CHAPTER

Magnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated

Voltage, and Energy I Conversion
1-1 Introduction
This chapter starts with a brief review of electromagnetism and
magnetic circuits, which are normally included in a basic circuits or
physics course, Tins review is followed by a discussion of the
development of the mechanical forces that are caused by the interaction
of magnetic fields and that form the basis for all motor action. Faraday's
law provides the basis from which all magnetically induced voltages are
derived. The relationship between applied torque and counter torque isdeveloped and visualized through the application of Lenz's law and the
"flux bunching" rule.

1-2 Magnetic Field

A magnetic field is a condition resulting from electric charges in
motion. The magnetic field of a permanent magnet is attributed to the
uncompensated spinning of electrons about their own axis within the
atomic structure of the material and to the parallel alignment of these
electrons with similar uncompensated electron spins in the adjacent
atoms. Groups of adjacent atoms with parallel magnetic spins are called
domains. The magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor is
caused by the movement of electric charges in the form of an electric
current.
For convenience in visualization and analysis, magnetic fields are
represented on diagrams by closed loops. These loops, called magnetic

flux lines, have been assigned a specific direction that is related to the
polarity of a magnet, or the direction of current in a coil or a conductor.
The direction r)f the magnetic field around a current may be determined
by the right-hand rule: Grasp the conductor with the right hand, with the
thumb pointing in the direction of conventional current, and the fingers
will curl in the direction of the magnetic field. This can be visualized in
Figure l-1(a).

FIGURE 1-1 Direction of magnetic flux: (a) around a current-carrying

conductor; (b) in a coil: (c) about a magnet.

In a similar manner, to determine the direction of the magnetic

field generated by a current through a coil of wire, grasp the coil with the
right hand, with the Singers curled in the direction of the current, and the
thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field. This can be
visualized in Figure l-l(b).
The direction of the magnetic field supplied by a magnet is out
from the north pole and into the south pole, but is south-to-north within
the magnet, as shown in Figure 1-1 (c).

1-3 Magnetic Circuit Defined

Each magnetic circuit shown in Figure 1-2 is an arrangement of
ferromagnetic materials called a core that forms a path to contain and
guide the magnetic flux in a specific direction. The core shape shown in
Figure l-2(a) is used in transformers. Figure l-2(b) shows the magnetic
circuit of a simple two-pole motor; it includes a

FIGURE 1-2 Magnetic circuit: (a) for a transformer;

(b) for a simple two-pole motor.

stator core, a rotor core, and two air gaps. Note that the flux always takes
the shortest path across an air gap.

Magnetomotive Force
The ampere-turns (A-t) of the respective coils in Figure 1-2
represent the driving force, called magnetomotive force or mmf, that
causes a magnetic field to appear in the corresponding magnetic circuits.
Expressed in equation form,

= N-l

(1-1)

where:
= magnetomotive force (mmf) in ampere-turns (A-t)
N = number of turns in coil
I = current in coil (A)
Magnetic Field Intensity
Magnetic field intensity, also called mmf gradient, is defined as the
magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic circuit or section of
magnetic circuit, and is numerically equal to the ampere-turns applied to
the magnetic circuit (section) divided by the effective length of the
magnetic circuit (section). That is,
(1-2)
where:
H = magnetic field intensity (A-t/m)

= mean length of the magnetic circuit, or section (m)

= mmf (A-t)
It should be noted that in a homogeneous magnetic circuit of cross

section, the field intensity is the same at all points in the magnetic circuit.
composite magnetic circuits, consisting of sections of different materials

and/or] different cross-sectional areas, however, the magnetic field

intensity differs from1 section to section.
Magnetic field intensity has many useful application in magnetic
circuit calculations. One specific application is calculating the magneticpotential difference, also called magnetic drop or mmf drop, across a
section of a magnetic circuit. The magnetic drop in ampere-tarns per
meter of magnetic core length in a magnetic circuit is analogous to the
voltage drop in volts per meter of conductor length in an electric circuit.
Flux Density
The flux density is a measure of the concentration of lines of flux
in a particular; section of a magnetic circuit. Expressed mathematically.

