Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences

4th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Robert H. Turner
McGraw-Hill, 2012

Chapter 10
INTRODUCTION AND
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Lecture slides by

Dr. Abdulaziz El-Sinawi

Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
Understand the vapor pressure and its role in the
occurrence of cavitation.
Have a working knowledge of the basic properties of
fluids and understand the continuum approximation.
Have a working knowledge of viscosity and the
consequences of the frictional effects it causes in fluid
flow.

Calculate the capillary rise (or drop) in tubes due to the

surface tension effect.
2

101 THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

The development of a velocity

profile due to the no-slip condition
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose.

A fluid flowing over a stationary

surface comes to a complete stop at
the surface because of the no-slip
condition.

Flow separation during flow over a curved surface.

Boundary layer: The flow

region adjacent to the wall in
which the viscous effects
(and thus the velocity
gradients) are significant. 3

102 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
4

Internal versus External Flow

External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
Water flow in a pipe is
internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
The flow of liquids in a
duct is called openchannel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
5

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

Incompressible flow: If the
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g.,
liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density
of fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve highspeed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Ma = 1
Ma < 1
Ma > 1
Ma >> 1

Sonic flow
Subsonic flow
Supersonic flow
Hypersonic flow

Schlieren image of a small model of

the space shuttle orbiter being tested at
Mach 3 in the supersonic wind tunnel
of the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Several oblique shocks are seen in the
air surrounding the spacecraft.
6

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of lowviscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent.

Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows.

Natural (or Unforced)

versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
adjacent to her body indicates that humans
and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
by thermal plumes of rising warm air.
8

Steady versus Unsteady Flow

The term steady implies no change at

a point with time.

The opposite of steady is unsteady.

The term uniform implies no change

with location over a specified region.

The term periodic refers to the kind of

unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.

Many devices such as turbines,

compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil

at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is
a long-exposure (time-averaged) image.

One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

A flow field is best characterized by its

velocity distribution.

A flow is said to be one-, two-, or threedimensional if the flow velocity varies in

one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.

However, the variation of velocity in certain

directions can be small relative to the
variation in other directions and can be
ignored.

Flow over a car antenna is

approximately two-dimensional
except near the top and bottom of
the antenna.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in 10
the flow direction, V = V(r).

103 VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which
a pure substance changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a
pure substance changes phase at a given temperature.
Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor
in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature. It is identical to the saturation pressure
Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a
mixture with other gases. For example, atmospheric air
is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, and atmospheric
pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air and
the partial pressure of water vapor.
11

The vapor pressure (saturation

pressure) of a pure substance (e.g.,
water) is the pressure exerted by its
vapor molecules when the system is in
phase equilibrium with its liquid
molecules at a given temperature.

12

There is a possibility of the liquid

pressure in liquid-flow systems
dropping below the vapor
pressure at some locations, and
the resulting unplanned
vaporization.

The vapor bubbles (called

cavitation bubbles since they
form cavities in the liquid)
collapse as they are swept away
from the low-pressure regions,
generating highly destructive,
extremely high-pressure waves.

This phenomenon, which is a

common cause for drop in
performance and even the
erosion of impeller blades, is
called cavitation, and it is an
important consideration in the
design of hydraulic turbines and
pumps.

Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by

23-mm aluminum sample tested at
60 m/s for 2.5 h. The sample was
located at the cavity collapse
region downstream of a cavity
generator specifically designed to
produce high damage potential.

13

104 VISCOSITY
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the fluidity.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction. The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a
measure of its resistance to
deformation.
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops
between different layers of
fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.

A fluid moving relative to

a body exerts a drag
force on the body, partly
because of friction
caused by viscosity.

14

Newtonian fluids: Fluids for

which the rate of deformation is
proportional to the shear
stress.

Shear
stress
The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow
between two parallel plates when the upper
plate moves with a constant velocity.

Shear force

coefficient of viscosity
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
kg/m s or N s/m2 or Pa s
1 poise = 0.1 Pa s
15

The rate of deformation (velocity gradient)

of a Newtonian fluid is proportional to
shear stress, and the constant of
proportionality is the viscosity.

Variation of shear stress with the

rate of deformation for
Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids (the slope of a curve at a
point is the apparent viscosity of
the fluid at that point).

16

Kinematic viscosity
m2/s or stoke
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
For liquids, both the dynamic and
kinematic viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any small
variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high
pressures.

For gases, this is also the case for

dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate
pressures), but not for kinematic
viscosity since the density of a gas is
proportional to its pressure.

For gases:
For liquids

Dynamic viscosity, in general,

does not depend on pressure,
but kinematic viscosity does.
17

The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to

the pumping power needed to transport a
fluid in a pipe or to move a body through a
fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by
the molecular collisions in gases, and it
varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they
can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a
result, the energized liquid molecules can
move more freely.

The viscosity of liquids decreases

and the viscosity of gases
increases with temperature.

In a gas, the intermolecular forces are

negligible, and the gas molecules at high
temperatures move randomly at higher
velocities. This results in more molecular
collisions per unit volume per unit time and
therefore in greater resistance to flow.
18

The variation of
dynamic
(absolute)
viscosity of
common fluids
with temperature
at 1 atm
(1 Ns/m2
= 1kg/ms
= 0.020886
lbfs/ft2)

19

length of the cylinder

number of revolutions per unit time

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a

fluid by measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a
viscometer, a device that measures viscosity.

20

105 SURFACE
TENSION AND
CAPILLARY EFFECT

Liquid droplets behave like small

balloons filled with the liquid on a solid
surface, and the surface of the liquid
acts like a stretched elastic membrane
under tension.

The pulling force that causes this

tension acts parallel to the surface and
is due to the attractive forces between
the molecules of the liquid.

The magnitude of this force per unit

length is called surface tension (or
coefficient of surface tension) and is
usually expressed in the unit N/m.

This effect is also called surface

energy [per unit area] and is expressed
in the equivalent unit of N m/m2.

Some consequences of
surface tension.

21

Attractive forces acting on a liquid

molecule at the surface and deep
inside the liquid.
Stretching a liquid film with a Ushaped wire, and the forces acting
on the movable wire of length b.

Surface tension: The work done per unit

increase in the surface area of the liquid.

22

The free-body
diagram of half a
droplet or air
bubble and half
a soap bubble.

23

Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the
liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is
quantified by the contact (or wetting)
angle, defined as the angle that the
tangent to the liquid surface makes with
the solid surface at the point of contact.

The contact angle for wetting and

nonwetting fluids.

Capillary Effect

The meniscus of colored water in a

4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the meniscus
meets the wall of the capillary tube
at a very small contact angle. 24

The capillary rise of water and the

capillary fall of mercury in a smalldiameter glass tube.

The forces acting on a liquid column

that has risen in a tube due to the
capillary effect.

Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the

radius of the tube and density of the liquid.
25

Summary
The No-Slip Condition
Classification of Fluid Flows

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

Internal versus External Flow
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Viscosity
Surface Tension and Capillary Effect

26