMCO MATERIAL SELECTION
REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................. 31
SAES-D-001............................................................................................... 31
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Rimmed Steels ................................................................................ 32

Nozzle Reinforcing Plates and Shell Stiffener Rings...................... 32
Corrosion Allowance ...................................................................... 32
32-SAMSS-004 .......................................................................................... 34
Contractor Design Package ........................................................................ 37
GENERIC MATERIAL TYPE .............................................................................. 40
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE-STRESS TABLE .................................................... 40
Legend and Notes for Figure 11................................................................. 44
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................... 48
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HOW MATERIAL SELECTION FACTORS INFLUENCE MATERIAL SELECTION

Materials that are used to construct ASME Code pressure vessels must be selected from
material specifications that are approved under the Code. A materials engineer normally
makes material selections for specific applications after the process environment and the
required design conditions have been defined. However, a mechanical engineer must also be
familiar with the factors that influence material selection.
The main factors that influence material selection are:
Strength, including creep
Resistance to corrosion
Fracture toughness
Fabricability
These material selection factors were discussed in COE 105 and will be briefly reviewed and
expanded upon here. Other factors that influence material selection are cost, availability of
materials, and ease of maintenance.
Alloys of carbon steel may be used to construct pressure vessels because of the suitability of
these alloys in terms of the first three material selection factors. Fabricability considerations
must also be evaluated, based on the particular alloy used. Alloys have the following
characteristics:
Increase the steel's resistance to corrosion and hydrogen attack. This resistance
improves the reliability of the pressure vessel.
Increase the steel's fracture toughness.
May allow components to be fabricated from thinner material, which reduces

weight and cost.
May allow the steel to withstand extremes in operating pressure or temperature

that may be encountered during normal use of a pressure vessel, without
component failure.
The primary alloying elements that are used in carbon and low-alloy steels are chromium,
magnesium, silicon, molybdenum, vanadium, nickel, copper, and columbium (also called
niobium). The specific alloying elements that are used and their quantities directly influence
material properties.
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Strength, Including Creep

Strength is a material's ability to withstand an imposed force or stress. Strength is a
significant factor in the selection of a material for a particular application inasmuch as
strength determines how thick a pressure vessel component must be in order to withstand the
imposed loads. Inasmuch as the yield and ultimate tensile strengths of materials are relatively
low at elevated temperatures, creep and rupture strengths of materials may determine
allowable stress values. At elevated temperatures in the creep range (above about 427C
[800F]), a material will continue to deform without an increase in the applied load and
resultant stress. Creep resistance is increased by the addition of alloying elements such as
chromium, molybdenum, and/or nickel to carbon steel. Therefore, in elevated temperature
applications, alloy materials are often employed for the sole purpose of increasing creep
resistance.
The overall strength of a material is determined by its yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
creep and rupture strengths. These strength properties depend on the chemical composition of
the material. Material strength determines the allowable stresses that are used in the ASME
Code for detailed component design. Allowable stress values are discussed later in this
module.
Resistance to Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by chemical action. A material's resistance to
corrosion is probably the most important factor that influences its selection for a specific
application. The corrosion rates of various metals in established processes are determined on
the basis of experience, while laboratory tests are used to determine the corrosion rates for
new processes. The corrosion resistance of a particular metal can be significantly changed by
a slight change in environmental chemistry. Since corrosion rates increase with temperature,
temperature also plays a major role in corrosion resistance.
The most common method that is used to address corrosion in pressure vessels is to specify a
corrosion allowance. A corrosion allowance is supplemental metal thickness which is added
to the minimum thickness that is required for the component to resist applied loads. This
added thickness compensates for thinning (corrosion) that will take place during service.
Saudi Aramco requirements for corrosion allowance are discussed later in this module. The
concept of corrosion allowance is illustrated in Figure 1.
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Where:
Tmin
Minimum thickness of component that is required to resist applied loads
Corrosion allowance
Total required component thickness

Corrosion Allowance
Figure 1
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Increasing Resistance to Corrosion

The corrosion resistance of carbon steel is increased through the addition of alloying elements
such as chromium, molybdenum, or nickel. To determine whether the use of an alloy is
appropriate, and to determine the particular alloy material to use, both cost and an acceptable
corrosion rate must be considered. Before a final material selection is made, the cost increase
in going from plain carbon steel to alloy steel must be compared with the corrosion rate and
higher required corrosion allowance for carbon steel.
Stainless steels are the most common, readily available, and among the more expensive
corrosion-resistant materials. Stainless steel can be used either as a solid plate or as a lining
that is bonded to a carbon or low-alloy steel baseplate. The use of solid stainless-steel plate is
the more economical approach for relatively thin-walled pressure vessels (up to about 19 mm
[3/4 in.] thick). The exact thickness where one approach becomes more economical than
another depends on current cost and material availability, and these factors vary based on
market conditions and location. If a stainless-steel lining is used, the following three choices
are available:
Integral cladding
Strip or sheet lining
Weld overlay
Integral Cladding is a lined plate that is made by hot rolling a carbon or low-alloy steel backing
plate together with a corrosion-resistant sheet. The two layers that form this lined plate are
then welded at the edges.
Strip or Sheet Lining is fabricated by welding alloy strip or sheet to the vessel shell. This lining
method is normally used in retrofit applications rather than in new vessel construction.
Weld Overlay is a lining method in which corrosion-resistant weld metal is added directly over
a carbon or low-alloy steel backing material. Weld overlay is frequently more economical
than cladding, based on the choice of vendor and the availability of material. Weld overlay
also often supplements other lining methods. For example, when the cladding on clad plate is
locally removed to make an attachment directly to the base material (such as for a nozzle), the
corrosion-resistant layer is restored by weld overlay. Standard Drawing No. AB0-036367,
Joint Preparation and Welding Details, Alloy and Clad Pressure Vessels and Heat
Exchangers, provides standard weld overlay details for nozzle attachments to clad pressure
vessels.
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Corrosion resistance in pressure vessels may also be increased through the use of a
nonmetallic, internal coating. In this application, the coating is bonded to the metallic surface
and protects the metal from the corrosive process environment. Maximum temperature
limitations of internal coatings prohibit their wide use in pressure vessels. However, Saudi
Aramco does use internal coatings in production applications where pressure vessel
temperatures are within the limitations of the coating material.
SAES-H-001, Selection Requirements for Industrial Coatings, specifies the requirements for
the following:
Acceptable coating systems based on the type of structure or equipment to be

coated and on whether new construction or maintenance is involved.
Coating selection for onshore and offshore applications.
Special surface preparation or coating requirements.
The extent of coating required, if not the entire surface.
Resistance to Hydrogen Attack

Hydrogen attack is sometimes discussed here because it is thought of as a form of corrosion.
However, hydrogen attack differs from corrosion in that damage occurs throughout the
thickness of the component, rather than just at its surface, and this damage occurs without any
metal loss. Thus, it is not practical to provide a corrosion allowance to allow for hydrogen
attack. In addition, once hydrogen attack has occurred, the metal cannot be repaired and must
be replaced.
Monatomic hydrogen easily diffuses through steel. However, molecular hydrogen does not
diffuse through steel. The diffusion of monatomic hydrogen through steel depends on the
following factors:
Hydrogen partial pressure in the process environment
Material composition
Temperature
Time
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At intermediate temperatures, from approximately 150C to 200C (300F to 400F),