= flux, webers (Wb)

A = cross-sectional area (m2)
B = flux density ( Wb/m2), or teslas (T)

1-4 Reluctance And The Magnetic Circuit Equation

A very useful equation that expresses the relationship between
magnetic flux, t mmf. and the reiu; of the magnetic circuit is

where:
= magnetic flux (Wb)
=magnetomotive force (A-t)
= reluctance of magnetic circuit (A-t/Wb)
Reluctance is a measure of the opposition the magnetic circuit
offers to the flux, and is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit. The
reluctance of a magnetic circuit, or section of a magnetic circuit, is related
to its length, cross-sectional area, and permeability. Solving Eq. (1-4) for
dividing numerator and denominator by and rearranging terms,

Defining

Where
B = flux density (V/b/m2) or teslas (T)
H = magnetic field intensity (A-t/m)

= mean length of magnetic circuit (m)

A = cross-sectional area (m2)

= permeability of material (Wb/A-t-m)
Equation (1-6) applies to a homogeneous section of a magnetic circuit of
uniform cross section.
Magnetic Permeability
The ratio = B/H is called magnetic permeability, and has
different values for different degrees of magnetization of a specific
magnetic core material.
7

1-5 Relative Permeability And Magnetization Curves

Relative permeability is the ratio of the permeability of a material
to the permeability of free space; it is, in effect, a figure of merit that is
very useful for comparing the magnetizability of different magnetic
materials whose relative permeabilities are known. Expressed in equation
form

where:
0 = permeability of free space = 410-7 (Wb/A-t-m)
r = relative permeability, a dimensionless constant
= permeability of material (Wb/A-t-m)
Representative graphs of Eq. (1-5) for some commonly used
ferromagnetic materials are shown in Figure 1-3. The graphs, called B-H
curves, magnetization curves, or saturation curves, are very useful in
design, and in the analysis of machine and transformer behavior.
The four principal sections of a typical magnetization curve are
illustrated in Figure 1-4. The curve is concave up for "low" values of
magnetic field intensity, exhibits a somewhat (but not always) linear
characteristic for "medium" field intensities, and then is concave down
for "high" field intensities, eventually flattening to an almost horizontal
line for "very high" intensities. The part of the curve that is concave down
is known as the knee of the curve, and the "flattened" section is the
saturation region. Magnetic saturation is complete when all of the
magnetic domains of the material are oriented in the direction of the
applied

FIGURE 1-3 Representative B-H curves for some commonly

used ferromagnetic materials.

magnetomotive force. Saturation begins at the start of the knee region and
is essentially complete when the curve starts to flatten.
Depending on the specific application, the magnetic core of an
apparatus may be operated in the linear region, the knee region, and/or
the saturation region. For example, transformers and AC machines are
operated in the linear region and lower end of the knee; self-excited DC
generators and DC motors are operated in the upper end of the knee
region, extending into the saturation region; separately excited DC
generators are operated in the linear and tower end of the knee region.
Magnetization curves supplied by manufacturers for specific
electrical steel sheets or castings are usually plotted on semilog paper,
and often include a curve of relative permeability vs. field intensity, as
shown in Figure 1-5.'

The relationship between the relative permeability and the

reluctance of a magnetic core is obtained by solving Eq. (1-7) for , and
then substituting into Eq. (1-6). The result is

Magnetic Field Intensity (H, A-t/m)

FIGURE 1-4 Exaggerated magnetization curve illustrating

the four principal sections.

Equation (1-8) indicates that the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is

affected by the relative permeability of the material, which, as shown in
Figure 1-5, is dependent on the magnetization, and hence is not constant.

10

1-6 Analogies Between Electric And Magnetic Circuits

The relationship between mmf, flux, and reluctance in a magnetic
circuit is an analog of the relationship between emf, current, and
resistance, respectively, in an electric circuit.

