Handbook Review Temporaywork Deep Excavation

HANDBOOK FOR REVIEW OF DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPORARY WORKS

FOR DEEP EXCAVATIONS
Forward
LTA carries out many of the deep excavations in urban areas where ground
movements have to be carefully controlled and monitored to avoid unacceptable
damage to adjacent structures. Temporary works are always the responsibility of the
contractors, however in most projects LTA retains the responsibility as the Supervising
Qualified Person (QP). It is therefore necessary for LTA staff to review the
submissions of temporary works design from the contractors. These reviews are to
ensure that the proposed temporary works satisfy the codes of practices and the LTA
contract requirements, and that the design and construction follow the best engineering
practice in the industry.
Information is provided in this handbook for the review of the temporary works design
submissions.
The handbook is prepared by a working committee comprised:

Wen Dazhi (Leader)
Cai Min
Chan Chee Weng
Chiam Sing Lih
Joshua Ong
Assistant Manager, Civil Design Department

Design Engineer, Civil Design Department
Senior Engineer, Development & Building Control Department
Design Manager (CCL3), Design Management Department
Design Manager (CCL1 & 2), Design Management Department
In addition, the technical group led by Mr. Yong Ah Poh assisted the preparation of
the graphs and figures in the handbook.
The Working Committee is particularly grateful to Mr. Song Siak Keong, Manager,
Civil Design Department and Mr. Paul Fok, Manager, Design Management
Department for their guidance and comments in the preparation of the handbook.
HANDBOOK FOR REVIEW OF DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPORARY WORKS
FOR DEEP EXCAVATIONS
Contents
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
Scope of the handbook

Temporary works
Cause of failure
DESIGN CONCEPT
2.1
2.2
Construction sequences
Design assumptions
DESIGN SOIL PARAMETERS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
General
Geotechnical design parameters for Phase I/II MRT projects
Kallang Formation
Old Alluvium
Jurong Formation
Bukit Timah Granite Formation
STABILITY CHECKING
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Base heave
Hydraulic uplift
Toe-in depth
Slope stability for open excavation
DESIGN ANALYSIS
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Overview of analytical methods

One Dimensional Finite Element Method
Two Dimensional Finite element method
Drained Analysis vs Undrained Analysis
Total Stress Approach vs Effective Stress Approach
3
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
Note on Using Effective Stress Approach for Undrained Analysis

Sensitivity Analysis
Back Analysis
Use of Sacrificial JGP
Treatment of berm
Strut design
GROUND MOVEMENT
6.1
6.2
6.3
Prediction of ground movements

Factors affecting ground movements
Consolidation settlements
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
7.1
7.2
7.3
Classification of damage
Methodology for building damage assessment
Steps for building damage assessment
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING
8.1
8.2
General
Review Levels
PERFORMANCE OF TEMPORARY WORKS
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Purpose of the Handbook
The purpose of this handbook is to serve as a guide for review of temporary works
design, prediction of ground movement and building damage assessment for deep
excavations. It also gives guidelines for construction supervision of the temporary
works to ensure that design assumptions are realised and design requirements are
complied with.
1.2
Temporary Works
For the purposes of this handbook, temporary works refer to retaining structures and
the associated supports for deep excavations. Slopes that are used to stabilise an
excavation during open cut are also considered as temporary works for deep
excavations.
The following retaining wall types are commonly used in Singapore to support
excavations:
Sheet pile wall

Soldier pile wall with timber lagging or shotcrete
Diaphragm wall
Secant pile wall
Contiguous bored pile wall
A combination of sheet pile wall and soldier pile wall with lagging
The above can be further divided into the following categories according to the forms
of support provided:
Cantilever wall
Strutted or braced wall
Tie-back or anchored wall
Steel I-beams are commonly used in Singapore as struts and waling for strutted wall.
1.3
Cause of Failure
The failure of temporary retaining works during excavation can be caused by local
failure and/or global failures. Failure mechanisms which should be considered in the
design are shown in Figure 1-1.
Passive Anchorage Failure

Break
Break or
bend
R
Tie-back
Outside
Anchor
Formation
Excessive Bending
Kickout
Through Tip
(a) Rod failure, anchor failure, bending /pullout

failure or toe kickout
(b) Rotational instability
Figure 1-1. Typpical Failure mechanisms that should be considered in design
DESIGN CONCEPT
2.1
Construction Sequences
Before any analysis can be carried out, a construction sequence needs to be developed.
The bending moments and shear forces in the retaining wall, the strut loading at every
tier of struts and the wall deflection are closely related to the construction sequence.
The reinforcement in diaphragm walls in the permanent stage is also affected by the
construction sequence as part of the earth pressures will produce forces that will be
locked in the walls during construction. Therefore the construction sequence adopted
in the design should be clearly shown in the drawing. Any changes to the construction
sequence should be brought to the attention of the designers, and such changes may
require a re-design of the retaining system.
2.2
Design Assumptions
Typically the design of temporary retaining walls for deep excavations is based on the
assumption of a plane strain condition. This assumption is generally conservative for
areas around corners or bends of retaining walls. However the reviewer should take
note of the following:
Struts are typically spaced at 6 to 8m interval. The stiffness of the struts should
be calculated on per meter run basis. The total strut force on each strut will be the
reaction from the analysis multiplied by the strut spacing.
If inclined struts or diagonal struts are used, the stiffness of the struts should be
resolved to the direction perpendicular to the retaining wall. The final strut force
should then be resolved to the axial direction of the struts.
Where piles or barrettes are within the excavation, the stiffness of the piles or
barrettes, if used in the analysis, should be converted to stiffness per meter run.
The total forces (bending moment and shear force) should be calculated as the
reaction multiplied by the spacing of the piles or barrettes. Cautions should be
exercised when there is soft clay such as the marine clay or peaty clay, as the
clay can be squeezed through the gaps between the piles.
DESIGN SOIL PARAMETERS
3.1
General
The geotechnical parameters are covered in Table 5/3, Chapter 5 of the Design
Criteria. The Table gives minimum values for common design parameters for the soils
and weathered rocks of Singapore. The Table is re-produced in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: Recommended Design Parameters from Design Criteria
MRTC
(1983)
classification
Classification based
on BS5930
(1999)
Bulk
Density
(kN/m3)
Coefficient
of earth
pressure at
rest (ko)
Fill
Fill
19
0.5
30
19
0.5
30
15
1.0
Figure 3.1
F1
F1
20
0.7
30
F2
F2
19
1.0
Figure 3.2
22
16
1.0
Figure 3.3
22
O Class A
20
1.0
Note 1
Note 2
Note 2
O Class B
20
1.0
Note 1
Note 2
Note 2
O Class C
20
1.0
Note 1
Note 2
Note 2
O Class D
20
1.0
Note 1
Note 2
Note 2
O Class E
20
1.0
Note 1
Note 2
Note 2
S1
SI
24
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
S1
SII
24
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
S2
SIII
22
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
S2
SIV
22
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
S3
F.C.
22
1.0
Note 1
10
28
S4
SV
21
0.8
N/A
30
S4
SVI
21
0.8
Note 1
30
G1
GI
24
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
G1
GII
24
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
G2
GIII
23
0.8
N/A
Note 3
Note 3
G2
GIV
23
0.8
N/A
30
G4
GV
20
0.8
N/A
30
Undrained Effective
Effective
cohesion, cu cohesion, c angle of
(kN/m2)
(kN/m2)
friction,
(degrees)
G4
GVI
20
0.8
Note 1
0
30
N/A: Not Applicable.
Note 1: Undrained conditions do not usually apply for deep excavations in these materials, but may be
applicable during tunnelling. The methods outlined in Clough and Schmidt (1981) may be used to
assess if undrained parameters are applicable. Typically, design should be carried out for both drained
8
and undrained parameters, and the more conservative of these designs should be adopted. For
undrained analysis, a value of 5 x N (SPT value in blows/300m) kPa, up to N = 50, may be adopted for
the undrained cohesion in these materials, where applicable.
Note 2: Effective Stress parameters for the Old Alluvium shall be established for each site based on
p-q plots.
Note 3. Effective Stress parameters for these materials should be derived from site-specific data. The
Geological Strength Index method (Hoek and Brown, 1997) is considered appropriate for this.
Undrained Cohesion, Cu (kPa)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
50
60
Depth below ground level (m)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Figure 3.1. Undrained cohesion for Estuarine clay (E)
U n d ra in e d C o h e s io n , C u ( k P a )
0
10
20
30
10
15
20
25
Figure 3.2. Undrained cohesion for fluvial clay (F2)
40
Und ra in e d c o he sion , C u (k P a )
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 3.3. Undrained cohesion for marine clay (M)
It is to be noted that the parameters given in the Table 3.1 are intended to represent the
lower bound design values of the soil properties as it exists in-situ, as required under
BS8002. Higher design values can be used if the designer can demonstrate as being
appropriate, based on the results of the soil investigation for the project.
The following sections give some examples of the design values that have been
published for design and research. These sections can serve as a guide when reviewing
proposed design parameters submitted from external parties. Where proposed design
parameters are outside the commonly adopted range, the reviewer should pay more
attention to examine the justification submitted from external parties in detail.
3.2
Geotechnical Design Parameters for Phase I/II MRT Projects
Dames and Moore (1983) summarised the geotechnical properties of Singapores soils
based on soil investigation data obtained from North-South and East-West MRT lines.
A range of some soil parameters can be found in this report. For ease of reference,
Table 3.2 summarises the recommended design parameters from the report.
Table 3.2. Design parameters recommended by Dames & Moore (1983).
Soil Type
Parameters
Value / Comment
Bulk density
Relative density
Modulus, Es = 1/mv
Effective cohesion, c
Effective angle of friction,
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest, ko
Permeability
17 kN/m3
35%
10 MPa
0
30 degrees
0.5
5 x 10-7 to 5 x 10-3 m/s
10
Table 3.2. Continued