monatomic hydrogen diffuses into voids that are normally present in steel. In these voids the
monatomic hydrogen forms molecular hydrogen, which cannot diffuse out of the steel. If this
hydrogen diffusion continues, pressure can build to high levels within the steel, and the steel
can crack.
At elevated temperatures, over approximately 315C (600F), monatomic hydrogen not only
causes cracks to form but also attacks the steel. Plain carbon steel is especially susceptible to
hydrogen attack. At these elevated temperatures, monatomic hydrogen forms and combines
with the carbon in the steel to form methane gas. Methane gas cannot diffuse out of the steel.
When the pressure of the methane gas becomes high enough, intergranular cracks occur. The
steel then becomes spongy and embrittled, and permanent damage results. Over time, the
steel loses tensile strength, hardness, notch toughness, and ductility. Hydrogen attack, plus
the stresses in the steel that are caused by operating conditions and residual fabrication
stresses, have caused catastrophic failure of pressure vessels.
Protection Against Hydrogen Attack - Plain carbon steels are satisfactory materials for hydrogen
service at low operating temperatures and high hydrogen partial pressures or at high operating
temperatures and low hydrogen partial pressures. The addition of carbide stabilizing
elements, such as chromium and molybdenum, decreases the reaction of hydrogen with the
carbides in steels. Therefore, engineers must often use low-alloy steel that contains
chromium, molybdenum, or both elements to provide adequate protection against hydrogen
attack in refinery and petrochemical services.
When hydrogen attack is a factor, API Publication 941, Steels for Hydrogen Service at
Elevated Temperatures and Pressures in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants, is
used for material selection. This document contains a graph known as the Nelson Curves.
Figure 10 in Work Aid 2 depicts the Nelson Curves that are excerpted from API 941.
The Nelson Curves were developed from reported experience with steels in hydrogen service.
If the combination of maximum design temperature and hydrogen partial pressure falls on,
below, or to the left of the curve for the type of steel being used as pressure vessel material,
the material is not subject to hydrogen attack. The acceptable maximum design temperature
increases as the alloy content (chromium, molybdenum, or both elements) increases, given a
specific hydrogen partial pressure. Figure 10 shows why it is common to use low-alloy steels
for pressure vessels that are used in hydrogen service and that operate at elevated
temperatures and pressure.
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Note that Figure 10 shows 1.0 Cr-0.5 Mo steel as equivalent to 1.25 Cr-0.5 Mo steel at
hydrogen partial pressures above about 8.28 MPa(a) (1200 psia). The 1.0 Cr-0.5 Mo steel is
also adequate for somewhat lower temperatures at lower hydrogen partial pressures. From a
practical standpoint, 1.0 Cr-0.5 Mo material is rarely used in pressure vessel construction.
1.25 Cr-0.5 Mo is normally the lowest alloy that would be considered for use in situations
where carbon steel is not adequate due to hydrogen attack considerations.
SAES-D-001 and 32-SAMSS-004 do not directly address hydrogen attack considerations.
However, 1.25 Cr-0.5 Mo material selection options are provided in 32-SAMSS-004 for high
temperature applications. Concern over hydrogen attack is one reason why the 1.25 Cr-0.5
Mo material might be used rather than the carbon steel alternatives. Specific material
selection requirements are discussed later in this module.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness refers to the ability of a material to withstand conditions that could cause
brittle fracture. Pressure vessel components that are constructed of ferrous material have
occasionally fractured at a pressure that was well below the design value. Such fractures
generally occurred at low temperatures and were brittle rather than ductile in nature. Brittle
fractures are characterized by the lack of deformation or yielding before the component fails
completely. In a ductile fracture, the component yields and deforms before it breaks.
Material Fractures
For a brittle fracture to occur, three conditions must exist simultaneously at a particular
location in a pressure vessel:
Enough stress must exist in the component to cause a crack to initiate and
grow.
The material must have a sufficiently low fracture toughness at the temperature.
There must be a critical size defect in the component, such as at a weld, to act
as a local stress concentration point and as a site for crack initiation.
A brittle fracture will occur without warning the first time the component is exposed to the
necessary combination of low temperature, high stress, and critical size defect.
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Fracture Toughness Determination

As discussed in COE 105, the Charpy V-notch test (Cv) is commonly used to qualitatively
determine the fracture toughness of steel. In this test, an impact test is performed on a
notched specimen that is taken from a specific location in the material; and the impact
energies that are required to fracture the specimen at various temperatures are recorded.
The fracture toughness of the material can be determined by the magnitude of the impact
energy that is required to fracture the specimen. Figure 2 shows the typical shape of impact
energy transition curves for low- and high-strength steels.
Typical Impact Energy Transition Curves

Figure 2
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Factors That Influence Fracture Toughness

The fracture toughness at a given temperature varies with different steels and with different
manufacturing and fabrication processes. Additional factors that affect brittle fracture
behavior are as follows:
Arc strikes can cause brittle fracture, especially if the arc strike is made over a
repaired area.
Cold forming of thick plates may cause brittle fractures in areas with stress
raisers or plate scratches.
Torch cutting (or beveling) of plate edges may produce hard and brittle areas,
which make the edges more prone to cracking.
The slope of the impact energy curve in Figure 2 indicates the rate of change of fracture
toughness with temperature. The "lower shelf" is the lower section of the impact energy
curve, and the "upper shelf" is the upper section. A material is very brittle at lower shelf
energy temperatures and can behave like a piece of glass. Fracture at lower shelf energy
temperatures is very abrupt, as when a piece of glass is dropped. A material is ductile at
upper shelf energy temperatures. Fracture at upper shelf energy occurs after a small amount
of yielding has taken place.
Low-strength steels have a significant increase in fracture toughness as the temperature
increases (see curve A of Figure 2). High-strength steels show only a slight increase in
fracture toughness as temperature increases (see curve B of Figure 2).
The dotted lines in Figure 2 show the nil ductility transition (NDT) temperatures for both
high- and low-strength steels. The NDT temperatures are the starting points of the transitions
between brittle and ductile fractures. Below the NDT temperatures, material fracture is brittle
in nature. Above the NDT temperatures, material fracture is ductile in nature. The rate of
change of fracture toughness is significantly different between high- and low-strength steels.
The NDT is more important for low-strength steel due to the much greater increase in fracture
toughness when going from low to high temperature.
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Material selection must confirm that the material has adequate fracture toughness at the
lowest expected metal temperature. The lowest One-Day Mean Temperature for the site and
the lowest temperature to which the vessel may be exposed during any phase of its operation
determine the lowest expected temperature that the vessel must be designed for. This lowest
temperature identification must also consider temperatures that will occur during precommissioning, startup, shutdown, or upsets.
The mechanical design of a pressure vessel must avoid either a brittle or a ductile fracture.
However since a brittle fracture will occur without warning and can be catastrophic in nature,
it is especially important for material selection to eliminate the risk of brittle fracture.
Control of Fracture Toughness
Saudi Aramco imposes additional requirements in SAES-D-001 and 32-SAMSS-004 to
ensure that pressure vessels have adequate fracture toughness.
SAES-D-001 defines the basis for the Critical Exposure Temperature (CET) or the minimum
design temperature of a pressure vessel. The first step in the specification of material with
adequate fracture toughness is to set the minimum design temperature. The minimum design
temperature is defined as the minimum metal temperature that is coincident with a pressure
that is greater than 25% of the design pressure. Pressures that are below this level produce
too little stress to cause a brittle fracture. To determine the minimum design temperature, all
possible scenarios to which the vessel may be exposed in addition to normal operation must
be considered. For example, autorefrigeration must be considered, where this is possible.
Identification of various possible operating scenarios and the minimum design temperatures
associated with them is the responsibility of the process design engineer.
10
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SAES-D-001 also requires that the materials that are used for internal and external
attachments to pressure vessels that have a minimum design temperature less than 0C (32F)
must be the same or equivalent to the vessel component to which the attachment is welded.
The attachment weld and the portion of the attachment that is nearest to the vessel will be at
nearly the same low temperature as the vessel. Thus, use of the same material for these
attachments and the vessel shell ensures that they will have comparable fracture toughness.
Use of a material with less fracture toughness than the vessel component to which it is
attached increases the potential for the initiation of a brittle fracture at the junction between
the attachment and the vessel component. Such a brittle fracture could progress into the
vessel shell itself. Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is also required for all carbon and lowalloy steel vessels that have a minimum design temperature below 0C (32F). PWHT
enhances the low-temperature fracture toughness of the material.
11
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32-SAMSS-004 requires that all material for pressure-containing components be impact tested,
if required by the ASME Code Section VIII, Division 2. The Division 2 impact-testing
criteria must be used even for pressure vessels that are designed in accordance with the
ASME Code Section VIII, Division 1 in all other respects. When required, impact testing
must meet Division 2 procedures and acceptance criteria.
32-SAMSS-004 specifies the following additional requirements, based on material fracture
toughness considerations:
If the minimum design temperature of the pressure vessel is below 0C (32F):

-
The material for all internal and external attachments to the shell or
heads must be the same or equal to the vessel component to which they
are attached. This repeats the requirement that was stated in SAES-D001. Acceptable material alternatives are specified for plate, pipe,
flanges and forgings, fittings, bolts and nuts, and supports and
attachments for low-temperature service. These material alternatives are
expected to have adequate fracture toughness for low temperatures.
All butt welds are to be 100% radiographed. This procedure will

provide greater assurance that defects that may serve as locations to
initiate cracks or brittle fracture are not present.
Postweld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is required. Heat treatment relieves

weld shrinkage stresses, improves ductility, and reduces brittle-fracture
risk. This also repeats the requirement that was stated in SAES-D-001.
PWHT is discussed further in the section that follows.
The metal temperature must not be below 16C (60F) during hydrotest. The
pressure vessel has its highest membrane stresses during hydrotest. The
primary reason for the 16C (60F) minimum metal temperature during
hydrotest is that some plain carbon steels (such as ASTM A283 Gr. A) have an
NDT just below this value.
ASME Code and Brittle-Fracture Evaluation