Where
Corresponds to I
Corresponds to E
Corresponds to R
Continuing the analogy, the equivalent reluctance of n reluctances
in series is
ser = 1 + 2 + 3 + ..+ n
The equivalent reluctance of n reluctances in parallel is
1
1
1
1
1

...........
par 1 2 3
n

Or

An equivalent magnetic circuit that shows the analogous

relationship to an electric circuit is often used to solve magnetic circuit
problems that may otherwise be more difficult to visualize. For example,
the components of the series-parallel circuit shown in Figure l-7(a) are
represented as lumped reluctances in the equivalent magnetic circuit
shown in Figure l-7(b). Using the methods developed for electric circuits,
the total reluctance of the series-parallel magnetic circuit is

11

1-7 Magnetic Hysteresis And Hysteresis Loss

If an alternating magnetomotive force is applied to a magnetic
material, as shown in Figure l-8(a), and the flux density B plotted against
the magnetic field intensity H, the resultant curve will indicate a lack of
retraceability. This phenomenon, shown in Figure l-8(b), is called
hysteresis, and the resultant curve-is called an hysteresis loop.
Starting with an unmagnetized ferromagnetic core, point O on the
curve, H = 0 and B = 0. Increasing the coil current in the positive
direction increases the ampere-turns, and hence the magnetic field
intensity.

When the current reaches its maximum value, the flux density and
magnetic field 1 intensity have their respective maximum values, and the
curve is at point a; this initial trace of the curve, drawn with a broken line,
is called the virgin section of the curve. As the current decreases, the
curve follows a different path, and when

12

FIGURE 1-8 (a) Magnetic circuit with an alternating mmf:

(b) representative hysteresis loop.

the current is reduced to zero. H is reduced to zero, but the flux density in
the core lags behind, holding at point b on the curve. The flux density at
point b is the residual magnetism. This lagging of flux behind the
magnetizing force is the hysteresis effect.
As the alternating current and associated magnetic field intensity
increase in the negative direction, the residual magnetism decreases but
remains positive until point c is reached, at which time the flux density in
the core is zero. The negative field intensity required to force the residual
magnetism to zero is called the coercive force, and is represented by line

13

Oc on the W-axis. As the current continues its alternations, the plot of B

vs. H follows points c-d-e-a-b-c on the hysteresis loop.
Magnetic hysteresis affects the rate of response of magnetic flux to
a magnetizing force. In electrical apparatus such as transformers, in
which the desired characteristic necessitates a quick and proportional
response of flux to a change in mmf, with little residual magnetism, a
high-grade silicon steel is used. Machines such as self-excited generators
require steel that retains sufficient residual magnetism to permit the
buildup of voltage. Stepper motors and some DC motors require
permanent magnets with a very high magnetic retentivity (high
hysteresis). Thus, the choice of magnetic materials is dictated by the
application.
Magnetic Hysteresis Loss
If an alternating voltage is connected to the magnetizing coil, as
shown in Figure l-8(a). the alternating magnetomotive force causes the
magnetic domains to be constantly reoriented along the magnetizing axis.
This molecular motion produces heat, and the harder the steal the greater
the heat. The power loss due to hysteresis for a given type and volume of
core material varies directly with the frequency and the nth power of the
maximum value of the flux density wave.2 Expressed mathematically,
Ph = Kh . .

B nmax

where:
Ph = hysteresis loss (W/unit mass of core)
= frequency of flux wave (Hz)
B nmax

= maximum value of flux density wave (T)

kh = constant

14

The constant Kh is dependent on the magnetic characteristics of the

material, its density, and the units used. The area enclosed by the
hysteresis loop is equal to the hysteresis energy in joules/cycle/cubicmeter of material.