Soil Type
Parameters
Value / Comment
Bulk density
Undrained shear strength, cu
14 kN/m3
Depth: 0 5m: 5 kPa
Depth 5m +: increase linearly with depth
to 50 kPa at 25m depth.
2
200 - 400 cu
0
5 degrees
cc = 0.0088 (wn 14), where wn = natural
water content
c = 0.04 cc
10 m2/year
0.9 1.0
Design value: 1 x 10-9 m/s
Range: 8 x 10-11 to 2 x 10-7 m/s
18 kN/m3
Depth 0 to 25m: 35%
Depth 25m +: 50%
Depth 0 to 25m: 10 MPa
Depth 25m+: 20 MPa
0
Depth 0 to 25m: 30 degrees
Depth 25m+: 34 degrees
0.43 to 0.67
1.0 x 10-7 to 1.0 x 10-4 m/s
19 kN/m3
Depth: 0 10m: 20 kPa
Depth 10m +: increase linearly with depth
4
14.5 MPa
0
22 degrees
cc = 0.2
c = 0.05
10 m2/year
0.4
0.75 1.0
Range: 4 x 10-10 to 2 x 10-7 m/s
15 kN/m3
Depth: 0 6.7m: 10 kPa (except at
Marina area)
Depth 6.7m+: increase linearly with depth
5
200 cu
0
22 degrees
Sensitivity
Undrained Modulus, Eu
Compression index, cc
Coefficient of 2nd compression, c
Coefficient of consolidation, cv
Permeability
F1
Bulk density
Relative density
Modulus, Es = 1/mv
F2

Permeability
Bulk density
Sensitivity
Pore pressure parameter, A
Permeability
Bulk density
Sensitivity
11

Soil Type
Parameters
Value / Comment
cc = 0.54 (eo 0.15), where eo is initial void

ratio
Average value: 0.85
c = 0.175 cc
Average value: 0.15
2 m2/year
0.8 1.0
0.6 0.7
Range: 4 x 10-11 to 4 x 10-9 m/s
20.5 kN/m3
Depth* 0 5m: 45 kPa
Depth* 5 - 15m: 100 kPa
Depth* 15m+: 150 kPa
Depth* 0 15m: 50 MPa
Depth* 15m+: 75 MPa
0
35 degrees
25 m2/year
0.1
0.75 1.0
Range: 1 x 10-10 to 1 x 10-6 m/s
(* depths measured from top of Soil Type O.)
22 kN/m3
200 kPa
200 MPa
Range: 1 x 10-10 to 1 x 10-7 m/s
22 kN/m3
100 kPa
100 MPa
10
28 degrees
0.03
30 m2/year
0.1
0.75 1.0
Range: 1 x 10-10 to 1 x 10-5 m/s
20.5 kN/m3
Depth* 0 3m: 45 kPa
Depth* 3 - 12m: 85 kPa
45 kPa
Depth* 0 3m: 7 MPa
Depth* 3 - 12m: 40 MPa
Depth* 12m+: 150 MPa
0
30 degrees

Permeability
O
Bulk density
Permeability
S2
Bulk density
Permeability
S3
Bulk density
Compression index (cc or cr)
Permeability
S4
Bulk density
Remoulded shear strength

12

Soil Type
Parameters
Value / Comment
S4
Permeability
G4
Bulk density
- Silty CLAY
40 m2/year
0.07
0.75 1.0
Range: 5 x 10-8 to 2 x 10-10 m/s
(* depths measured from top of Soil Type
S4.)
18.5 kN/m3
- Clayey SILT
Remoulded shear strength
Permeability
3.3
Depth* 0 5m: 35 kPa

0.5 cu
Depth* 0 5m: 5 MPa
Depth* 5 - 20m: 8 MPa
Depth* 20m+: 15 MPa
0
30 degrees
40 m2/year
0.17
0.8 1.0
Range: 4 x 10-10 to 2 x 10-7 m/s
(* depths measured from top of Soil Type
G4.)
Kallang Formation
The Kallang Formation covers a wide range of soil types, which include soils of the
Marine, Alluvial, Littoral, Transitional (Estuarine) and Reef members and are all of
post Pleistocene age. The deposits vary in composition and occur as an infill to
ancient buried valleys formed in strata of the Bukit Timah Granite, Jurong Formation
and the Old Alluvium during sea level changes in the last 5000 years. The maximum
depth of the Kallang Formation has been proven to a thickness of some 60m.
Table 3.3, Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 list the published design parameters for the
Singapore Marine Clay (M), the fluvial sand (F1) and fluvial clay (F2), respectively.
13
Table 3.3 Published design parameters for Marine Clay

Reference
Undrained
Cohesion,
cu (kPa)
Nicholson (1987)
cu/pc = 0.23
Poh & Wong (1998)
Pitts (1985)
Wong, et al (1997)
where pc = pre-consolidation pressure
Effective
Cohesion
c (kPa)
Effective
Angle of
Friction
(deg.)
0
-
20-24
22
-
Compression
Index cc
Undrained
Modulus
Eu (MPa)
0.83
-
450 cu
100-200 cu
200 cu
Compression
Index cc
Undrained
Modulus
Eu (MPa)
15
15
Table 3.4 Published design parameters for fluvial sand (F1)

Reference
Effective
Cohesion
c (kPa)
Effective
Angle of
Friction
(deg.)
Modulus E
(MPa)
0
0
-
32-36
30
30 - 35
12.3 43.5
15
10 - 20
-
Chu et al (2000)
Flanagan et al (1999)
Pitts (1985)
Tan et al (1980)
Table 3.5 Published design parameters for fluvial clay (F2)

Reference
Flanagan et al (1999)
Pitts (1985)
3.4
Undrained
Cohesion,
cu (kPa)
Effective
Cohesion
c (kPa)
Effective
Angle of
Friction
(deg.)
20 - 120
0
0
30
22
Old Alluvium (OA)
The Old Alluvium, which is about 2 to 7 million years old, extends from southern
Johor to the east of Singapore. The thickness of this formation is generally very great
and has been proved to a depth up to 195 metres.
The formation consists of coarse angular quartz feldspar sand and gravel which have
probably been derived from granite and laid down in a fluvial environment. Joints
have been observed in this formation. However there is no evidence of any faulting.
Weathering and decomposition of the feldspar in the upper layers has produced
cohesive soils of clayey silty sand or sandy clay with some fine gravel. It should be
noted that the clay content of the Old Alluvium tends to increase with increasing
degree of the weathering and proximity to the ground surface. There is generally some
cementation; however, the degree of cementation varies. Where the SPT N-value is
14
low, the OA has been weathered after decomposition, and much of the cementation
has been lost.
Wong et al (2001) conducted a study on the data obtained from NEL projects for OA
soils. The study characterizes the OA into 3 main zones according to the degree of
weathering and SPT blow counts as follows:
OAI: N = 5 to 25
(residual soil zone)
OAII: N = 26 to 99
(weathered zone)
OAIII: N = 100 or more (cemented zone)
The shear strength of the three groups as recommended by Wong et al (2001) are
given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Recommended Design parameters for OA, Wong et al (2001)
OAI
OAII
Property
(N = 5 to 25)
(N = 26 to 99)
Undrained shear strength (kPa)
OAIII
(N 100)
Cu ~ 5.4 N
Effective apparent cohesion (kPa)
25
Effective friction angle (degrees)
35
35
35
3.5
Jurong Formation
The Jurong Formation, which is about 190 million years old (Mid Triassic to Lower
Jurassic) comprises alternating layers of mudstone, siltstone and sandstone which are
typically tightly folded and fissured. The thickness of the layers varies and the fissures,
which are often randomly oriented, are not governed by the bedding planes. The fine
grained mudstone is intensely fissured. The rock has been heavily weathered in its
upper parts.
Within the Jurong Formation a boulder bed has been described by Pitts (1984). This
is believed (Shirlaw et al, 1990 and Han et al, 1993) to be a landslide deposit consisted
of often massive boulders of strong sandstone in a stiff fissured clay matrix. This
boulder bed is now known as the Fort Canning Boulder Bed, Shirlaw et al (2003).
Table 3.7 gives some examples of published data on the properties of the Jurong
Formation.
15
Table 3.7 Published design parameters for Jurong Formation

