TOW

TECHNIQUES

MARINE

PIPELINE

FOR
INSTAL-

LATION
ir. M.L,

FERNANDEZ

DELFT
nr: 1 3 7 9 0 2 0 2

TOW TECHNIQUES FOR MARINE PIPELINE

INSTALLATION

Prepared for ETCE, Energy Technology Conference & Exhibition,

Contribution by the Petroleum Division of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, Houston, January 1981.

By: M . L .

FERNANDEZ

Department of C i v i l

Engineering

DELFT UNIVERSITY OF T E C H N O L O G Y

TOW TECHNIQUES FOR MARINE PIPELINE INSTALLATION

Mario L. Fernandez *

ABSTRACT
Tow techniques for marine pipelines frequently offer competitive and commercially
attactive solutions over other installation methods and, on occasion, may represent
the only alternative to traditional techniques. An assessment is also made of where
each tow method is applicable and technically feasible.

INTRODUCTION
Tow methods for marine pipeline installation are technically feasible and
economically competitive with other installation procedures, and in some circumstances may represent the only alternative to conventional techniques. The four tow
methods discussed in this paper each require the support of tow vessels such as seagoing tugs, as shown in Figure 1. The methods may be listed as follows:
Bottom tow
Off-bottom tow
Surface tow
Constant tow depth (CTD) or sub-surface tow
Regardless of which of these methods is employed, their main feature or restriction
is the limited length of pipe that can be towed. However, the increasing use of
subsea completions, the continuing development of deepwater fields, and the
growing utilization of early production systems - all of which require the
installation of relatively short-length marine pipelines - are effective in promoting
the adoption of tow techniques. For towing and maneuvering operations, the tow
forces are constrained by the performance capabilities of existing equipment.
Typically, tow vessels are limited to less than 2000 kN (220 Tons) ballard pull,

Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.

- 2 -

and tow. speeds to between 2 and 6 knots (1 to 3 m/s). Where winch barges or
onshore pull winches are employed, then pull speeds are further restricted, but pull
forces can be increased up to 8000 k N (880 Tons.) at pull speeds of 5 to 15 m / m l n .

The prime features and advantages of tow techniques are:

- Manipulation of pipelines during towing is relatively easy and safe regardless of
water depths or pipe characteristics. Excessive bending or damage during
installation can be avoided, and pipeline stresses can be maintained at l o w ,
safe levels throughout t o w i n g .
- Considerable reductions in pipeline installation time can be achieved in contrast
to conventional lay barge methods. Tow vessels by comparison, are fast and their
relatively small size assists in giving them outstanding maneuverability.
-

Large diameter and heavy pipe can be installed, as can bundled or otherwise
d i f f i c u l t pipe configurations. These designs would be slow or impossible to
install by lay barge.

If first or second end ( i . e . leading and trailing end) connections are feasible,
preferably using mechanical connectors, then significant reductions in construction
time and cost can be achieved relative to traditional t i e - i n methods. These
connection methods do not require spool pieces or sophisticated procedures, nor
do

they involve large t i e - i n spreads. Apart from the pipelines, tow vessel and

standard support and survey systems, l i t t l e additional surface based equipment is

needed. The pipeline length must, however, be properly designed.

Representative cases for the installation of marine pipelines where employment of

tow techniques is recommended, or may be mandatory, can be summarized as
follov/s:
- Shore approaches, near shore, in shallow or very shallow water where
installation by lay barge is not possible.
-

For complex pipe bundles or very large diameter lines, i . e .

over 1500 mm

(60 inches) which are d i f f i c u l t to handle by lay barge [ 1 , 2 ] .

 3 -

- Where d i f f i c u l t or dangerous maneuvering by lay barge is required, especially as

regards anchor handling, for example in areas of rocky seabed, near platforms
and in other locations heavily populated v/ith pipelines [ 3 ] .
-

In very deep waters where existing lay barges may be incapacitated by

limitations in tensioner gear, stinger geometry or barge positioning [ 4 , 5 ] .

In arctic areas w i t h heavy ice cover [ 4 , 6 ] .