The ASME Code, Section VIII, contains a simplified approach to evaluate brittle fracture in
carbon and low-alloy steel. Material specifications are classified within Groups I through V,
for the purpose of brittle fracture evaluation (Figure AM-218.1 of the ASME Code, Section
VIII, Division 2). The Code contains exemption curves for those Material Groups that
identify the acceptable minimum design metal temperature versus thickness, 0 mm through 75
mm (0 in. through 3 in.), where impact testing (Charpy V-notch) is not required. The curves
that are shown in Figure 3 are taken from Figure AM-218.1, ASME Code, Section VIII,
Division 2. The curves are based on both experience and test data. If the design conditions
do not permit exemption in accordance with this basis, then material impact testing at the
specified minimum design temperature is required to permit its use.
12
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Source: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code , with permission from ASME.
Impact Test Exemption Curves for Carbon Steels

Figure 3
13
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A Roman numeral that designates the corresponding Material Group appears above each
curve in Figure 3. If the minimum design metal temperature of a pressure vessel is equal to or
above that shown by the intersection of the Material Group curve and of the component
thickness, then impact testing is not required. For example, a Group III material that is 38
mm (1.5 in.) thick and operates at 16C (60F) does not require impact testing. It should be
noted that the exemption of a material from impact testing through the use of this basis does
not mean that the ASME Code ignores brittle fracture. Impact-test exemption means that
there is sufficient data to conclude that the combinations of material, temperature, and
thickness defined by the exemption curves result in material that has sufficient fracture
toughness, without the need for additional impact testing.
The minimum design temperature at which impact testing is not required increases with the
material thickness. Thick material is more prone to brittle fracture than thin material, and a
higher temperature is required to prevent brittle fracture in thicker material. For all welded
construction over 75 mm (3 in.) thick and with a minimum design temperature below 49C
(120F), impact testing is required. The ASME Code also contains impact-testing procedures
and impact-energy requirements for cases that are subject to impact testing. Participants
should refer to the ASME Code for details.
Paragraph AM-218.2 of the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2 provides an additional
exemption from impact testing. The paragraph states that impact testing is not required if the
actual design stress does not exceed 41 364 kPa (6 000 psi) and if the minimum design
temperature is -46C (-50F) or above. This exemption is valid even if the minimum design
metal temperature is below the Figure 3 exemption curves. This additional exemption is
based on experience which indicates that the membrane stress must exceed 41 364 kPa (6 000
psi) for a brittle fracture to occur.
14
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Figure 3 (based on Figure AM-218.1) covers only carbon steel materials. The addition of
alloying elements will typically improve the toughness of steels. In general, the addition of
manganese, silicon, and/or nickel to carbon steel will improve its fracture toughness. The
following list highlights some of the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2 impact-test
requirements for alloy steels:
Base metal impact tests are not required for certain low-allow steels and
product forms when the minimum design temperature is not below the Group
IV curve of Figure 3. 2 1/4 Cr-1 Mo material that conforms to SA-387, Grade
22, Classes 1 and 2 (plate), and SA-182, Grades F21 and F22 (forgings) are
included in this category. Weld and heat-affected zone (HAZ) impact tests are
required.
For high-alloy steels:

-
Types 304 (18 Cr-8 Ni), 304L (18 Cr-8 Ni-Low Carbon), and 347 (18
Cr-10 Ni-Cb) require impact testing at minimum design temperatures
below -254C (-425F). All other materials must be impact tested at
minimum design temperatures below -198C (-325F).
Impact testing is required for minimum design temperatures below 29C (-20F) for the following:
Chromium stainless steels, P-Nos. 6 and 7 (11-17% Cr).
Austenitic chromium nickel stainless steels with carbon content

over 0.10%, or with a chrome or nickel content over the required
AISI analysis range.
High-alloy steel castings.
Impact testing is required for the following materials at all minimum

design temperatures if PWHT has been done below 899C (1 650F):
Type 309 (23 Cr-12 Ni), Type 310 (25 Cr-20 Ni), Type 316 (16 Cr-12
Ni-2 Mo), Type 309 Cb, Type 310 Cb, and Type 316 Cb.
It should be noted from the above summary that the impact test exemptions for high-alloy
steels are not a function of material thickness. Further, high-alloy steels exhibit ductile
behavior to much lower temperatures than carbon and low-alloy steels.
15
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Fabricability
Fabricability is the last major consideration in the selection of pressure-vessel material.
Fabricability refers to the ease of construction and to any special fabrication practices that are
required in the use of the material. Fabricability includes the following considerations:
Plate material intended for pressure vessel construction must have sufficient
ductility to permit it to be rolled into the required geometric shapes (such as
cylinders, cones, or spheres).
Plate material must be weldable so that individual plate segments can be

assembled into the required shapes. The effects of welding on material
properties must be considered. Weldable materials, fabrication methods, and
welding procedures have been known and used for years.
Specific fabrication requirements vary among material types. The sections that follow discuss
these considerations.
Requirements for Fabricability
Pressure vessels that are of interest to the Participants use welded construction. Welding
procedures are used to ensure that welded joints are of acceptable strength and quality. The
material chemistry of the weld area must be equivalent to the material chemistry of the base
material so that the material properties and corrosion resistance of the weld area will be the
same as those of the base material. Special concerns arise where a ferritic material is welded
to an austenitic material, resulting in a bimetallic weld. In the case of a bimetallic weld, the
difference in the thermal expansion coefficient between the two materials causes high local
stresses at elevated temperatures. These local stresses must be considered in the detailed
mechanical design. Sometimes in the case of bimetallic welds, a welding electrode material is
selected that has a thermal expansion coefficient that is between the coefficient of the two
base materials that are to be welded. This welding electrode selection reduces the localized
thermal stresses. In all cases, the ASME Code requires that written and tested welding
procedures be followed.
All welders must be tested to verify their capabilities. In order to achieve the required
finished quality, only qualified welding procedures and welders are used to fabricate ASME
Code equipment. Welding, welding procedures, and welder qualification are discussed
further in MEX 202.04.
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Postweld Heat Treatment

Postweld Heat Treatment (PWHT), because it adds to total cost, is another consideration in
the fabricability of pressure vessels. In PWHT, the pressure vessel is heated to a high
temperature after the completion of all welding, and the high temperature is maintained for a
specified period of time. PWHT is required for the following:
Residual stress relief
Hardness reduction
Process considerations
During welding, the weld and the adjacent base material both become very hot and then
contract as they cool. This contraction causes stresses due to the uneven cooling and
constraint of the overall structure. PWHT is used to relieve these stresses so that a vessel
failure does not occur. The ASME Code contains rules which determine when PWHT is
necessary. These rules are based on the material type and wall thickness. Figure 4 is an
excerpt from the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Table UCS-56, and gives PWHT
requirements for a particular material class. While Figure 4 and the discussion that follows
focus on a specific material class, similar considerations apply to the other material classes as
well.
MATERIAL
NORMAL
HOLDING
TEMPERATURE
, F, MINIMUM
MINIMUM HOLDING TIME AT NORMAL

TEMPERATURES FOR NOMINAL THICKNESS
Up to 2 in.
P-No.
Gr.
1, 2, 3
1
Nos.
Gr. No. 4
1100
Not applicable
Over 2 in. to 5 in.
Over 5 in.
2 hr. plus 15 min.

each
2 hr. plus 15 min. for for
inch
1 hr./in., 15 min. each additional inch additional
over 2 in.
minimum
over 2 in.
None
None
None
PWHT Requirements for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels

Figure 4
17
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The material in Figure 4 is identified by "P-No." ("P" Number) and "Gr. No." (Group
Number). The allowable stress tables in the ASME Code provide these numbers for every
material. The P-No. and Gr. No. are ASME designations for materials that have common
welding and heat-treating characteristics. The P-No. 1 material that is shown in Figure 4
corresponds to the carbon steel material specifications. The ASME Code contains similar
tables for all materials that may be used. Figure 4 specifies the minimum PWHT temperature
and the minimum holding time at temperature, based on wall thickness. When the vessel is
heated to this elevated temperature, the residual welding stresses relax and the vessel reaches
an initial stress-free state. The minimum holding time at the PWHT temperature increases
with wall thickness. More time is needed to relax the welding stresses in large volumes of
weld metal since more weld shrinkage occurs. As previously noted, PWHT to relax residual
welding stresses also is required for pressure vessels that are in low-temperature service.
Another reason for using PWHT is to reduce the weld hardness for particular materials. The
welding process produces locally hard regions in the weld and in adjacent areas of certain
materials (for example, low chrome-alloy materials).
The locally hard areas are less ductile and more prone to the formation of cracks. The PWHT
softens the hard areas and restores ductility. The ASME Code does not have specific
requirements for weld hardness, and it does not require PWHT for the purpose of hardness
reduction. Therefore, the pressure vessel user must specify weld hardness limitations
separately. Weld hardness is discussed further in MEX 202.04.
Process considerations are the last reason for the use of PWHT. Some process environments,
such as those with high caustic concentrations, may cause cracks to occur at highly stressed
welds in carbon steel material. Residual stresses that remain after welding may cause crack
formation in this environment. As noted above, the ASME Code does not require PWHT for
this purpose, and the user must specify PWHT.
18
Vessels
Notes that accompany Table UCS-56 provide several exemptions to the PWHT requirements
that are specified. These exemptions are only valid if the PWHT is required for relief of
residual stress. The exemptions do not apply if the PWHT is required for reduction of weld
hardness or because of process considerations. Exemptions from the PWHT requirements of
Table UCS-56 are based on material, weld type, and weld size. For example, PWHT is not
mandatory for groove or fillet welds in P-No. 1 material not over 13 mm (0.5 in.) size that
attach nonpressure parts to pressure parts provided a minimum preheat temperature of 93C
(200F) is used and the pressure part is no more than 32 mm (1.25 in.) thick. Refer to Table
UCS-56 for the details of the PWHT exemptions.
The requirements in the paragraphs that follow expand on the discussion of requirements
shown in Figure 4. Refer to Table UCS-56.1 and associated notes in the ASME Code,
Section VIII, Division 1, for the complete text of PWHT-associated requirements.
It may be possible to weld something to a vessel that has been postweld heattreated after it has been in service without doing another PWHT. For example,
if a new structural attachment or a new nozzle must be added, a PWHT is not
necessary, provided that the new welds are within the PWHT exemptions of
Table UCS-56, and provided that the original PWHT was not necessary for
hardness reduction or process considerations or due to low-temperature service.
Repairs can be made to P-No. 1, Group No. 1, 2, and 3, as well as P-No. 3,

Group No. 1, 2, and 3 materials and weld metal after PWHT but before the
final hydrotest without the need for another PWHT. The ASME Code limits
the size of the repair that is permissible without subsequent PWHT. The total
repair depth should not exceed 38 mm (1.5 in.) for P-No. 1, Group No. 1, 2,
and 3 materials, and 16 mm (0.63 in.) for P-No. 3, Group No. 1, 2, and 3
materials. Additional weld procedure and inspection requirements must also be
met.
19
Vessels
Table UCS-56.1 of the ASME Code specifies permissible PWHT temperature

reductions versus increased holding times. The PWHT temperature cannot be
reduced more than 93C (200F) below the temperature specified in Table
UCS-56. Temperature reduction cannot be employed if PWHT is required to
reduce weld hardness or for process considerations.
The 93C (200F) preheat reduces weld shrinkage stresses sufficiently in

materials from 32 mm to 38 mm (1.25 in. to 1.5 in.) thick and eliminates the
need for PWHT. PWHT is required for stress relief in materials with
thicknesses above 38 mm (1.5 in.) regardless of the amount of preheat. PWHT
is not required in materials with thicknesses that are below 32 mm (1.25 in.).
20
Vessels
DETERMINING MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESSES

One of the major factors in the design of pressure vessels is the relationship between the
strength of the components and the external loads (pressure, weight, etc.) that are imposed
upon the components. These external loads cause internal stresses in the components. Stress
is the force-per-unit area in a solid material that resists the separation, compaction, or sliding
that is induced by external forces. The design of a pressure vessel must ensure that these
internal stresses never exceed the strength of the components that make up the pressure
vessel. Pressure vessel components are designed such that the component stresses that are
caused by the loads are limited to maximum allowable values that will ensure safe operation
of the pressure vessel. Maximum allowable stress is the maximum force-per-unit area that
may be safely applied to a pressure vessel component. The maximum allowable stress
includes an adequate safety margin between the maximum stress level in a component due to
the applied loads and the stress level that could actually cause a failure. The use of maximum
allowable stress in the design of pressure vessel components will be discussed in MEX
202.03.
CSE 110 briefly introduced the concept of maximum allowable stress and the ASME Code
maximum allowable stress tables based on Section VIII, Division 1. The paragraphs that
follow provide additional detail by describing the ASME Code rationale for determining
maximum allowable stress. The description highlights the differences between Division 1 and
Division 2 of Section VIII in determining maximum allowable stress and discusses the
maximum allowable stress tables and maximum allowable compressive stress in more detail.
ASME Criteria for Determining Maximum Allowable Stress
Appendices 1 and 2 of the ASME Code, Section II, Part D - Properties, contain the criteria
that are used to establish the maximum allowable stresses for most ferrous and nonferrous
materials. Appendix 1 provides the criteria for Division 1 pressure vessels for all materials
other than bolting. Appendix 2 provides the criteria that are used to establish the maximum
allowable stresses for materials that are used in Division 2 pressure vessels (including bolting)
and the maximum allowable stresses for bolting materials in Division 1 pressure vessels.
Appendix P of the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels, presents the
criteria that are used to establish maximum allowable stress values for low-temperature steels
that are used in cryogenic applications for cast and nodular iron materials.
21
Vessels
Division 1 Criteria
The following data is from the ASME Code, Section II, Part D, Appendix 1, Non-mandatory
Basis for Establishing Stress Values in Tables 1A and 1B. A similar discussion is contained
in Section II, Part D, Appendix 2 for bolting, and Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix P for
low-temperature, cast or ductile iron materials.
When evidence of satisfactory performance is available, successful experience in service
guides the determination of maximum allowable stress values for pressure vessel parts. Such
evidence is considered equivalent to test data where operating conditions are known with
reasonable certainty. In the evaluation of new materials, engineers must compare test
information with available data on successful applications of similar materials. Figure 5, is
based on the ASME Code, Section II, Part D, Appendix 1, Table 1-100, and shows the
criteria/equations that are used to compute the maximum allowable stresses for wrought or
cast ferrous and nonferrous materials, other than bolting, for Division 1 pressure vessels.
Below room temperature, the yield and tensile strengths of the material must be used to
determine its maximum allowable stress. Above room temperature, the material's creep and
rupture strength must be considered as well in determining maximum allowable stress. Refer
to the ASME Code for the criteria that are used for welded pipe or tube and for structural
quality steel.
22
Vessels
Temperature
Below Room Temperature
Criteria (1)
Tensile Strength
Room Temperature and Above
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
Stress Rupture
Creep Rate
Criteria for Determining Allowable Stress for Division 1 Pressure Vessels

(Wrought or Cast, Ferrous and Nonferrous Materials)
Figure 5
23
Vessels
The following nomenclature is used in the allowable stress computations that are shown in
Figure 5:
St
Specified minimum
temperature (ksi).
Rt
Ratio of the average temperature-dependent trend

curve value of tensile strength to the room temperature
tensile strength.
Sy
Specified minimum
temperature.
Ry
Ratio of the average temperature-dependent trend

curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength.
SRavg
Average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100 000