Weathering
Description
Undrained
cohesion,
cu (kPa)
Effective
cohesionc
(kPa)
Effective
cngle of
friction
(deg.)
Undrained
Modulus
Eu (MPa)
Orihara et al (1999)
Leong et al (2002)
S2
S4
200
5* SPT N
40
-
30-35
-
Lim (1995)
Lo et al (1988)
Orihara et al (1999)
Rahardjo (2000)
Yong, et al (1985)
Zhu (2000)
S4
S4
S4
S4
S4
S4
65-200
19-50
6
0-20
5-9
12
10-30
24-40
32
33
29-32
13-40
24-40
300-600
Eu/cu = 40 400
30-100
Reference
As required by the Design Criteria, the effective stress parameters for weathered rocks
should be derived from site-specific data. Typical assessed parameters for the
weathered rocks of the Jurong Formation based on the Geological Strength Index
method, Hoek and Brown, 1997 is listed in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8. Typical assessed parameters for rocks of Jurong Formation
c
Rock
RQD
(kPa)
(degrees)
Mudstone
<25%
40
30
Siltstone
<25%
40
30
Sandstone
<25%
40
45
Mudstone
>25%
40
35
Siltstone
>25%
40
35
Sandstone
>25%
120
45
3.6
Bukit Timah Granite Formation
The Bukit Timah Granite is of lower to Mid Triassic age (220 million years) and
includes an entire suite of plutonic acid igneous rocks, particularly granite, adamellite
and granodiorite. The granite has been cut by numerous basic and acidic dykes which
post-date the granite and are believed to be of mid-Triassic age.
Weathering has produced a combination of residual soil and completely decomposed
rock near the surface of the granite that is underlain by the highly and moderately
weathered granite which, in turn is underlain by slightly weathered and fresh granite.
The residual soil and the completely decomposed rock can be described generally as
clayey silt, silty sand and silty clay that tend to be characterised by a reddish brown
colour.
Table 3.9 lists typical parameters for the residual soils of the Bukit Timah Granite
Formation.
16
Table 3.9 Published design parameters for the residual soils of the Bukit Timah Granite Formation
Undrained
cohesion, cu
(kPa)
Effective
cohesion c
(kPa)
5* SPT N
Poh et al. (1985)

Yang & Tang (1997)
Tan et al. (1987)
Rahardjo (2000)
KarWinn et al. (2001)

Zhou (2001)
0-42
5-10
0-40
12-50
0-14
7
20-35
35-40
30-35
29-33
27-31
20-40
32
References
Leong et al (2002)
17
Effective
angle of
friction
(Degrees)
Undrained
Modulus
Eu (MPa)
Eu/cu = 30 300
STABILITY CHECKING
4.1
Base Heave
Temporary works design for deep excavation shall include adequate precautions
against base heave.
In deep excavations in soft clay, such as the Singapore marine clay, there is a potential
for base failure accompanied by a consequent sinking of the surrounding ground and
failure of the support system. For an excavation that is adequately supported by struts
to prevent horizontal displacement of the walls, the soft clay at the base is under the
loading due to the weight of the surrounding soil masses. This loading tends to push
the clay towards and up into the excavation, see Figure 4-1.
Surcharge, q
Figure 4-1. Base heave checking
Bjerrum & Eide (1956) presented their study of the problem of base stability of deep
excavations in soft clays. They proposed that the factor of safety against base failure in
soft clays should be checked as below:
FoS = Nccu / (D +q)
Where D is the depth of excavation, q is the surcharge, cu is the undrained shear
strength of the clay at the base, is the unit weight of the clay and Nc is the bearing
capacity factor.
Other formulae for various excavation dimensions and geological strata can be found
in the LTA in house training notes by Prof. Wong Kai Sin et al (2003).
Studies by Wong (2003) have shown that low factors of safety against basal failure
will produce high ground movements and wall deflection, see Figure 4-2.
18
Figure 4-2. Wall deflection vs. factor of safety against basal heave
CP18, Cl. 8.3.3.3 requires a minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against overstress.
Checking should be carried out not only for the final stage of excavation, but also for
intermediate stages where layers of soft clay exist between ground level and the final
formation level.
4.2
Hydraulic Uplift
Hydraulic uplift problems arise when water under pressure is trapped in permeable
strata beneath clays below the excavation, and if the water pressure exceeds the weight
of the overburden, the base of the excavation will be blown up, causing the base to
lose its strength, see Figure 4-3.
Standpipe
k1
k2
Figure 4-3. Checking for hydraulic uplift.
CP18, Cl. 8.3.3.3 requires the design of deep excavations in water bearing soils to
consider the possibility of hydraulic uplift. Where necessary and appropriate, i.e. there
will be no major impacts on adjacent properties, services and utilities, ground water
lowering methods should be used to lower the external head of ground water.
Davies (1984) reported a base failure in a deep excavation due to hydraulic uplift. The
excavation was in the residual soils of the Bukit Timah Granite, and the total
excavation depth was 8.0m. The rock level was at 13m below the ground surface. He
reported that the base of the excavation was reduced to a slurry when the excavation
was at about 6.5m deep. Construction traffic sank into the base of the excavation and it
19
was only possible to walk across the site on planks. To allow work to proceed, deep
wells were sunk to the permeable zone just above the rock-head, and the excavation
base became quickly firm and dry.
Excavations in the residual soils of the Bukit Timah Granite are susceptible to this type
of failure. Weathering tends to reduce the upper levels of the soil to a clayey material.
However the clay content decreases and the permeability of the soil increases with
depth. It is difficult to install retaining walls deep enough in the rock to reduce the
hydraulic gradient by lengthening the seepage path. To prevent failure due to hydraulic
uplift, the water pressure in the underlying permeable layer should be relieved by
using deep wells or drainage pipes prior to reaching the critical depth.
4.3
Toe-in Depth
Toe-in depth is to check the adequacy of the wall embedment below the formation
level. The method of checking is given in NAVFAC DM7.2 and is re-produced in
Figure 4-4.
DEFLECTED POSITION
SHEETING OR SOLDIER
PILES WITH LAGGING
Struts
Ms
PA
l2
l1
PA1
Pp
PA = TOTAL RESULTANT ACTIVE PRESSURE

PA1 = RESULTANT ACTIVE PRESSURE BELOW POINT A
Figure 4-4. Checking for adequacy of toe-in depth.
Factor of safety =
PP * l 2
PAl * l1 - M S
where MS is the allowable moment in the retaining wall, PP is the force due to the
passive soil pressure and PAl is the force due to the active soil pressure below the
lowest level of struts.
CIRIA Report 104 (Padfield & Mair, 1984) recommends the following factors of
safety:
20
For < or = 20o, FOS = 1.2

For = 20o 30o, FOS = 1.2 1.5
For > or = 30o, FOS = 1.5
Where the mobilisation factors are used in accordance with BS8002, the minimum
required factor of safety can be 1.0.
4.4
Slope Stability for Open Excavation
The factor of safety for slope stability for open excavation should be checked by
carrying out slope stability analysis. Various software, such as SLOPE/W can be used.
The two major critical parameters are the cohesion of soil and the phreatic surface.
The cohesion should be justified by soil investigation data. Typically the ground water
table will be at 1 to 2 m below the ground level. Under clement weather the water table
can rise to the ground level, thus should be checked.
For permanent slope the factor of safety shall be a minimum of 1.5. For temporary
slopes, the factor of safety can be reduced, based on consequence of failures. A guide
is shown in Table 4-1, based on Geotechnical Manual for Slopes, Geotechnical
Control Office, Hong Kong.
Table 4-1. Factors of safety for slopes.
Recommended factor of safety against loss
of life for a ten-year return period rainfall
Risk
Recommended factor of
safety against economic
loss for a ten-year
return period rainfall
Negligible
Low
High
Negligible
>1.0
1.2
1.4
Low
1.2
1.2
1.4
High
1.4
1.4
1.4
21
DESIGN ANALYSIS
5.1
Overview of Analytical Methods
Methods for analysing temporary retaining works can be broadly classified into the
following types:
5.2
beam on elastic foundation

finite element method
One-Dimensional Finite Element Method
This method assumes a retaining wall as an elastic beam founded on an elastic

foundation to derive the solution of the governing differential equations. The elastic
beam is assumed to generate a reactive earth pressure proportional to its deflection, i.e.
Winklers hypothesis, as a bed of springs. The commonly used commercial software,
which adopts this approach, is as follows:
WALLAP
FREW
REDO
An advantage of the beam on elastic foundation approach is its ability to account for
structure flexibility and soil stiffness. Thus the effects of stress redistribution in soil as
a result of differential structural deflections are accommodated. Although the
magnitude of the shear forces and bending moments in the wall and the strut or anchor
loads are not very sensitive to the values of spring stiffness used in the analysis, the
predicted deformations of the supporting wall are.
Typically the software will require the user to input the active and passive coefficients
of earth pressure, ka and kp. While it is reasonable to assume some friction between the
wall and the soil, it should however be noted that the friction between the wall and the
soil for kp should not be too high, as large wall movement is required to achieve the
corresponding kp value. CIRIA Report 104 (Padfield & Mair, 1984) recommends the
following maximum effective wall friction, :
For active zone, = 2/3
For passive zone, = 1/3
The reviewer should also check to ensure that the construction sequences adopted in
the analysis are the same as those in the construction drawings.
The following limitations of the beam on elastic foundation approach should be
noted:
22
There is an inherent difficulty in determining the appropriate spring stiffness