1-8 Interaction Of Magnetic Fields (Motor Action)

When two or more sources of magnetic fields are arranged so that
their fluxes, or a component of their fluxes, are parallel within a common
region, a mechanical force will be produced that tends to either force the
sources of flux together or to force them apart. A force of repulsion will
occur if the two magnetic sources have components of flux that are
parallel and in the same direction; this will be indicated by a net increase
in flux called "flux bunching" in the common region. A force of attraction
will occur if the respective fluxes have components that are parallel and
in opposite directions; this will be indicated by a net subtraction of flux in
the common region.
Forces on Adjacent Conductors
The interaction of magnetic fields of adjacent current-carrying
conductors produces mechanical forces that tend to bring together or
separate the two conductors. If the currents in-adjacent conductors are in
opposite directions, as shown in Figure l-9(a), the respective components
of flux in the common region will be in the same direction, and as
indicated by flux bunching, a separating force will be produced on the
conductors. If the currents in adjacent conductors are in the same
direction, as shown in Figure l-9(b), the respective components of flux in
the common region will be in opposite directions, and the net reduction in
flux indicates a force of attraction.

15

Under severe short-circuit conditions, the forces between adjacent

conductors can be high enough to physically crush the insulation of
transformers, motors, and generators, bend bus bars, tear switchboards
apart, and cause switches and circuit breakers to come apart with
explosive violence. Thus, in those applications where the available shortcircuit current is of a magnitude that would cause destruction of apparatus
if a fault occurred, special current-limiting devices, as well as mechanical
bracing and conductor support must be installed [1], [2].

FIGURE 1-9 Interaction of magnetic fields of adjacent current-carrying

conductors: (a) currents in opposite direction; (b) currents in same direction.

1-9

Elementary Two-Pole Motor

Figure 1-10 shows a rotor core, containing two insulated

conductors in rotor slots, and the rotor centered between the poles of a
stationary magnet (called the stator). The + mark on the end of conductor
16

A is the tail end of an arrow that represents the direction of current in

conductor A. The dot in the center of conductor B is the point of an arrow
indicating the direction of current in conductor B. The direction of flux
around each conductor is determined by the right hand rule.

FIGURE 1-10 Motor action.

The broken lines show the paths of component fluxes, assuming

the rotor and stator were energized at different times. The dotted line
indicates the direction and path of the resultant flux with both rotor and
stator energized at the same time. Note that the net flux on top of
conductor A, due to the magnet and due to the current in the conductor, is
additive (bunching), indicating a downward mechanical force F, as shown
in Figure ) -10. A similar action occurs at the bottom of conductor B,
causing an upward mechanical force. The net result is a counterclockwise
(CCW) -turning moment or torque, called motor action.

17

1-10 Magnitude Of The Mechanical Force Exerted On A

Current-Carrying Conductor Situated In A Magnetic Field
(Bli Rule)
The magnitude of the mechanical force exerted on a straight
conductor that is carrying an electric current and situated within and
perpendicular to a magnetic field, as shown in Figure 1-1 l(a), is
expressed by
F=B.

eff .I

where:
F = mechanical force (N)
B = flux density of stator field (T)
I = current in conductor (A)
eff

= effective length of conductor (m)

FIGURE 1-11 (a) Conductor carrying current, situated within and perpendicular
to the B-field of a permanent magnet; (b) conductor skewed

The effective length of a conductor is that component of its length

that is immersed in and normal to the magnetic field. Thus, if the

18

conductor is not perpendicular to the magnetic field as shown in Figure 11 l(b), the effective length of the conductor is
eff .I

sin

Angle /3 is called the skewing angle, which may range from 0 to

30 degrees in electrical machines.
Developed Torque
Figure 1- 12(a) shows a rotor coil made up of a single loop,
situated in a two-pole stator field of uniform flux density. The effective
length of each conductor (coil side) does not include the end-connections.
The end-connections, also called end-turns, are used to connect the
conductors in series, but because they are not immersed in the field, they
do not develop torque. The distance d between the center of the shaft and
the center of a conductor is the moment-arm.
The direction of developed torque may be determined from an end
view of the conductors and magnet poles, as seen from the battery end in
Figure l-12(b). The direction of flux due to the known direction of current
was determined by the right-hand rule, and the direction of the
mechanical force on each conductor, due to the interaction of the
magnetic fields was determined by the flux bunching effect. The resultant
torque, produced by the two-conductor couple, is CCW and has a
magnitude equal to
TD = 2 . F . d