hr.
SRmin
Minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100 000

hr.
Sc
Average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1 000

hr.
tensile
yield
strength
strength
at
at
room
room
Two sets of allowable stress values are provided in Table 1A of the ASME Code, Section II,
Part D, Appendix 1, for austenitic materials and in Table 1B for specific non-ferrous alloys.
The higher alternative allowable stresses are identified by a footnote. These stresses exceed
two-thirds but do not exceed 90% of the minimum yield strength of the material at
temperature. The higher allowable stress values should be used only where slightly higher
deformation of the component is not in itself objectionable. These higher allowable stresses
are not recommended for the design of flanges or other strain-sensitive applications. In the
case of flanges, for example, the larger deformation that would be expected if the higher
allowable stresses were used could cause flange leakage problems even though a major flange
failure would not occur.
The maximum allowable stress for materials other than bolting for Division 1 pressure vessels
is the lowest value that is obtained from the criteria that are stated in Figure 5. Note that these
criteria are based on specified fractions of the stated material strength properties. These
fractions can be considered as safety factors between the maximum allowable stress and the
stress that would cause material failure.
24
Vessels
Division 2 Criteria
The maximum allowable stress criteria for materials other than bolting that are contained in
Appendix 2 of the ASME Code, Section II, Part D for Division 2 pressure vessels will
typically yield somewhat higher values than Appendix 1 will yield for Division 1 vessels.
However, the Appendix 2 criteria consider only the material yield and tensile strengths, since
Division 2 does not permit the use of materials at temperatures that are in the creep range.
Participants should refer to Appendix 2 for additional details.
ASME Maximum Allowable Stress Tables
As discussed in CSE 110, tables that are included in the ASME Code, Section II, Part D,
contain the maximum allowable tensile stresses of materials that are acceptable for use in
ASME Code, Section VIII, pressure vessels. The maximum allowable stress varies with
temperature because material strength is a function of temperature. The maximum allowable
stress values that are contained in these tables are based on the criteria that were previously
discussed.
Figure 6 (adapted from Table 1A of the ASME Code, Section II, Part D) shows examples of
maximum allowable Division 1 tensile stress data for three different material specifications:
Carbon steel plates and sheets (Spec. No. SA-515 and SA-516).
Low-alloy steel plates (Spec. No. SA-387).
The first part of Figure 6 identifies the Spec. No. (material specification number), the grade (a
material specification may have multiple grades), the nominal chemical composition, the PNo. and Group No., and the minimum yield and tensile strengths in thousands of pounds per
square inch (ksi). This first part of Figure 6 also helps identify any similarities that may exist
among the material specifications, such as in nominal alloy composition or yield and tensile
strengths. In some cases, these similarities may be used to help select the material to use for
pressure vessel fabrication, given specific process conditions. The maximum allowable stress
values as a function of temperature are presented in the second part of Figure 6.
The information that is contained in the ASME Code Table 1A has been condensed and
reorganized in Figure 6 in two parts to help the Participants to compare the material types and
to note variances in maximum allowable stress that are determined by temperature and alloy
composition. The actual tables that are contained in the ASME Code should be used for all
practical work applications.
25
Vessels
TABLE 1A (excerpt)
ALLOWABLE STRESS IN TENSION FOR CARBON AND
LOW-ALLOY STEEL
Spec No.
Grade
Nominal
Composition
P-No.
Group
No.
Min.
Yield
(ksi)
Min.
Tensile
(ksi)
Carbon Steel Plates and Sheets

SA-515
SA-516
55
C-Si
30
55
60
C-Si
32
60
65
C-Si
35
65
70
C-Si
38
70
55
C-Si
30
55
60
C-Mn-Si
32
60
65
C-Mn-Si
35
65
70
C-Mn-Si
38
70
26
Vessels
Plate - Low Alloy Steels

SA-387
2 Cl.1
1/2Cr- 1/2Mo
33
55
2 Cl.2
1/2Cr- 1/2Mo
45
70
12 Cl.1
1Cr- 1/2Mo
33
55
12 Cl.2
1Cr- 1/2Mo
40
65
11 Cl.1
1 1/4Cr-1/2Mo-Si
35
60
11 Cl.2
1 1/4Cr-1/2Mo-Si
45
75
22 Cl.1
2 1/4Cr-1Mo
30
60
22 Cl.2
2 1/4Cr-1Mo
45
75
ASME Maximum Allowable Stress Tables (Excerpt)

Figure 6
27
Vessels
TABLE1A(excerpt)
ALLOWABLESTRESSINTENSIONFORCARBONANDLOWALLOYSTEEL
MaxAllowableStress,ksl(Multiplyby1,000toObtainpsi)
for MetalTemperature,F,NotExceeding
Spec
650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 No.
CarbonSteel PlatesandSheets
13.8 13.3 12.1 10.2 8.4 6.5 4.5 2.5 ----SA-515
15.0 14.4 13.0 10.8 8.7 6.5 4.5 2.5 ----SA-515
16.3 15.5 13.9 11.4 9.0 6.5 4.5 2.5 ----SA-515
17.5 16.6 14.8 12.0 9.3 6.5 4.5 2.5 ----SA-515
13.8
15.0
16.3
17.5
13.3
14.4
15.5
16.6
12.1
13.0
13.9
14.8
10.2
10.8
11.4
12.0
8.4
8.7
9.0
9.3
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
-----
-----
-----
-----
SA-516
SA-516
SA-516
SA-516
13.8
17.5
13.8
16.3
15.0
18.8
15.0
17.7
13.8
17.5
13.8
16.3
15.0
18.8
15.0
17.2
13.8
17.5
13.8
16.3
15.0
18.8
15.0
17.2
13.8
17.5
13.8
16.3
15.0
18.8
15.0
16.9
13.8
17.5
13.4
15.8
14.6
18.3
14.4
16.4
13.3
16.9
12.9
15.2
13.7
13.7
13.6
15.8
9.2
9.2
11.3
11.3
9.3
9.3
10.8
11.4
5.9
5.9
7.2
7.2
6.3
6.3
8.0
7.8
Plate-LowAlloySteels(Cont'd)
----SA-387
----SA-387
4.5 2.8 1.8 1.1 SA-387
4.5 2.8 1.8 1.1 SA-387
4.2 2.8 1.9 1.2 SA-387
4.2 2.8 1.9 1.2 SA-387
5.7 3.8 2.4 1.4 SA-387
5.1 3.2 2.0 1.2 SA-387
Figure 6, cont'd
28
Vessels
Note that the allowable stresses at temperatures between -29C and 343C (-20F and 650F)
are the same as the allowable stress at 343C (650F) for each material presented in Figure 6
except for SA-387, Grade 22 Cl. 2. The allowable stress increases to 129.6 MPa (18.8 ksi)
for SA-387, Grade 22 Cl. 2 material at 38C (100F) and below. See the ASME Code,
Section II, Part D, Table 1A for details.
Note that each material specification has different Types, Grades, and/or Classes within it. In
some cases, these differences are due to different chemical compositions, while in other cases
they may be due to the particular steelmaking process that was employed. Higher strength
grades of a particular material specification have higher maximum allowable stresses.
Therefore, if higher strength material is used for a pressure vessel, the vessel can be fabricated
of thinner material. For example, SA-516, Grade 60 has a higher maximum allowable stress
than Grade 55 at 371C (700F). As a result, a vessel made from SA-516, Grade 60 material
can be fabricated from thinner plate and can still have an acceptable reliability. When more
than one material specification is acceptable based on strength considerations alone, material
cost and availability will then determine which material specification will be used. The
dashed columns in Figure 6 indicate that SA-516 cannot be used to construct pressure vessels
with design temperatures above 537C (1 000F).
The maximum allowable stress for most ferritic materials does not change for design
temperatures through 343C (650F). As the design temperature increases above 343C
(650F), the thickness that is required for pressure vessel components increases because the
material strength and maximum allowable stress decrease. For example, the maximum
allowable stress for SA-516, Grade 55 decreases from 13.8 ksi to 8.4 ksi in going from 650F
to 850F. The addition of alloying elements to carbon steel typically increases the hightemperature strength of the material. Therefore, a thinner alloy component can typically be
used at higher temperatures when its high-temperature strength is compared to that of plain
carbon steel. For example, in Figure 6, compare the maximum allowable stress of SA-516,
Grade 70 material with that of SA-387, Grade 11 Cl. 1 at 427C (800F). Note that the SA387 material may be used through 648C (1 200F) but that the SA-516 material cannot be
used over 537C (1 000F). Therefore, based on strength considerations, alloy construction is
often justified on economic grounds for high-temperature service because alloy components
will be thinner than if carbon steel were used. This reduced quantity of required material will
often offset the higher cost of alloy versus carbon steel material on a weight basis.
By using the various tables that are contained in the ASME Code, comparisons can be made
among the various material types, grades, compositions, and maximum allowable stress
values to select the most cost-effective pressure vessel materials for the specific vessel
application.
Work Aid 1 provides a general procedure that may be used to determine maximum allowable
stress and whether contractor-specified values for maximum allowable stress are correct.
29
Vessels
Maximum Allowable Compressive Stress

The ASME Code maximum allowable stress criteria and tables that were previously discussed
are valid for pressure vessel components that are in tension under applied loads, such as
internal pressure. Pressure vessel components may also be placed into compression by loads
such as weight, wind, or earthquake. The maximum allowable compressive stress for a
pressure vessel component is the smaller of the following:
The maximum allowable tensile stress as determined from the appropriate

maximum allowable stress table discussed above.
The value of the factor B determined using the appropriate external pressure
chart presented in the ASME Code. This chart will be discussed in MEX
202.03 as part of the discussion of external pressure design of vessel
components.
30
Vessels
DETERMINING WHETHER PRESSURE VESSEL MATERIALS MEET SAUDI