(constants) of the soil for analysis as these are not fundamental soil properties. The
spring constants are dependent on the Youngs modulus of the soil and also on the
dimension of the excavation problems being analysed. Users should not use
correlation of spring constants with undrained strength of soil as basis of deriving
the spring constants for analysis. Spring constants, if used, should be based on
Youngs modulus of the soil, which is a soil property and independent of
dimension of the excavation.
The method can only predict the movement of the wall. Ground movements can
not be predicted by using such software.
5.3
Two Dimensional Finite Element Method
The finite element method offers the designer an analytical tool that can simulate the
complex facets of the strutted or tied-back wall except unquantifiable variables such as
workmanship or geological uncertainties. The commonly used commercial software is
as follows:
PLAXIS
SAGE CRISP
EXCAV97
The assumption of plane strain condition usually adopted in finite element analysis of
strutted or anchored walls cannot be arbitrarily extrapolated to many practical
problems, particularly those involving soldier pile walls. Diaphragm walls, however,
were shown to approximately satisfy the conditions assumed in a plane strain analysis,
except at the corners of the retaining system. To simulate discontinuous wall elements
such as soldier piles, struts or tie-backs, the stiffness has to be represented on a unit
length basis. Analyses using this representation yield results that are characteristic of
the average values between those at the supports and those at the mid-point between
the supports.
The two single most important variables required in a finite element analysis are the
stiffness of the ground, which mainly affects the displacements, and the magnitude of
the initial horizontal stresses, which affect both the displacements and the bending
moments.
The in-situ horizontal stress in the ground is related to the in-situ vertical stress by the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest, ko. From conventional soil mechanics, it is well
known that ko, being dependent on stress history, is not a fundamental soil property.
For a soil in the normally consolidated (i.e. low ko) state, the stress change required to
reach the active state is small compared with that needed to mobilise passive
resistance. The contrary is true for a soil in the over-consolidated (i.e. high ko) state.
Therefore, the horizontal displacements of the wall and surface movements behind the
wall are dependent on the magnitude of the in-situ stress. The existence of a high insitu horizontal stress would likely result in large wall displacements and surface
23
settlements. For excavated walls in soils with a high initial ko value (2), the prop
forces and wall bending moments can greatly exceed those predicted by limit
equilibrium methods, Potts & Fourie (1984).
The advantage of the finite element method in the analysis of earth retaining structures
lies in its ability to predict both earth pressures and deformations with a minimum of
simplifying assumptions. Both structure and soil are considered interactively, so that
the effects of structural flexibility are taken into account.
Limitations in using the method primarily derive from a users inability to prescribe
appropriate constitutive models for the soil, and to determine the most appropriate
parameters needed for the constitutive models. Another limitation is that, in a 2-D
model, any element simulating a pile is in effect a wall, as the model is typically based
on plane strain condition. This simplification may underestimate the ground
movement.
The effects of corners can not be reflected in a 2-D analysis. This may lead to overconservative (excessive) prediction of ground movement and wall deflection at corners
of deep excavations. The significance or otherwise of the corner effects depends on
three factors: the length to depth ratio of the excavation, the depth to a relatively stiff
stratum and the stiffness of the strutting system, Lee et al (1998).
5.4
Drained Analysis vs. Undrained Analysis
A saturated soil comprises two phrases: the soil particles and the pore water. The pore
water pressure is constant at a value governed by a constant position of the water table.
This initial value is called the static pore water pressure. When a soil element is
loaded, pore water pressure is increased above the static value immediately. This
increase in pore water pressure causes a pressure gradient, resulting in a transient flow
of pore water towards a free draining boundary of the soil layer. This flow or drainage
will continue until pore water pressure again becomes equal to the value governed by
the position of the water table. The component of pore water pressure above the static
value is known as the excess pore water pressure. When the excessive pore water
pressure is dissipated the soil is said to be in the drained condition. Prior to dissipation
of the excess pore water pressure the soil is said to be in undrained condition.
The normal total stress applied to a soil element can be separated by means of the
principle of effective stress. The effective stress is the component of normal stress
taken by the soil skeleton. It is the effective stress that controls the volume and
strength of the soil. For saturated soils, the effective stress can be calculated as the
total normal stress minus the pore water pressure.
The conventional approaches to analysis of short term behaviour of excavations in clay
assume undrained response for the soil and no excess pore water pressure dissipation.
The question that is often asked is under what conditions the undrained approach does
prevail.
24
Osaimi & Clough (1979) reported their analysis of consolidation around excavations.
The results are shown in Figure 5-1.
k = 1.0E-06 m/s
k = 1.5E-07 m/s
k = 1.0E-08 m/s
k = 1.0E-10 m/s
% Consolidation at end of excavation
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Rate of excavation (m/day)
Figure 5-1. Degree of consolidation at the end of one-dimensional excavation into homogeneous
clay as a function of excavation rate and permeability, k (Osaimi & Clough, 1979)
For a soil with a permeability of 1 x 10-10 m/s, essentially zero consolidation occurs for
even the slowest soil removal rate of 0.03 m/day. Thus for this example, undrained
behaviour is appropriate for analysis of the end of construction state. For higher soil
permeability, the degree of consolidation is strongly a function of the rate of
excavation, with significant drainage indicated for several cases. In the field the
presence of drainage lenses of sand and silt will probably speed up consolidation over
that shown in Figure 5-1. Practically it means that both undrained and drained
conditions may need to be considered in design analysis for excavations, with the
exception of excavations in marine clays or fluvial clays.
5.5
Total Stress Approach vs. Effective Stress Approach
There are alternative methods of doing drained or undrained analysis. These are:
i)
Total stress approach

(a)
ii)
Undrained specify Eu and u (u 0.49)
Effective stress approach

Undrained specify E, and kw, where kw is the bulk modulus of water,
kw 100K and K = E/{3(1-2)}
(b) Drained specify E and
(a)
iii)
Consolidation analysis
25
(a)
Always specify E, . After a short time interval, undrained response is

obtained, and after a long time interval a drained response is obtained.
The advantage of effective stress approach is that pore water pressure changes due to
undrained loading are calculated and printed explicitly.
Typically Mohr-Coulomb (M-C) failure criteria are adopted for analysis, as the
parameters, cu or c and for the criteria are well defined for soils commonly
encountered. For undrained analysis, cu should be specified and for drained analysis, c
and should be specified. Based on the research work by Prof Wong Kai Sin of NTU
(2003), the following notes should be taken into account when carrying out a FE
analysis or reviewing an submission using FE analysis:
5.6
Undrained analysis by total stress approach (Eu and u 0.49) using total stress
M-C parameter (cu) can produces reliable results provided an appropriate Eu/cu
ratio is adopted for soft clays and stiff clays. The analysis can provide
reasonable matches at all stages for deep excavation in stiff clays, but it cannot
provide good matches at all stages of excavation for soft clays.
Drained analysis by effective stress approach (E and ) using effective stress
M-C parameters (c and ) can produce reasonable results for certain stress
paths and questionable or unreliable results in some other stress paths.
Note on Using Effective Stress Approach for Undrained Analysis
Both SAGE CRISP and PLAXIS have the facilities to carry out undrained analysis by
using effective stress parameters. This is possible by using the kw, the bulk modulus of
water. With kw, it is possible to calculate the rate of excess pore water pressure, thus
allowing the determination of the total stress in a soil element. As the analysis is in
effect an undrained analysis, total stress parameter for M-C criteria, cu should be used.
In SAGE CRISP, the bulk modulus of water kw has to be specified by the user as an
input for undrained analysis using effective stress approach. The recommended value
is kw 100K, where K = E/{3(1-2)} to ensure the simulation of pore water as
incompressible material compared with the soil skeleton.
In PLAXIS, the calculation of kw is automatically done. The user will only get a
warning when the input value of is larger than 0.35. It should be noted that in
PLAXIS, whenever the Material Type is set to Undrained, effective stress parameters,
E and should be specified in the input, and should be less than 0.35. If M-C
failure criteria is adopted, cu should be used as input for strength parameter, instead of
c and .
In summary, there are a few methods available to carry out undrained analyses in the
program PLAXIS:
26
Method A - Undrained setting, Mohr Coulomb soil model, effective stress strength
parameters, c' and ', E' and ' (< or = 0.35). Method A shall not be used for
analyses of deep excavations in soft clays, such as the marine clay.
Method B - Undrained setting, Mohr Coulomb Model, undrained strength
parameter, cu, E' and ' (< or = 0.35).
Method C - Drained setting, Mohr Coulomb model, undrained strength parameter,
cu , Eu and u = 0.495.
Method D - Undrained setting, soft clay model, such as Cam Clay model, c', ', ,
.
Commonly used approaches for undrained analyses in SAGE CRISP are:
Effective Stress Approach, Mohr Coulomb model, specify cu, E', ' and kw (kw
>>soil bulk modulus, k' to avoid numerical error). (Equivalent to Method B)
Total Stress Approach, Mohr Coulomb model, specify cu , Eu, u = 0.495 and kw
= 0.0, where kw is the bulk modulus of water. (Equivalent to Method C)
Effective Stress Approach, soft clay model, such as Cam Clay model, , , M, ecs,
' and kw (kw >>soil bulk modulus, k' to avoid numerical error). (Equivalent to
Method D)
5.7
Sensitivity Analysis
There are great dangers in relying on one-off analyses, in which a single set of
geotechnical parameters are used, and the results of the analysis then taken as the
prediction of deformations, loads and stresses that will actually occur. It is essential to
vary the input parameters, within a reasonable range corresponding to those actually
determined from the ground investigation, and to examine critically the effects of such
variations on the computed deformations, loads and stresses.
It is important to distinguish design from analysis the former requires a full
consideration of all the factors that might affect the behaviour of the underground
works, whereas the latter must only be regarded as a tool to aid the design process,
albeit a very important tool. The temptation to rely on a single finite element analysis
as the basis for design should be resisted. A suite of analyses, used to explore the
influence of parameter variations, is necessary before the results can be used with
confidence in the design.
Sensitivity analyses shall be performed as part of the design to demonstrate that the
design and the model are not unduly sensitive to variations in any of the following
input parameters:
Shear strength
Soil stiffness
Reduced wall stiffness due to cracking
Pre-loading forces
27
Over-excavation
One-strut failure
Consolidation parameters
JGP strength and stiffness (where applicable)
It shall also be demonstrated that the model is not unduly sensitive to any other
variable for which assumptions are made within the FE or FD model.
The design shall be based on the envelope of upper and lower bounds of the sensitivity
analyses, with appropriate factor of safety for structural design of the walls and strut
system.
5.8
Back Analysis
Back analyses should be carried out comprehensively with careful reviews of ALL
design assumptions and the actual monitored behaviour of the structures.
While curve fitting of the deflection is an important part of the back analysis, other
monitored parameters should also be checked in the back analysis. There should be a
clear evidence of improvement between computed and measured behaviour to date, i.e.
from the beginning up to the stage where back analysis is carried out.
The review of design assumptions during back analyses should include
appropriateness of the models used in the original design, soil parameters, soil profiles
encountered, construction sequences, drainage conditions on site and the wall stiffness.
Any changes or revisions in the back analysis should not be arbitrary. There should be
a clear rationale and substantiation, for example field or laboratory tests or additional
evidence from construction records, for all changes in the model parameters.
5.9
Use of Sacrificial JGP Layers
Traditionally geotechnical design parameters are selected conservatively, i.e. design