N-m

Substituting Eq. (1-12) into Eq. (1-13),

TD = 2 B

eff

. I . d N-m

19

1-11 Electromagnetically Induced Voltages (Generator

Action)
The magnitude of the voltage induced in a coil by electromagnetic
induction is directly proportional to the number of series-connected turns
in the coil, and to the rate of change of flux through its window. This
relationship, known as Faraday's law, is expressed mathematically as
eN

d
dt

where:
e = induced voltage (electromotive force, emf) (V)
N = number of series-connected turns
d/ dt = rate of change of flux through window (Wb/s)

The basic Faraday relationship expressed in Eq. (1-15) is often converted

by mathematical manipulation to other forms for solution of specific
groups of problems.
Electroniagnetically induced voltages are generated by relative
motion or transformer action. Voltages generated by transformer action
are due to llux varying with time through the window of a stationary coil.
Voltages generated by relative motion involve a moving coil and a
stationary magnet, or a moving magnet and a stationary coil. Voltages
caused by relative motion are called speed voltages or "flux cutting"
voltages.
In accordance with Lenz's law, the voltage, current, and associated
flux, generated by transformer action, or relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field, will always be induced in a direction to
oppose the action that caused it.3 In a transformer, the flux due to current
20

generated in a transformer coil will be in a direction to oppose the change

in flux that caused it.
In the case of a conductor driven by an applied force, the flux due
to current generated in the conductor will set up a counlerfbrce in
opposition to the applied force. In a rotating machine, the flux due to
generated current in the conductors will set up a countertorque (motor
action) in opposition to the driving torque of the prime mover. In fact, as
will be shown in subsequent chapters, all generators may be operated as
motors and all motors may be operated, as generators.
Speed Voltages and the BLV Rule
A closed loop consisting of two conductors X and Y, and a set of
conducting rails, is situated within a uniform magnetic field, as shown in
Figure l-13(a); conductor Y is clamped and conductor X is moving to the
right at velocity -meters per second. The window in Figure l-13(a) is the
area enclosed by conductor X, conductor Y, and the-conducting rails. As
conductor X moves to the right, the window area increases, causing the
flux through the window to increase with time, inducing a voltage in the
loop.

21

FIGURE 1-13 Closed loop consisting of two conductors and a set of conducting
rails; (b) direction of emf and current caused by conductor moving to the right;
(c) equivalent circuit, both conductors moving in the same direction; (d)
equivalent circuit, conductors moving in opposite directions.

22

Expressing the flux in terms of the flux density and the area of the
window,
= B.A
Taking the derivative with respect to time,

Substituting into Eq. (1-15)

From Figure l-13(a), the increment increase in window area, as conductor

X moves to the right, may be expressed in terms of length and an
increment increase in distance (ds) along the rails. That is,
dA = ds
Substituting into Eq. (1-16), and noting that N = 1 for a single loop,
e B..

ds
dt

Since ds/dt represents the velocity of the conductor, Eq. (l-18) may be
rewritten as
e = B .
where:
e = induced voltage (V)
B = flax density of field (T)

= effective length of conductor (m)

= velocity of conductor (m/s)

Note: For the loop formed by the rod and rails in Figure l-13(a),
conductor X is the only moving conductor.

23

Since the emf was generated by an applied force driving conductor

X to the right, the induced voltage and associated current will be in a
direction to develop a counterforce. For this to happen, flux bunching
must occur on the right side of conductor X, as shown in Figure 1-13(b).
This establishes the direction of conductor flux, and the right-hand rule
may then be used to determine the direction of the associated current, and
hence the direction of the induced emf Thus, the direction of induced emf
within the conductor is away from the reader, as shown in Figure l-13(b).
causing terminal A" to be positive with respect to terminal X.
Equation (1-19) defines a speed-voltage generated by a conductor
of length cutting flux lines while moving at velocity through (and
normal to) a magnetic field of density B, and is called the B v rule.
The equivalence of the Bfv rule, and the dfyldt through the window
method, for determining the generation of an emf, is further demonstrated
in the following two examples.
1. If both conductor X and conductor Y in Figure 1-13(a) are moved to
the right by an applied force and at the same speed, they would each cut
the same number of flux lines, at the same speed and in the same
direction, and thus generate the same voltage. The respective voltage
directions within the conductors would be Y' to Y and X' to X. As a result,
the net voltage around the loop (and thus the current in the loop) would
be zero. The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure l-13(c),
resistor R is the equivalent total resistance of conductors and rails.