ARAMCO MATERIAL SELECTION REQUIREMENTS
The ASME Code contains general design rules. When additional design requirements for a
particular application are needed, the user and pressure vessel designer must specify them.
These additional requirements are based on design and operating experience that are relevant
to the particular applications. SAES-D-001 and 32-SAMSS-004 are the primary documents
that specify Saudi Aramco requirements for pressure vessels.
The Saudi Aramco engineer will typically not specify the materials that are to be used for
pressure vessel components. Instead, the Saudi Aramco engineer will typically review
Contractor Design Packages to determine whether contractor-specified material specifications
are acceptable based on Saudi Aramco requirements.
The sections that follow summarize the overall scope and use of SAES-D-001 and 32SAMSS-004, the material selection requirements that these Saudi Aramco documents contain,
and the typical contents of a Contractor Design Package.
SAES-D-001
SAES-D-001 is Saudi Aramco's basic engineering standard for pressure vessel design.
SAES-D-001 contains additional design requirements that are beyond ASME Code rules.
This standard, plus other SAESs that are referenced in it, represent the main body of
requirements that are used by Saudi Aramco's engineering contractor in the preparation of a
pressure-vessel purchase order. Relevant requirements are extracted from SAES-D-001 by
the contractor and added to the pressure-vessel purchase specification, as needed.
SAES-D-001's additional requirements remain within the scope of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2. If a pressure vessel has a maximum
design pressure of less than 1380 kPa (ga) (200 psig) and a volume less than 1.98 m3 (70 ft.3),
SAES-D-001 requirements do not apply unless specified in the purchase order. Therefore, the
basic ASME Code requirements are acceptable without change for a small relatively lowpressure vessel. Pressure vessels that are part of packaged units; liquid nitrogen vessels and
air surge drums, when code stamped, also need not conform to SAES-D-001 unless stated in
the purchase order.
If a pressure vessel is fabricated within Saudi Arabia, it does not need to be stamped with the
ASME Code stamp. However, the pressure vessel must meet all other requirements of the
ASME Code and SAES-D-001. In this case, the Saudi Aramco Inspection Department
verifies conformance to ASME requirements, and the issue of a formal stamp is waived.
31
Vessels
SAES-D-001 references several other Saudi Aramco standards, material system

specifications, and drawings. The requirements that are contained in these additional
documents must also be met. One of these references is to Saudi Aramco Materials System
Specification 32-SAMSS-004, Pressure Vessels.
SAES-D-001 contains material selection requirements that must be observed. Work Aid 2
contains a material selection procedure which includes these requirements. The paragraphs
that follow discuss these requirements.
Rimmed Steels
Rimmed steels must not be used for any pressure vessels. Rimmed steel is characterized by a
marked difference in chemical composition across the section and from the top to the bottom
of the ingot that was produced during the steelmaking process. This pattern of varied
composition persists from the rolling process to the final product form. This variation in
chemical composition also makes rimmed steels unsuitable for pressure vessel construction,
which requires more uniformity in material properties.
Nozzle Reinforcing Plates and Shell Stiffener Rings
Nozzle reinforcing plates and shell-stiffener rings must be either of the same or equivalent
material specification as the shell or head material to which they are attached. Because of this
requirement, welding considerations are simplified, and all the materials are of equal strength
and fracture toughness.
Corrosion Allowance
As discussed earlier, materials selection must also consider the corrosion that takes place
during operation of the pressure vessel. A corrosion allowance must be added to all carbon
steel pressure-containing parts, including the shell, heads, nozzle necks, and covers. The
required corrosion allowance will be specified in the Contractor Design Package. While
SAES-D-001 specifically addresses only carbon steel material, the need for a corrosion
allowance must be considered for all material types, especially ferritic materials. COE 105
discussed corrosion allowance requirements for various steels in different process
environments.
Pressure Vessel Internals - Removable pressure vessel internals that are subject to corrosion
should have a corrosion allowance equal to that of the shell. The design of removable
internals considers only half of the expected total corrosion.
32
Vessels
The rationale for this approach is that removable internals that are designed for only the
expected total corrosion will cost less initially and can easily be replaced later, based on the
actual corrosion that occurs.
Nonremovable internals must have a corrosion allowance that is equal to twice that of the
shell. Most pressure vessel internals, such as downcomers, weirs, and tray supports, can
corrode on both sides. From a strength-design viewpoint, corrosion from both sides should be
considered with regard to nonremovable internals.
Determination of Corrosion Allowance - Unless an alternative approach is specified in the
purchase order, the amount of corrosion allowance for carbon steel pressure-containing parts
is determined on the basis of the information that is contained in the paragraphs that follow:
When corrosion rates are known from the histories of pressure vessels in
similar service, the corrosion allowance is based on a 20-year service life. A
pressure vessel may remain in service longer than 20 years if periodic
inspections confirm that the component thicknesses are still adequate for the
design conditions. The minimum corrosion allowance is 1.6 mm (1/16 in.).
If considerable material erosion is expected, the next higher pipe schedule from
that required for the applied loads should be used for nozzles. This higher pipe
schedule effectively increases the corrosion allowance for the nozzles. Flow
velocities through the nozzles are higher than in the overall vessel. Thus, if
erosion is a concern in the particular service, such as when entrained solids are
present, the erosion has a greater effect on the nozzles due to the higher flow
velocity through the nozzles.
No more than 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) corrosion allowance may be specified. If more
than 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) corrosion allowance is required for carbon steel parts to
achieve a 20-year service life, the use of a more corrosion-resistant material or
the use of cladding or lining (metal or synthetic material) must be considered.
32-SAMSS-020, Column Trays, specifies corrosion allowances for parts covered by this
specification. For these parts, the corrosion allowances in 32-SAMSS-020 should be used,
rather than those in SAES-D-001.
33
Vessels
32-SAMSS-004
32-SAMSS-004 must be a part of all pressure vessel purchase documents. 32-SAMSS-004
covers the requirements for Saudi Aramco pressure vessels that are within the scope of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2. The requirements
of 32-SAMSS-004 plus the ASME Code requirements must be adhered to by vendors who
supply pressure vessels to Saudi Aramco. All other specifications, drawings, and forms that
are referenced in 32-SAMSS-004 must also be followed. Among the items that these
documents cover are the following:
Material requirements for carbon and low-alloy steel vessels.
Design details for standard vessel components, such as flanges.
Additional fabrication, inspection, and testing requirements.
Forms to be completed by the vendor.
The ASME Code contains a variety of materials that are acceptable for pressure vessel
applications. Saudi Aramco has simplified the material selection process by the identification
of carbon and low-alloy steel materials that are suitable for services and design conditions
normally encountered in Saudi Aramco operations. Table 1 from 32-SAMSS-004 contains
these material selections. Vendors may propose alternatives to these materials. However,
first they must furnish the material mechanical properties and chemical analysis, and then
Saudi Aramco must approve the substitution before it is used. Occasionally, the materials that
are identified in Table 1 are not suitable for a particular service. In these cases, material
selections are handled on an exception basis and are not covered by SAES or SAMSS
requirements. Table 1 from 32-SAMSS-004 is reproduced in Work Aid 2 for reference as
Figure 11.
34
Vessels
Figure 11 is used to select, on the basis of cost and availability, the appropriate vessel
component materials from the alternatives that are listed. The intent is for the primary
pressure-containing components to have the same material chemistry and comparable strength
in a given pressure vessel. For example, if a low-alloy plate material is selected for the shell
and head of a pressure vessel in a high-temperature service, comparable low-alloy material
must be used for the nozzles, flanges, forgings, and fittings. Work Aid 2 may also be used to
help determine whether contractor-specified pressure-vessel materials meet Saudi Aramco
requirements. The paragraphs that follow discuss the content of Figure 11.
Figure 11 identifies six major categories of pressure-vessel components. The material
specifications that are indicated are all ASME Code approved materials for the specific
component form. Component form refers to plate, pipe, flanges and forgings, fittings,
bolting, or supports and attachments.
Plates are used for shells, heads, rolled nozzles (for example, larger-diameter nozzles that are
fabricated from plate rather than from pipe material), reinforcing pads, stiffeners, supports,
and attachments.
Pipes are used for small-diameter nozzles that are not rolled from plate. The choice between
using pipe material or rolled plate for nozzles is based on economics.

Forged material is used for nozzle flanges and forged fittings, such as couplings. Wrought
materials are used for other fittings, such as elbows.

Bolting materials (for example, bolts and nuts) are used at nozzle flanges for pressure vessels.
Support and attachment materials are used for skirts and any nonpressure-containing
components that connect to the pressure vessel itself.