values (strength and stiffness) are selected towards the lower bound values. For the
design of a sacrificial jet grouted slab, it is necessary to carry out sensitivity analyses
for the upper bound strength and stiffness values of the jet grouted slab. This is to cater
for the worst loading condition for the struts above the sacrificial jet grouted slab.
When the slab is removed, the load taken by it will be transferred to the struts above. If
lower bound strength and stiffness values are used, this will underestimate the strut
load for the struts above the sacrificial jet grouted slab. Close monitoring of the struts
and the walls should be carried out during the removal of the sacrificial JGP layers.
5.10 Treatment of Berm
Slope stability analysis should be carried out to ensure that the berm is stable during
the whole period of the construction.
28
More often than not, the berm size is limited, and it is unlikely full passive resistance
can be developed within the berm. The method recommended by Fleming (1981) can
be adopted to model the berm in the design and analysis of the retaining wall. The
empirical method is to treat the berm as causing an increase in the effective ground
level on the passive side of the wall. In the method the height of the berm is treated as
not more than 1/3 of the berm width as shown in Figure 5-2 and the effective ground
level is then taken as half the height of the berm at the point where it contacts the wall.
Actual Berm Size
Effective ground
level in analysis
3
H/2
H/2
Figure 5-2. Empirical method of berm treatment in analysis
Another alternative method is to convert the berm to an effective surcharge acting on

the potential passive failure zone. In this method the effective weight of the berm is
calculated and is then distributed over the approximate width of the passive failure
mechanism at the general final excavation level, see Figure 5-3, thus increasing the
passive pressure available accordingly.
Effective surcharge
Passive zone
Figure 5-3. Alternative method of treatment of berm in analysis
5.11 Strut Design

The figures in this section give the design charts for struts commonly used in
supporting excavations. The designs in accordance with both BS449 and BS5950 are
29
produced. In addition to the axial force used in producing the charts, the following
loads are also considered:
Self-weight of strut
Vertical superimposed load of 1kN/m
Horizontal superimposed load of 1kN/m
In structural design of struts, walers and their connections, mixed use of different
codes, such as struts/walers are designed to BS449 and their connection details to
BS5950 should not be adopted. The design for all elements (struts, walers and their
connections) should be carried out consistently in accordance with the same code, i.e.
either BS449 or BS5950.
Strut Capacity (T/Strut), SLS BS 449
1200
1100
H200x200x65.7
1000
900
H200x200x57.8
800
H200x200x49.9
700
H200x200x41.4
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
12
Effective Length L (m )
Design Chart for Strut Capacity
Figure 5-4. Design chart for strut size H200x200 in accordance with BS449.
1800
H250x250x98.1
1600
1400
H250x250x81.6
1200
H250x250x72.4
H250x250x71.8
H250x250x66.5
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
30
12
14
2800
2600
H300x300x147
2400
H300x300x130
H300x300x125
2200
2000
H300x300x106
H300x300x105
1800
1600
H300x300x94
H300x300x93
H300x300x87
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
12
14
12000
H400x400x605
11000
10000
9000
8000
H400x400x415
7000
6000
H400x400x283
5000
H400x400x235
H400x400x232
H400x400x200
H400x400x197
H400x400x172
H400x400x147
H400x400x140
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
10
12
31
14
Strut Capacity (T/Strut), ULS BS 5950
2000
1800
H200x200x65.7
1600
H200x200x57.8
1400
H200x200x49.9
1200
H200x200x41.4
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
12
3200
2800
H250x250x98.1
2400
H250x250x81.6
H250x250x72.4
H250x250x71.8
2000
H250x250x66.5
1600
1200
800
400
0
0
10
12
32
14
5000
4500
H300x300x147
4000
H300x300x130
H300x300x125
3500
H300x300x106
H300x300x105
H300x300x94
H300x300x93
H300x300x87
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
12
14
18000
H400x400x605
16000
14000
H400x400x415
12000
10000
H400x400x283
8000
H400x400x235
H400x400x232
H400x400x200
H400x400x197
H400x400x172
H400x400x147
H400x400x140
6000
4000
2000
0
0
10
12
14
33
6 GROUND MOVEMENT
6.1 Prediction of ground movements
The prediction of ground settlements due to deep excavations should take into account
the effects of wall installation and extraction where applicable, wall deflection and
consolidation settlement. Other causes, such as ground treatment, piling should also be
considered, where appropriate.
Ground settlements due to diaphragm wall installation have been studied by Hulme et
al (1989) and Wen et al (2001). It is found that typically the settlement due to
diaphragm wall installation is in the order of 5 to 25mm.
The surface settlements due to wall deflection have been addressed by Clough &
ORourke (1990). They proposed that ground surface settlements due to deep
excavations take the form of the wall deflection as shown in Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1. Surface settlement due to deep excavation.
This relationship has been confirmed by settlement measurements during the

construction of the cut & cover tunnels at Race Course Road for the North East MRT
Line, Wen et al (2001). Others have also reported similar correlation for deep
excavations in the Singapore marine clay, Hulme et al (1991), Nicholson (1987) and
Tan et al (1985). The ground surface settlements due to deep excavations in the Old
Alluvium and in the residual soils of the Bukit Timah Granite Formation have been
studied by Wong, et al (2001) and Lee et al (2001).
The prediction of movements during excavation shall be properly related to the results
of the excavation analyses. Finite element or finite difference methods can give
misleading results for the development of ground movements outside the excavation
unless the change of ground stiffness with strain is properly taken into account. All
34
analytical predictions should be checked against empirical methods based on

excavations in similar ground in Singapore.
6.2
Factors affecting ground movements
The following factors will affect the ground movement:
Stiffness of retaining walls

Factor of safety against base heave
Factor of safety against failure through openings in retaining wall
Loss of fines due to seepage through gaps in retaining walls or through timber
lagging
Workmanship
Figure 6-2 shows the relationship of wall stiffness, factor of safety and settlement
behind the wall.
Diaphragm Wall
Sheetpile Wall
Figure 6-2. Wall movement vs. wall stiffness / factor of safety against basal heave
6.3 Consolidation settlements

Typically consolidation settlement is caused by under-drainage of the soft clays such
as the marine clay and / or peaty clay. There are two sources that will cause a
drawdown of piezometric pressure in the soil layers below the soft clays:
Seepage
Stress reduction from ko to ka outside the excavation (active side)
35
Stress increase from ko toward kp inside the excavation (passive side)

BS8002:1994 gives a simplified method to establish the pore water pressure at steady
state seepage condition, see Figure 6-3.
j
h
Path Length
Note: Assume head difference

(h+i-j) is dissipated uniformly
along flow path length (2d+h-i-j)
i
d
PWT
PWT =
PWT
2 (h + d - j) (d - i) w
(2d + h - i - j)
Figure 6-3. Pore water pressure at steady state seepage condition, BS 8002: 1994.
The mechanism of piezometric head draw-down has been studied by Shirlaw & Wen
(1999) and Wen & Lin (2001).
It has been shown by Hulme et al (1991) and Wen et al (2000) that consolidation
settlement can be up to 100% to 150% of the total measured settlements.
36
7 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
7.1
Classification of Damage
The classification system for building damage adopted in the Design Criteria is based
on the work by Burland et al (1977) as given in Table 7-1. The classification in the
table relates only to visible or aesthetic damage, and the emphasis is laid on ease of
repair. Appropriate crack widths are listed and are intended merely as an additional
indicator rather than a direct measure of the degree of damage. The widths are based
on the views of engineers who have had the experience in observation of building
performance and the reaction of occupants.
Table 7-1 Classification of visible damage to walls with particular reference to ease of repair
Category
Normal
Description of typical damage
of
Degree of
Damage
Severity
0
Negligible
Hairline cracks less than about 0.1mm.
Very Slight
Fine cracks that are easily treated during normal decoration. Damage
generally restricted to internal wall finishes. Close inspection may
reveal some cracks in external brickwork or masonry. Typical crack
widths up to 1mm.
Slight
Cracks easily filled. Re-decoration probably required. Recurrent

cracks can be masked by suitable linings. Cracks may be visible
externally and some re-pointing may be required to ensure weathertightness. Doors and windows may stick slightly. Typical crack
widths up to 5mm.
Moderate
The cracks require some opening up and can be patched by a mason.