24

Analyzing the same conditions, on the basis of d/dt through the

window, indicates that with both coil sides moving at the same speed and
in the same direction, d/dt through the window will zero, resulting in
zero voltage generated in the loop.
2. If conductor Y is moved to the left while conductor X is moved to the
right, both at the same speed, they would each cut the same number <
flux lines, at the same speed, but in opposite directions. Thus, the voitage
within conductor Y would be from Y to Y', while the voltage within
conductor X would be from X' to X. The net voltage in the lo formed by
the conductors and the rails would be doubled. This is the case for almost
all rotating machines that use coils;4 the two coil sides! always move in
opposite directions with respect to the flux from the] field poles. The
corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 1-13(d).
Analyzing the same conditions on the basis of d/dt through the
window indicates that with the coil sides moving in opposite directions,
the d/dt through the window will double, generating twice the voltage
that would otherwise occur if only one coil side moved.
Thus, in the case of rotating machines, it is not necessary to look
for a rate of change of flux through a window in order to determine
whether or not a voltage is generated. If a conductor "cuts flux," a voltage
is generated

1-12 Elementary TWO POLE GENERATOR

Figure l-14(a) shows a closed coil situated within a magnetic field
and driven in a clockwise direction by the prime mover. To satisfy Lenz's
law, the induced voltage, current, and associated flux must be in a

25

direction that will develop a counter-torque to oppose the driving torque

of the prime mover. For this to happen, flux bunching must occur on the
top of coil side B and the bottom of coil side A, as shown in Figure l14(b). With the direction of conductor flux known, the direction of the
respective emfs may be determined by applying the right-hand rule; the
emf and current is toward the reader in A, and away from the reader in B.
Thus, as viewed from the south pole in Figure l-14(a) the current in the
coil is in a CCW direction.

FIGURE 1-14 (a) Closed coil rotating CW within a magnetic field; (b) direction
of emf and current for the instant shown in (a).

26

Sinusoidal Emfs
Referring to the elementary generator in Figure l-14(a), if the coil
rotates at a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field, the
variation of flux through the coil window will be sinusoidal.
= maxsin(t)

where:
t = instantaneous angle that the plane of the coil makes
with the flux lines (rad)
max = maximum flux through coil window (Wb)
Referring to Figure l-14(a), the maximum flux through the coil
window occurs when the window of the coil is parallel to the pole face.
The rate-of-change of flux through the window as the coil rotates
within the magnetic field is
d
max cos(t )
dt

Substituting Eq. (1-21) into Eq. (1-15),

eN

d
N.max cos(t )
dt

The maximum value of the voltage wave in Eq. (1-22) is

Dividing both sides by

Erms = 4.44N max

where:

27

 = frequency of the sinusoidal flux through the window, and

hence the frequency of the generated emf (Hz)
N = number of series-connected turns in coil
Note: Equation (1-25) may also be expressed in terms of rotational or
angular velocity:
Erms = n . max . Kn
Or
Erms = . max . K
Where
= angular velocity (rad/s)
n = rotational speed in r/s or r/min
Erms= constants5
Frequencies currently used in electrical power applications are 25
Hz, 50 Hz, 60 Hz, and 400 Hz. The 60-Hz system is used primarily in
North America; the 50-Hz system is used throughout Europe and most
other countries; the 400-Hz system is (he preferred system for ai craft and
spaced aft because of its light weight; and the 25-Hz system i.s obsolete,
but is still used in some large but older power applications (e.g., older
steel and paper mills).