Vessel service classification is based primarily on design temperature.
General Service category covers the design-temperature range from 0C through 350C (32F
through 650F). This category includes most pressure vessels that are in typical process plant
and production applications. The material specifications in this category for plate, pipe,
forgings, and fittings are all carbon steel.
35
Vessels
High-Temperature Service category covers design temperatures from 351C through 485C
(651F through 850F). In this temperature range, the higher corrosion rate and lower
material strength become more significant factors in the mechanical design of pressure vessel
components. Therefore, low-alloy materials are shown as options for plate, pipe, forgings,
and fittings. If the corrosion rate of carbon steel is too high, or if the alloy could be made thin
enough to compensate for alloy steel's greater cost per pound, it is more economical to use
low-alloy material. An example of a low-alloy material is SA-335 Gr. P11 pipe (1 1/4 Cr-1/2
Mo). Previous sections of this module discussed the increased corrosion resistance and
material strength of alloy material at elevated temperatures.
If carbon steel is not suitable for the combination of temperature and hydrogen partial
pressure that is required for the particular application, the use of an alloy material may also be
necessary due to hydrogen attack considerations. Previous sections of this module discussed
material selection based on hydrogen attack considerations.
Some Saudi Aramco applications exceed a 454C (850F) design temperature. Design
temperatures that are above this level are in the creep range for ferritic materials. Material
selection for services that are in the creep range is beyond the scope of Figure 11 and 32SAMSS-004 and must be made on an individual basis. Alloy materials will typically be used
at temperatures that are above 454C (850F) in order to have adequate creep strength and
maximum allowable stress. The selection of the particular alloy to use will be based on its
maximum allowable stress at design temperature, relative cost, and corrosion resistance at
elevated temperature. 1 1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo and 2 1/4 Cr-1 Mo steels are the most commonly used
pressure-vessel materials for high-temperature applications. Additional requirements may
also be specified on the steel manufacturing process, vessel fabrication, and inspection that
will improve overall vessel material and fabrication quality, as well as long-term reliability at
elevated temperature.
Low-Temperature Service category is divided into two ranges:
0C to -46C (32F to
-50F) and -47C to -101C (-51F to -150F). Brittle fracture is a major concern for this
service. The materials are selected to ensure that they have adequate fracture toughness at
these low temperatures.
Materials that are suitable at temperatures to -46C (-50F) are unlikely to have adequate
fracture toughness at temperatures below -46C (-50F). Therefore, materials with greater
fracture toughness are specified for the lower temperature range. Material selections for
temperatures that are below -101C (-150F) are beyond the scope of Figure 11 and 32SAMSS-004 and must be made on an individual basis.
36
Vessels
Wet, Sour Service is the last category. The specified materials apply to a maximum design
temperature of 203C (400F). If the service has a higher design temperature, material
selections must be made on an individual basis.
Saudi Aramco imposes special requirements on the materials that are used in wet, sour service
beyond the material specifications that are shown in Figure 11. Cracking at welds, called
sulfide stress corrosion cracking, is possible in this process environment. Sulfide stress
corrosion cracking is a form of brittle fracture and occurs under the combined action of tensile
stress and corrosion in the presence of water (wet) and hydrogen sulfide (sour). SAES-D-001
and 32-SAMSS-004 contain additional Saudi Aramco requirements for wet, sour service.
Saudi Aramco requirements are based on the following factors:
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) partial pressure
Fluid state (for example, liquid or gas)
Operating pressure
SAES-L-033, Corrosion Protection for Pipelines/Piping, defines wet, sour service. Terms
relevant to wet, sour service are contained in the Glossary. Participants are referred to SAESD-001 and 32-SAMSS-004 for specific additional requirements for materials in wet, sour
service and to COE 105 for additional information.
Contractor Design Package
In most situations, the Saudi Aramco engineer will not take the lead role in the initial material
specification and mechanical design of pressure vessel components. Lead roles are taken by
the prime contractor that Saudi Aramco has employed for the particular project and the
specific pressure vessel manufacturer. The job of a Saudi Aramco engineer will normally be
to review the work that is performed by the prime contractor and pressure vessel manufacturer
for acceptability with respect to Saudi Aramco requirements. The term Contractor Design
Package, as used in this course, describes the total of all the detailed design information for
the pressure vessel that is prepared by both the prime contractor and the pressure vessel
manufacturer. The Saudi Aramco engineer will use the information that is contained in a
Contractor Design Package in order to perform his review function.
37
Vessels
A complete Contractor Design Package will include the following items:
A completed Pressure Vessel Design Sheet, Form 2682 for Division 1 pressure vessels
or Form 2683 for Division 2 pressure vessels. This data sheet will normally be
prepared by the prime contractor. The content and use of these forms are discussed in
MEX 202.03, and blank copies are contained in Course Handout 3 for reference.
Detailed fabrication drawings and welding requirements for all the pressure vessel
components, such as the shell, heads, nozzles, support, and internals. These drawings
and welding requirements will be prepared by the pressure vessel manufacturer.
Pressure vessel inspection plan. This plan will be prepared by the pressure vessel
manufacturer.
Pressure vessel hydrotest procedure, in the form of a drawing or a written stepwise

procedure. This procedure will be prepared by the pressure vessel manufacturer.
Pressure vessel design calculations. The initial design calculations for the pressure
vessel shell and heads will be prepared by the prime contractor on the Pressure Vessel
Design Data Sheet. The final and complete calculations will be prepared by the
pressure vessel manufacturer.
Safety Instruction Sheet, Form 2694. Note that this form may actually be completed
by either a Saudi Aramco engineer or the prime contractor, depending on the particular
situation. Completion of the Safety Instruction Sheet will be discussed in MEX
202.03.
The information that Participants will use to solve the Exercises and Evaluations in this and
the next two modules is contained in Contractor Design Packages that are contained in Course
Handout 4.
Refer to the Pressure Vessel Design Sheet, Form 2682, that is contained in Course Handout 3.
Figure 7 shows the area on this form where information that is related to material selection is
specified. Note that this area includes items such as service, design temperature, material
specifications for the major components, maximum allowable stresses, and corrosion
allowance. This section of the form must be reviewed to help determine if the materials that
are specified by the contractor meet Saudi Aramco requirements.
38
Vessels
OPERATING CONDITIONS
INTERNAL
Normal
PSIG
PRESSURE
Maximum
PSIG
Minimum (when <32F)
PSIG
Maximum
PSIG
EXT. PRESSURE
SERVICE
SOUR WET SERVICE/LETHAL

UG-20
YES
NO
Min.
Max.
DESIGN TEMPERATURE
See AES-D-001 for required
pressure/temperature margins
INTERN.
DESIGN PRESSURE
PRESS.
PSIG
UG-21
DESIGN PRESSURE AT TOP
AND
Max. Operat. Static Head
APPEND.
PH = H _____ Ft. x 0.433 x _____ Sp. Gr.
3-2
DESIGN PRESSURE AT BOTTOM
PT =
PH =
(To be used in design formula)
UG-23
P=
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS VALUES
Material
S (PSI)
Sc (PSI)
SHELL
HEADS
CLADDING
HOZZLES
SUPPORT
S = Max. allowable stress at design temperature
Sc = Max. allowable stress at test temperature
UW-11
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION & JOINT EFFICIENCIES
AND
UW-12
UG-25
Radiography
EFF.E
Shell Seams
Spot/Full
0.85/1.00
Head Seams
Full
Shell to Head Seams
Partial/Full
PROCESS CORROSION ALLOWANCE =
INCH
Form 2682 Excerpt

Figure 7
39
Vessels
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE

STRESSES
This Work Aid may be used to determine the maximum allowable stress in tension for
pressure vessel materials in accordance with the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, and to
verify the maximum allowable stresses that are specified in Contractor Design Packages.
1.
On the basis of information that is contained in the Contractor Design Package,

determine the generic material type (ferrous, nonferrous, bolting, etc.) for the pressurevessel component under consideration. The vast majority of Saudi Aramco
applications will use ferrous material for the primary components. Bolting will be
specified at connections such as flanges that must be disassembled periodically.
2.
Determine the appropriate ASME Code allowable-stress table that coincides with the
generic type of material that will be used for the pressure-vessel component. Use
Figure 9:
GENERIC MATERIAL TYPE
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLESTRESS TABLE
Ferrous
Section II, Part D, Table 1A
Nonferrous
Section II, Part D, Table 1B
Bolting
Section II, Part D, Table 3
Nickel, Type 304, or Aluminum Alloy

used at cryogenic temperatures
Section VIII, Table ULT-23
Cast Iron
Section VIII, Table UCI-23
Cast Ductile Iron
Section VIII, Table UCD-23
Allowable-Stress Table Based on Material Type

Figure 9
3.
Locate the material specification number and Type/Grade that will be used for the
pressure-vessel component in the maximum allowable-stress table that was determined
in Step 2.
40
Vessels
4.
Determine the design temperature specified for the pressure vessel from the pressurevessel design data sheet that is contained in the Contractor Design Package.
5.
Locate the pressure-vessel design temperature in the maximum allowable-stress table.