Re-pointing of external brickwork and possibly a small amount of
brickwork to be replaced. Doors and windows sticking. Service
pipes may fracture. Weather-tightness often impaired. Typical crack
widths are 5 to 15mm or several greater than 3mm.
Severe
Extensive repair work involving breaking-out and replacing sections

of walls, especially over doors and windows. Windows and door
frames distorted, floor sloping noticeably1. Walls leaning1 or building
noticeably, some loss of bearing in beams. Service pipes disrupted.
Typical crack widths are 15 to 25mm, but also depends on the
number of cracks.
Very Severe
This requires a major repair job involving partial or complete

rebuilding. Beams lose bearing, walls lean badly and require shoring.
Windows broken with distortion. Danger of instability. Typical crack
widths are greater than 25mm but depends on the number of cracks.
Burland and Wroth (1974) developed the concept of critical tensile strain as a
parameter determining the onset of cracking; this was replaced by the concept of
limiting tensile strain, lim, by Burland et al (1977). Boscardin and Cording (1989)
analysed case histories of excavation induced subsidence, and showed that the damage
categories in Table 7-1 were related to the magnitude of tensile strain induced in the
37
building, and the range of strains were identified. The range of strains is adopted by
the Design Criteria, and is re-produced in Table 7-2.
Table 7-2. Relationship between category of damage and limiting tensile strain
Category
Normal Degree
Limiting tensile strain (lim)
of Damage
of Severity
(%)
0
Negligible
0 - 0.05
1
Very Slight
0.05 - 0.075
2
Slight
0.075 - 0.15
3
Moderate
0.15 - 0.3
4 to 5
Severe to Very Severe
> 0.3
4.2
Methodology for Building Damage Assessment
The Design Criteria require all buildings and structures within the assessment zones
shall be assessed for damage by means of assessing the limiting tensile strains within
the buildings and the foundations. The assessment zones are defined in Chapter 20:
Assessment of Damage to Buildings and Utilities of the Design Criteria. The
methodology outlined by Mair et al (1996) can be adopted. The method of calculating
the limiting tensile strain is based on Burland & Wroth (1974). The method treats a
building as an idealised beam with span L and height H deforming under a maximum
deflection . Expressions can be derived relating the ratio of /L for the beam to
maximum bending strain (b) and diagonal strain (d) as follows:
L
3I E
=
+
b
L 12 t 2 t L H G
and
H L 2G
= 1 +
d
L
18 I E
where:
H is the height of the building
L is the length of the building
E and G are respectively the Youngs modulus and shear modulus of the building
(assumed to be acting as a beam), E/G = 2.6 for masonary structures and E/G = 12.6
for framed buildings.
I is the second moment of area of the equivalent beam (i.e. H3/3)
t is the furthest distance from the neutral axis to the edge of the beam (=H)
The horizontal ground strains due to horizontal ground movement also contribute to
potential building damage. The average horizontal strain across a section of a building
is more appropriate in the context of potential damage than local horizontal ground
strains. The average horizontal strain, h, that is transferred to the building can be
38
calculated as the difference of horizontal movement at both ends of a building divided

by the span length then gives an average horizontal strain.
The average horizontal strain is added to either the bending or diagonal strain to obtain
the maximum combined tensile strain, which is then compared with the limiting values
in Table 7-2 to assess the potential building damage.
The horizontal strain can be added directly to the bending strain giving
bt = h + b
where bt is the total bending strain.
Diagonal strains and horizontal strains can be combined by making use of a Mohrs
circle of strain. Assuming a value of Poissons ratio of 0.3, the total tensile strain due
to diagonal distortion,dt, is given by
dt = 0.35h + [(0.65h)2 +d2 ]
The Design Criteria require that protective works be provided to all buildings where
the predicted degree of severity of damage is moderate or above, with the aim to
restrict damage to the slight category or below.
4.3
Steps for Building Damage Assessment
The building damage assessment methodology is described by Mair, Taylor & Burland
(1996). A three staged building damage assessment can be adopted:
Stage 1: If the predicted settlement is less than 10mm, no further assessment is
required.
Stage 2: The building is assessed based on green field assumption, i.e. the
building is assumed to be flexible and move with the ground.
Stage 3: Detailed evaluation is carried out, taking into account the building
stiffness and foundation.
In the detailed evaluation in Stage 3 or in a structural appraisal of a building, a holistic
approach should be adopted. Where applicable, the negative skin friction on the piles
should be evaluated in the assessment. The framing of the superstructures, layout of
the foundations and tie beams, reinforcement details in the structural members and
connection details should be considered as a whole.
Particular attentions should be paid to buildings on mixed foundations. These
buildings can be particularly sensitive to settlements. A detailed assessment needs to
be carried out for all buildings on mixed foundations.
A detailed assessment should also be carried out where a building is founded on piles,
and where the tip of the piles falls within a zone as defined in Figure 7-1.
39
Ground Level
Zone A
60
60
Tunnel axis
Tunnel
Figure 7-1. Damage assessment for buildings on piles above the crown of a tunnel.
For utilities, allowable limits for settlements and deformations should be established
with the relevant utility agencies. Particular attention should be given to junctions of
pipe lines or joints of cables. The methodology outlined by Bracegirdle et al (1996)
can be followed for assessment.
40
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING
8.1
General
The minimum monitoring required is covered in Chapter 19 of the Design Criteria.

Below are some guidelines to avoid common pitfalls in monitoring strut loads:
8.2
Strain gauges should be mounted at the position not influenced by end effects
and also away from any joints or welds in the prop.
The connections between strut and waling generally will result in non-uniform
stresses generated in the struts close to the ends. The strain gauges should be
installed at the middle of the strut.
For case where bending stresses about the horizontal axis are significant they
should be measured by additional strain gauge at the top and bottom of the
strut (i.e. 4 gauges in total). The axial load can be found by averaging all four
gauges.
The strain gauge temperature should be read and taken together with the strain
gauge reading. This information is important to understand the effects of
temperature changes on the strut load.
The strain gauge readings should be taken immediately after the strut is
installed, when it carries no load and preferably with the strut weight being
supported along the length (i.e. no self-weight bending). This reading will
become the base reading and is essential to repeat the reading for 2 or 3 times.
Readings should be taken after the strut is unloaded on removal as this can
check on the initial base reading and hence establish the actual measured strut
load.
Strain gauges are to be protected by suitable housing as they are very
susceptible to damage.
Excessive strut loads have been monitored in East-West Line Outram Park
station, Hwang et al (1987) and North East Line Dhoby Ghaut station
construction. Both stations were constructed in the Jurong Formation. The
struts load measured in the weathered rocks, which were sufficiently stable to
allow excavation using soldier piles without loss of ground, can be
significantly higher than those measured in the soft squeezing marine clay,
Shirlaw, et al (2000).
Review Levels
The Design Criteria, Chapter 19 specifies three review levels: Trigger, Design and
Allowable. This will be revised to Alert (=Trigger) and Work Suspension (= Design).
The monitoring results should be reviewed and interpreted. The reviewers should not
just look at the absolute readings of the instrument readings. Attentions should be paid
to the rate of movement and the stages of construction. An example of this is
demonstrated in Figure 8-1 and Figure 8-2.
41
30
60
100
0.7 H
H
Final
H
Design
Level
Figure 8-1. Interpretation of wall movement, Scenario 1 (after Wong, 2003).
70
0.3H
100
0.3 H
Final
H
Design
Level
Figure 8-2. Interpretation of wall movement, Scenario 2 (after Wong, 2003).
In scenario 1 (Figure 8-1), even though the excavation at 0.7H has not reached the
design level, yet, but based on the rate of the increase of deflection, the wall movement
would exceed the design level when the excavation reached the formation.
In Scenario 2 (Figure 8-2), even though at 30% of the excavation the movement has
reached 70% of the design level, the rate indicates that at the end of the excavation, the
wall deflection would still be within the design level.
The above example shows that it is important to examine the rate of movements when
interpreting the instrumentation results. This would ensure that any adverse trends and
events are identified in time. For critical structures a daily summary of the monitoring
results is particularly useful. An example of a daily summary for the monitoring of the
Foo Chow Church used during NEL C706 construction is shown in Figure 8-3.
Actions should be taken when pre-set review levels are reached. These actions can be
a review of the original design assumptions and re-design or additional ground
treatment measures. In the review of the original design assumptions and re-design of
the temporary support system, back analysis should be carried out, based on the
monitoring results, to verify the design parameters and design assumptions. This
would improve the accuracy of the predictions for the subsequent excavations, and
then revised review levels can be set.
42
Figure 8-3. Typical daily summary of monitoring results for critical structures.
43
9 PERFORMANCE OF TEMPORARY WORKS