1-13 Energy Conversion In Rotating Electrical Machines

All rotating electrical machines may be operated as either motors
or as generators. If mechanical energy is supplied to the shaft, the
machine converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. If electrical
energy is applied to the machine windings, the machine converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy Regardless of the direction of
28

energy flow, however, ail electrical machines (when operating) generate

voltage and develop torque at the same time. If operating as a motor, it
develops torque and a counter-emf; if operating as a generator, it develops
an emf; and if supplying a load, it develops a countertorque.

1-1 4 Eddy Currents And Eddy-Current Losses

Eddy currents are circulating currents produced by transformer
action in the iron cores of electrical apparatus. Figure 1-15(a) shows a
block of iron that may be viewed as an infinite number of concentric
shells or loops. The eddy voltages generated in these shells by a changing
magnetic field are proportional to the rate of change of flux through the
window of the respective shells. Thus,
e

d
dt

Expressed in terms of frequency and flux density, as00 obtained from Eq.
(1-25),
Ee . Bmax

Slicing the core into man)' laminations and insulating one from the
other will reduce the magnitude of the eddy currents by providing smaller
paths, and hence lower eddy voltages. 'This is shown in Figure l-15(b).
Laminated cores are made by stacking insulated steel stampings to the
desired thickness or depth. Each lamination is insulated by a coating of
insulating varnish or oxide on one or

29

Figure 1-15 currents in solid iron core; (b) laminated core.

both sides. Laminating the core results in much smaller shells,

significantly reducing the heat losses in the iron.
The eddy-current loss, expended as heat power in the resistance of
each shell, is proportional to the square of the eddy voyage.
Substituting Eq. (1-27) into Eq. (1-28), and applying a
proportionalitj factor results in

where:
Pe = eddy-current loss (W/unit mass)
= frequency of flux wave (Hz)
Bmax = maximum value of flux density wave (T)
Ke = constant
The constant ke is dependent on the lamination thickness, electrical
resistivity, density and mass of the core material, and the units used.

30

1-15 Multipolar Machines, Frequency, And Electrical

Degrees
The magnetic circuit for an elementary four-pole generator is
shown in Figure l-16(a). The four poles of the stator core are alternately
north and south, and an armature coil wound on the rotor core spans onequarter of the rotor circumference. The stator is marked off in space
degrees, also called mechanical degrees. If the rotor coil is positioned at
the 0 reference, as shown in Figure l-16(a), maximum flux from the
north pole will enter the outside face of the coil window. At the 45
position, shown in Figure l-16(b), the net flux passing through the
window is zero; the number of lines entering the window is equal to the
number of lines leaving the same side of the window. At 90, the flux
through the window reaches its maximum value in the opposite direction,
etc.
A plot of the variation of flux through the coil window for one
revolution of the rotor is shown in Figure 1-16(c) the variation of flux is
assumed to be essentially sinusoidal.

31

Figure 1-16 Four pols generator: (a) flux through coil window is at maximum
value; (b) net flux through coil window is zero; (c) variation of flux through coil
window as rotor turns in CCW direction.

Note that for a four-pole machine, such as that shown in Figure 1-16,
one! revolution of the rotor causes two complete cycles of flux to pass
through the coil] window, one cycle per pair of poles. Similarly, a sixpole machine would produce] three cycles per revolution, etc. Expressed
as an equation,
=

Pn
2

32

where:
= frequency in Hz
P = number of poles
N = rotational speed (r/s)
Note also that, for a four-pole machine 720 of the periodic wave
corresponds to 360 of angular displacement of the rotor. Hence, to
differentiate between the degrees of an electrical quantity and the degrees
of space displacement, the former are known as electrical degrees or time
degrees, and the latter as space degrees. This distinction is also used in
radian measure, namely electrical radians' and space radians.
As indicated in Figure 1-16(c), the relationship between electrical
degrees and space degrees is
Elec. deg . space deg.

P
2

where:
P = the number of poles
Unless otherwise specified, angular measurement used in electrical
transactions in j this text, and in other electrical texts, are expressed in
electrical degrees or] electrical radians. Adjacent poles are always 180
electrical degrees ( electrical radians) apart.

33