Use linear interpolation for design temperatures that are between those that are shown
in the table.
6.
Determine the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1 maximum allowable stress in
tension at the intersection of the material specification found in Step 3, in combination
with the pressure-vessel design temperature found in Step 5. Use linear interpolation
to determine the maximum allowable stress for temperatures that are between the
stated values.
7.
Verify that the maximum allowable stress that was specified in the Contractor Design
Package coincides with the value that was found in Step 6.
41
Vessels
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING WHETHER PRESSURE

VESSEL MATERIALS MEET SAUDI ARAMCO REQUIREMENTS
This Work Aid may be used in conjunction with SAES-D-001 and 32-SAMSS-004, to
determine whether materials that are specified in a Contractor Design Package for pressurevessel components meet Saudi Aramco requirements. For convenience, the Nelson Curves
and Table 1 of 32-SAMSS-004 are reproduced in this Work Aid as Figures 10 and 11
respectively. Pressure vessel design information that is required to verify material selection
is obtained from the Contractor Design Package.
Nelson Curves
Figure 10
42
Vessels
Acceptable Materials for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Vessels

Figure 11
43
Vessels
Legend and Notes for Figure 11

Legend
*
Sour service above 205C (400F) is not within scope of the Specification.
**
Grade of material must be the same classification as pipe and plate for the
indicated service.
***
Avoid prolonged exposures to temperatures above 425C (800F), because the

carbide phase of carbon steel may be converted to graphite.
Notes:
1.
These temperatures are limiting design temperatures and are not operating
temperatures.
2.
That section of attachments extending 305 mm (12 in.) or less from the shell head or
pressure-containing part of any Division 2 pressure vessel or low-temperature service
vessel shall be of the same material as the item to which it is attached. Beyond the 305
mm (12 in.) or any attachments to Division 1 pressure vessels, the material may be as
shown in Table 1.
3.
Shall not be welded directly to shell.
4.
Non-resulfurized, special quality only.

permitted.
Merchant quality ('M' grades) are not
44
Vessels
1.
Pressure-vessel design temperature _______C (_______F)

If the design temperature is below -101C (-150F) or above 485C (850F), material
selection requirements are beyond the scope of SAES-D-001 and 32-SAMSS-004
requirements. Consult the Consulting Services Department.
2.
Is the pressure vessel in wet, sour service? Yes
No
If yes, the design temperature must be no more than 205C (400F). Otherwise,
consult the Consulting Services Department.
3.
Is the pressure vessel in hydrogen service? Yes
No
If yes, what is the hydrogen partial pressure?

Hydrogen partial pressure _____________ MPa(a), (psia)
4.
Identify the "Vessel-Service Classification" based on the above information.

General Service (0C to 350C [32F to 650F]) _______________
High-Temperature Service
(351C to 485C [651F to 850F]) _______________
Low-Temperature Service
Below 0C to -46C (32F to -50F)
_______________
_______________
-47C to -101C (-51F to -150F) _______________

Wet, Sour Service
_______________
45
Vessels
5.
Identify the material specifications that are specified by the contractor or vendor in the
Contractor Design Package for the following vessel components.
Plate for:
-
Shell
_______________
Heads
Rolled nozzles
_______________
Reinforcing pads
_______________
Stiffeners
_______________
_______________
Pipe for nozzles
_______________
Flanges and forgings _______________
Fittings
_______________
Bolts
_______________
Nuts
_______________
Supports and attachments _______________
6.
Refer to Figure 11, Acceptable Material for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Vessels.
Confirm that the material specifications found in Step 5 are acceptable for the "VesselService Classification" found in Step 4. If the vessel is in hydrogen service, confirm
that the combination of hydrogen partial pressure and design temperature is acceptable
in accordance with Figure 10, Nelson Curves.
7.
If the proposed materials are not contained in Figure 11, further review is required.
Consult the Consulting Services Department as needed.
46
Vessels
8.
9.
Confirm that the following additional requirements are met:
No rimmed steels are used. As long as the specified material is shown in

Figure 11, this requirement is met.
Materials used for reinforcing plates and stiffener rings are either the same or
equivalent to the shell or head material to which they are attached.
A suitable corrosion allowance is specified. A 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) minimum

corrosion allowance is required for all carbon steel pressure containing parts.
For pressure vessels that are in wet, sour service, confirm that the following additional
requirements are met:
01-SAMSS-016 must be specified if controlled rolled steel is used.
A minimum 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) corrosion allowance is required unless the vessel
is internally coated. A 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) corrosion allowance is required for
internally-coated pressure vessels.
NACE MR-01-75 must be specified.
47
Vessels
GLOSSARY
AISI
American Iron and Steel Institute.
alloy
An intentional combination that consists of two or more

substances, of which at least one is a metal, and that exhibits
metallic properties. An alloy can be either a mixture of two
types of crystalline structures or a solid solution.
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
austenitic
Either a chromium-nickel or a chromium-nickel-manganese

alloy that has a minimum alloy content of 18% chromium plus
8% nickel and that is nonmagnetic.
austenitizing
Forming austenite by heating a ferrous alloy into the

transformation range (partial austenitizing) or above the
transformation range (complete austenitizing).
brittle fracture
A sudden break that is not preceded by deformation or

yielding.
Charpy V-notch test
The most popular method of qualitatively determining the

fracture toughness of steel.
cold forming
Shaping material into the required geometry without the use of

heat.
corrosion
Deterioration of a material, usually a metal, due to its reaction

with the environment. Corrosion may be caused either by
direct chemical attack or by an electrochemical action.
creep
A condition that occurs at elevated temperature where

deformation continues to increase without any increase in
applied load.
creep strength
The limit of the ability to resist creep. Expressed in terms of

the stress that is required to cause continuous elongation of a
material that is subjected to elevated temperature.
48
Vessels
downcomer
A method of conveying liquid from one tray to the tray below

it in a vertical column.
ductility
The ability of a material to deform plastically without

fracturing, as measured by elongation or reduction of area in a
tensile test.
ferritic
An iron alloy steel, used for pressure vessel construction, that

has a carbon content less than 0.4% and that is magnetic.
fracture toughness
The ability of a material to withstand the conditions that could

cause a brittle fracture.
hardness
The resistance of a metal to plastic deformation, usually by

indentation.
heat-affected zone
(HAZ)
That portion of the base metal that is not melted during

brazing, cutting, or welding, but whose microstructure and
properties are altered by the heat of brazing, cutting, or
welding.
heat treatment
Heating and cooling of a solid metal or alloy to obtain desired

properties. Heating for the sole purpose of hot working is
excluded from this definition.
hot rolling
A forming process in which steel plate is brought to its

required thickness and shape at elevated temperature while
being passed through a set of rollers.
hydrotest
A procedure in which a pressure vessel is brought to a pressure

above its design pressure; a liquid, normally water, is used as
the test medium.
impact energy
The energy required to fracture a notched specimen of steel at

a given temperature.
impact strength
The ability of a material to absorb energy caused by impact

without fracturing.
49
Vessels
material strength
The ability of a material to resist an imposed force or stress.
maximum allowable
stress
The maximum force-per-unit area that may be safely applied to

a material.
molecular hydrogen
The combination of two hydrogen atoms to form a molecule;

for example, H2.
monatomic hydrogen
The elemental form of hydrogen; for example, H.
NACE
National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
Nelson curve
Plots of acceptable temperature versus hydrogen partial

pressure for plain carbon and low-alloy steels.
nil ductility transition

(NDT) temperature
The temperature at the starting point of the transition between

the brittle and ductile fracture behavior of steel.
normalizing
Heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature above the

transformation range (austenitizing), holding it at temperature
for a suitable time, and then cooling it in still air to a
temperature substantially below the transformation range.
partial pressure
In a mixture of gases, each component exerts the pressure that

it would exert if it were present alone at the same temperature
in the total vacuum occupied by the mixture. The partial
pressure of each component is equal to the total pressure
multiplied by its mol fraction in the mixture. For most gases,
the mol fraction is equal to the volume fraction of the
component.
postweld heat
treatment (PWHT)
The heating of a pressure vessel to a high temperature after

welding is completed; the temperature is maintained for a
specified period of time.
strain
The change in dimensions of a material due to the application

of stress. Linear strain is the ratio of the change in length to
the original length.
50
Vessels
stress
A force per unit area acting on a material.
ultimate tensile
strength
The maximum load per unit of original cross-sectional area

that a test specimen of a material can sustain before rupture,
usually in single tension or compression.
yield strength
The limit of a material's ability to yield plastically. Expressed

as the amount of stress that first causes permanent deformation
in a material. Yield strength is usually defined as the stress
that is required to cause 0.2% offset strain.
51

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