9.1
General
The construction stage involves implementation of design and construction proposals

that are manifested in the form of shop drawings, design calculations and method
statement of works.
In the design of deep excavations the designer starts by analysing the problem with
appropriate methods and soil parameters to obtain a best estimate of the forces in the
retaining wall and strut loading. In the design certain assumptions will be made about
the ground condition, retaining system, strut arrangement and construction sequences.
During construction it needs to be ensured that these assumptions made in the design
are verified. The designers should be informed if the ground conditions and
construction deviate substantially from the design.
9.2
Ground Conditions
Ground is not a man-made material with well-defined characteristics and strength. The
distribution of different stratification, its thickness and the type of deposits depend on
the geological history. In addition, the ground conditions could be modified by
activities such as filling, cutting or excavation activities. Ground conditions can
therefore be very complex. Inevitably some assumptions and generalisation of the soil
profiles will have to be made during design stage. This generalisation of the soil
profiles for design purposes needs to be verified during construction.
Substantial soil information will be obtained after piling or after diaphragm wall
constructions. If the depth or thickness of the soft clay layer is found to be dipping
across the section or drastically different from the design assumption, the designer of
the retaining system should be informed. In such situations the designer should check
whether a re-design needs to be carried out with the additional soil information, in
particular whether the designed toe-in level is adequate if the dipping soft layer may
have resulted in a reduction in toe-in depth, see Figure 9-1. If the design is based on a
embedment depth of D2, then D1 should be checked again to ensure adequate
embedment of the retaining walls. This is important as inadequate toe-in will result in
over-stressing of the struts, excessive bending moment in the retaining wall and kickout of the retaining wall, causing excessive ground movement or the retaining system
to collapse.
9.3
Ground movements due to jet grouting
It is very common to use jet grouting to treat soft ground before excavations. While jet
grouting can increase the strength and stiffness of soft soils, it can also cause large
ground displacements, including deflection of diaphragm walls, see Figure 9-2. At
Race Course Road, localized heave was reported to be in excess of 300mm, Maguire
& Wen (1999). During the early phases of the construction of MRT lines, the
44
maximum measured heave was 1600mm, Shirlaw, et al (2000). As such, it is

important to sequence piling works after the jet grouting. Where possible, grouting
should be carried out in a direction away from areas of sensitive structures.
Fill
Fill
Soft
Clay
Soft
Clay
Retaining
Wall
Dipping of soft
layer
D2
D1
OA
OA
D1, D2 = Embedment depth in hard soil.

Figure 9-1. Adequacy of embedment of walls in dipping soft layers in the ground.
Deflection (mm)
-40.00 -30.00 -20.00 -10.00
0.00
10.00
20.00
97.00
92.00
87.00
Elevation
102.00
Grouting zone
82.00
77.00
72.00
67.00
62.00
Figure 9-2. Lateral diaphragm wall movement due to jet grouting works at Race Course Road.
During the jet-grouting process large volumes of grout, air and water is injected into
the ground. Surplus material produced by the injection of these materials is expelled to
surface via the annulus between the drilling rods and the surrounding marine clay. If
this passage is restricted or blocked the pressure inside the cavity created by the high
pressure jetting will be built up and when the pressure exceeds the cavity expansion
pressure, both lateral and vertical ground movement will be initiated.
45
The hydrodynamic pressure created by the high pressure jetting exists only within a
zone of influence, which is about 300 times that nozzle diameter, Covil & Skinner
(1994). For a nozzle diameter of 2mm, the zone of influence is only 0.6m. Therefore
the jet pressure does not control the pressure within the cavity. It is believed that the
movement of the ground (both lateral and vertical) is not a direct result of the high
pressure jetting adopted in the jet grouting works. The ground movement during jet
grouting works is a result of the pressure built up to expel the sludge to the ground
surface, see Figure 9-3. When the annulus between the grouting tube and the ground is
blocked, pressure can be locked into the ground causing the ground to move both
horizontally and vertically.
Grouting tube
Sludge
flow
h
Water or
air jet
Grout
jet
P = s*h + Pf
s Density of sludge
Pf Pressure required to
expel the sludge to the
surface
Figure 9-3. Pressure required to expel the sludge to surface.
Based on the understanding of the cause of the ground movement during jet grouting,
measures that can be taken to reduce the pressures to expel the sludge to the surface,
thus to reduce the ground movement can be:
Reducing the density of the sludge;

Increasing the size of the annulus by drilling a bigger hole;
Using casings to prevent blockage of the sludge flow.
Jet grouting can be done using single, double and triple tube methods. It should be
noted that the triple tube method generally causes least impact on the surrounding
ground as compared with other two methods. This is consistent with experiences with
the use of triple tube method in Singapore. Shirlaw et al (2003) showed that the
diameter of the casing should be 200mm or larger for it to be effective. Other measures
can be pre-grouting to condition the soft clays and the use of pressure relief holes,
which aim to ensure free flow of the sludge and to reduce the pressure locked into the
ground.
46
9.4
Ground movements due to vibration
The driving of piles, installation of casings will often generate vibration. Vibration can
cause settlements in loose sands. Buildings particularly old masonry structures are
susceptible to vibrations. Vibrations can be reduced or minimised by the use of silent
pilers, casing oscillators which does not cause significant vibration.
Chiselling should be used with extreme caution in the vicinity of sensitive structures as
they can cause collapse of ground, vibration and cracking in adjacent structures.
9.5
Surcharge
Typically temporary retaining walls are designed for a nominal surcharge as a

uniformly distributed load behind the retaining walls. This nominal load is only
adequate for normal construction equipment. For heavier machinery, such as cranes,
and silos, etc, the nominal value is not adequate and should be considered separately.
On drawings designated area should be indicated where design checks have been
carried out to allow for heavy equipment.
9.6
Soldier piles and lagging
Soldier pile with timber lagging can be used where the ground conditions are
favourable and could remain stable without support for a limit period of time while the
lagging is put in place. However, where water table draw down is a concern, this
method should not be used as the wall is not continuous.
For areas where pre-bored holes are used to install the soldier piles, attention should be
paid to how the boreholes are to be filled after the soldier piles have been placed into
the bore. Sandy infills can be washed out easily during clement weather.
How the lagging is installed behind the king posts plays an important part in
minimising ground movement. There could be additional ground movement due to the
voids between the lagging and excavated face. The size of the voids depends on the
workmanship. It can be minimised by packing with concrete or cement mortar.
9.7
Gaps in retaining system due to underground services
Where utilities are not diverted, gaps may exist in the retaining system. Extra care
should be exercised in excavation. Often jet grouting columns are proposed to close
the gaps. In this method the soil within the gap is designed to arch over the gap. It
should be noted that the stiffness of the wall at the gap will be reduced. This will result
in large ground movement behind the wall. Loads at the gap will be transferred to the
adjacent retaining walls which should be checked and strengthened if necessary. The
struts should be checked as well.
It should be highlighted that the JGP columns may not be effective because of the
untreated zone underneath the utilities, see Figure 9-4. The size of this untreated zone
47
depends on the depth and width of the utilities. Where the untreated zone can be
avoided, a single row of JGP would not be adequate as there often exist gaps in the
interlocking of the jet grout columns. A minimum of two rows should be used to
minimise the risk of gaps in the JGP interlocking. Other chemical grouting, such as
cement-silicate may be used to pre-treat the fluvial sands, see Wen et al (2003). It
should be highlighted that the selection of grout should consider the permeability of
the ground and the participle size distribution of the soil to be grouted. Grouting
should be carried out before excavation commences.
Ground level
Underground services
Retaining wall
Untreated zones below the

service
Jet grouted piles to close

the gap in diaphragm wall
Final excavation level
Figure 9-4. Untreated zones due to obstruction of services.
9.8
De-clutching and welding of sheetpile wall
Sheet pile retaining wall should be checked during installation and during excavation
for signs of de-clutching. The sheetpile section modulus can only be achieved when
the individual sheetpiles are interlocked. Any de-clutching will reduce the section
modulus substantially. There should be proper guides and control of verticality so that
the wall does not deviate significantly out of position or de-clutched. If so, the gap
should be sealed by installing a secondary backing row of sheet piles or by stabilising
the gap by grouting.
Often sheetpiles have to be welded the piles are to be installed deeper than 12m. It is a
good engineering practice to stagger the welding connections between adjacent piles to
avoid forming a weak section in the retaining system.
9.9
Misalignment of secant pile walls
Another similar loss of interlocking between the individual elements is the

misalignment in a secant pile retaining wall. Due to excessive vertical deviation of a
pile, a large gap may exist in a secant pile wall at depth. Such gap may result in loss of
ground when exposed during excavation. Sigl et al (2003) reported such a case. When
48
the excavation reached 24m below ground, an unexpected ingress of ground water and
soil into the excavation took place as a results of gaps between the piles due to poor
verticality. The excavation had to be backfilled for 5m to implement a grouted curtain
outside the retaining wall. The cause of the failure was the misalignment of the secant
piles, leaving large gap for soil and water to flow into the excavation. The mechanism
is due to the hydraulic uplift as described in Section 4.2.
9.10
Pre-loading of struts
Pre-loading is a very effective way of reducing ground movement associated with

excavation. LTA Materials and Workmanship Specification requires a minimum preloading of 50% of the design load on the strut at the particular stage of excavation.
Even a nominal amount of pre-load will go a long way in improving the system as the
slack in the load transfer system is taken up. Pre-load are usually applied onto
longitudinal and sometimes on diagonal struts. In applying the pre-load, it is important
to check that the forces in the support system are well balanced. Therefore preloading
should be done systematically and locked off. After excavation, if the pre-load is
found to drop, the loads can be re-applied. However caution should be exercised, when
the load trend indicates increasing loads for some and reduction for others. This may
signify an unbalanced strutting system that is not very desirable and could be
potentially unstable.
9.11
Excavation
Where the excavation is large and there is sensitive structures behind the retaining
wall, excavation work could be done in compartments or area by area to minimize the
exposure time and to install the support as soon as possible to restrict and minimize the
ground movement.
Over-excavation can occur in a number of ways. The commonest way is excavating
exceeding the designed depth prior to the installation of support or strutting. Others
include local excavation of pits for lift pit, sump, pile cap and etc. The design should
cater for over-excavation and the depth should be the maximum depth including the
excavation of sumps and pile caps.
If soil berms are used, it is to be noted that the berm size is very important in limiting
movement of the ground and deflection of the wall, Powrie & Daly, 2002. During
construction, the berm size should be monitored to avoid over-excavation and for
stability of the berm. To ensure full passive resistance, the berm must extend
sufficiently to develop the shear resistance and the slope must not fail. To prevent
deterioration of slope, the slope can be shotcreted.
The excavation particularly the last stage to formation level should be planned and
sequenced to minimise the ground settlement and movements. An effective way to
limit ground deformation in soft ground is to thicken the lean concrete slab at the base
of the excavation to act as temporary support at formation level.
49
Excavation in segments with strut installed within the excavated segment prior to the
next excavation is also useful in controlling the ground movement. Opening-up a long
stretch without installation of struts should be avoided. The length of each segment
will depend on the situations and practicability. 3 to 6m long are commonly adopted.
9.12
Strut removal
Backfill and compaction shall be carried out stage by stage in line with the removal of
struts.
When the construction involve a temporary wall, and if the permanent wall is not cast
against the temporary wall, a gap will exist between the permanent wall and the
temporary wall. In the limited space available it is difficult to achieve good
compaction during strut removal. Even when reasonable compaction has been
achieved there have been several instances on NEL projects where there has been
significant ground movement after the top strut is removed. To limit this movement,
one possible way is to entirely backfill the gap between the temporary wall and
permanent wall with lean mix concrete. Another way is to backfill the 1m below the
soffit of the struts with lean mix concrete. To limit movement, it is also a good practice
to backfill the gap between the temporary wall and the permanent wall over the full
height of the base slab, and also the 1m below the top of the roof slab. A typical
arrangement is shown in Figure 9-5.
9.13
Detailing of Connections
The connection details are important to ensure effective transmission of strut forces,
shear and moments.
Struts are basically designed as compressive members. To ensure no buckling, they
must be restrained laterally and vertically. At the interface area where there is high
point load, the walers must also be stiffened to prevent web buckling. Typical details
of bracing struts to the king-posts and runner beams are shown in Figure 9-6.
Stiffening of walers is shown in Figure 9-7. The dimensions indicated these figures are
indicative only. The use of sand bags or concrete as stifferers to walers should not be
accepted.
As far as possible, horizontal struts should be used instead of raked struts. It is difficult
to pre-load the raked struts and they will also subject the wall to vertical forces. Where
raked struts are used, the connection should be detailed properly for the transmission
of forces at the wall and where the load will be resisted. It is important that the strut at
the support is properly anchored as rotation of the strut may cause interfacing areas to
separate. There are different ways of providing the support, one of which is shown in
Figure 9-8.
50
Strut Level 1
Strut Level 2
Roof Slab
Strut Level 3
Lean concrete
Strut Level 4
Backfill soil
compacted to
specification
Strut Level 5
Base Slab
Temporary wall
Figure 9-5. Backfilling to avoid ground movement typical arrangement
A
20 THREADED
MILD STEEL BAR

WITH M20 NUT &
SPRING WASHER
C
L OF
INTERMEDIATE
PILE
450
600
STRUT
450
600
PLAN
Figure 9-6 (a). Connection between struts and runner beams Plan
51
L-100x100x10
STRUT
20 THREADED
MILD STEEL BAR
WITH M20 NUT &
SPRING WASHER
STRUT
L-100x100x10
75
450
75
600
SECTION A-A
Figure 9-6 (b). Connection between struts and runner beams Section
600
450
L-100x100x10
20 THREADED
MILD STEEL BAR
WITH M20 NUT &
SPRING WASHER
STRUT
STRUT
L-100x100x10
SECTION B-B
Figure 9-6 (c). Connection between struts and runner beams Section
52
Stiffener
Waler
Strut
D/Wall
Waler
Stiffener
G30 Concrete
Packing
G8-8 Bolts
6
70
Brackets
650
Anchor
Bolt
(b) Plan.
(a) Elevation.
Figure 9-7. Stiffeners for waler at strut / waler connection
Inclined Kicker or
Spur brace
Plate if necessary
45
Weld C
Prop
Waling
Weld A
Stiffeners top
and bottom at
prop
Weld A = Weld B & C

= vertical component of
prop load
Horizontal wood
sheeting (lagging)
Figure 9-8. Typical details for raked struts.
53
Soldier
beam
Strut
It is considered a good engineering practice to use packing between retaining walls

and the walers to ensure an even distribution of loading from the retaining wall to the
walers, see Figure 9-9.
For diagonal struts at corners it is essential to ensure that the walers are supported at
the end, for example by end blocks to prevent slip of the walers against the retaining
walls, see Figure 9-10. Every strut must have a clear load path and point of resistance.
In the example shown in Figure 9-8, not only must the waler be supported by the end
block, but the end block itself must be connected to the wall and the wall must find
sufficient resistance from the soil. Each component in the load path must have
sufficient strength to transfer the load.
Figure 9-11 shows a typical end block details anchored to a diaphragm wall. In the
detail, the strut is installed directly against the end block.
Retaining wall
Soil
200 Typ.
G30 concrete fill
Shear
connection
Waler
Strut
Strut
Figure 9-9. Concrete packing between waler and retaining wall.
Retaining
walls
Walers
Diagonal
struts
End block to prevent

slip of waler against
the retaining wall
Figure 9-10. Diagonal struts and walers at corners.

54
630
T20
45o
T13
20
Diagonal
strut
100
20
20
100
End plate
PLAN
Figure 9-11a. Typical details of end block anchored to diaphragm walls - Plan
141
278.5
278.5
278.5
278.5
15
30
15
600
15
15
SECTION A - A
Figure 9-11b. Typical details of end block anchored to diaphragm walls - Section
55
100
200
200
200
T20
60
15
30
48
15
T13
200
500
SECTION B - B
Figure 9-11c. Typical details of end block anchored to diaphragm walls - Section
56
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HANDBOOK FOR REVIEW OF DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPORARY WORKS

The handbook is prepared by a working committee comprised:

Assistant Manager, Civil Design Department

HANDBOOK FOR REVIEW OF DESIGN AND

Scope of the handbook

DESIGN SOIL PARAMETERS

Overview of analytical methods

Note on Using Effective Stress Approach for Undrained Analysis

Prediction of ground movements

INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING

PERFORMANCE OF TEMPORARY WORKS

Purpose of the Handbook

Sheet pile wall

Passive Anchorage Failure

(a) Rod failure, anchor failure, bending /pullout

(b) Rotational instability

Figure 1-1. Typpical Failure mechanisms that should be considered in design

DESIGN SOIL PARAMETERS

Undrained Cohesion, Cu (kPa)

Depth below ground level (m)

Figure 3.1. Undrained cohesion for Estuarine clay (E)

Depth below ground level (m)

Figure 3.2. Undrained cohesion for fluvial clay (F2)

Depth below ground level (m)

Figure 3.3. Undrained cohesion for marine clay (M)

Geotechnical Design Parameters for Phase I/II MRT Projects

Table 3.2. Continued

Coefficient of earth pressure at rest, ko

Table 3.2. Continued

cc = 0.54 (eo 0.15), where eo is initial void

Coefficient of 2nd compression, c

Remoulded shear strength

Table 3.2. Continued

Depth* 0 5m: 35 kPa

Table 3.3 Published design parameters for Marine Clay

Table 3.4 Published design parameters for fluvial sand (F1)

Table 3.5 Published design parameters for fluvial clay (F2)

Old Alluvium (OA)

Effective apparent cohesion (kPa)

Effective friction angle (degrees)

Table 3.7 Published design parameters for Jurong Formation

Bukit Timah Granite Formation

Poh et al. (1985)

KarWinn et al. (2001)

Figure 4-1. Base heave checking

Figure 4-3. Checking for hydraulic uplift.

PA = TOTAL RESULTANT ACTIVE PRESSURE

Figure 4-4. Checking for adequacy of toe-in depth.

For < or = 20o, FOS = 1.2

Slope Stability for Open Excavation

Overview of Analytical Methods

beam on elastic foundation

This method assumes a retaining wall as an elastic beam founded on an elastic

There is an inherent difficulty in determining the appropriate spring stiffness

Two Dimensional Finite Element Method

Drained Analysis vs. Undrained Analysis

% Consolidation at end of excavation

Rate of excavation (m/day)

Total Stress Approach vs. Effective Stress Approach