- Where, because of high sea states or other excessive environmental conditions,

only a short or indeterminate installation season is a v a i l a b l e .

A systematic approach, as described below, is recommended when assessing the

application of tow techniques to pipeline installation. This is followed by a
discussion of each of the tow methods in terms of their prime features, their
advantages and disadvantages, and the considerations entailed in pipeline design
and construction. Certain of the views expressed in this paper are based on the
author's personal involvement and experience with various pipeline tow projects
during their design and/or construction phases.

METHODOLOGY
For a marine pipeline system, the main objective is to be able to install and
operate the line w i t h the minimum of risk. Pipeline installation by one of the tow
methods requires a different sequence of design and construction phases than conventional installation. The basic phases which must be individually checked to
ensure successful performance comprise f a b r i c a t i o n , tow, connection, and operating
conditions.
- Phase 1) Onshore fabrication:

This involves pipe make-up facilities and a

launchway, and the line may frequently be fabricated as a series of long strings
which are welded together when the pipe is launched into the water. If possible
however, the line should be fabricated as a single string, enabling the entire
system to be hydrotested onshore and launched more q u i c k l y . During handling and
launching of the p i p e l i n e , its weight out of the water is considerably greater

 4 -

than later when it,is submerged.

The weight must be strictly controlled w i t h i n

small tolerances during fabrication. This is because both the negative buoyancy
and the tow forces are sensitive to variations In w e i g h t . The use of correct
launchway design and construction procedures is

beneficial in avoiding the

need for excessive forces or the possibility of overstressing the p i p e .

Phase 2) Tow or transportation to offshore location:

Adequate seabed information

Is needed to enable selection of the tow method and/or route which w i l l ensure
safe levels of pipe stress during towing, with limited bending of the pipe string
and acceptable tension levels. Where the route passes through deep water,

the

application of increased internal pressure to the pipeline can be used to achieve

a reasonable margin of safety against buckling or excessive strains resulting from
the external hydrostatic pressure.
Phase 3) Connection or t i e - i n : A f t e r t o w - o u t , the pipeline is ready for
connection to the subsea system, u t i l i z i n g either conventional t i e - i n methods, or
by first and second end connection methods. The leading end connection should
be performed using controlled manipulation of the pipe and without delay [41

For the second, or trailing end connection, an accurate seabed survey and
precise positioning of the connection point are required when determining p i p e line length. If the pipeline is too long, the pipe may be overstressed; and if
too short, i t may be d i f f i c u l t to execute the connection.
A careful analysis and accurate calculation are needed to minimize the risks
inherent in incorrect design of pipeline length, especially when contrasted
against reliable but more expensive conventional t i e - i n methods. In general i t is
feasible to attain the main advantages of second end connection, namely speed
of completion, reduced costs, and an acceptable degree of r e l i a b i l i t y .

Before operating the l i n e , additional design and construction activities can be

introduced, such as when trenching or burial of the l i n e , either before or after

- 5 -

t i e - i n , is recommended.

These aspects however, are outside the scope of this

paper.
-

Phase 4) Operating conditions:

The safe operation of a pipeline is based on

correct forecasting and assessment of the extreme conditions likely to be imposed

on the l i n e . A pipeline may be subjected to stresses arising from some or a l l of the
following:
a) The final position or geometry of the l i n e , including pipe restraints and
boundary conditions
b) Gravitational and hydrodynamic forces on the p i p e , which may be important
if spans have developed in the line as a result either of construction
activities or of the seabed configuration and soil conditions
c) Internal operating pressure
d) External hydrostatic pressure
e) Restraints on the line when thermal expansion occurs as a result of temperature
variations between the pipe contents and the sea water.
Conventional t i e - i n methods may be designed to function as a stress-relieving
system, but if t i e - i n is by means of trailing-end connection, then the entire
system must absorb a l l stresses resulting from the operating conditions. For
comprehensive design, the stresses must be checked for each of the various
construction phases.
The following are the prerequisites of successful pipeline installation when
employing a tow method:
- Careful planning and scheduling covering engineering, design, construction
procedures, and onshore and offshore f i e l d preparation.

Sometimes, there are not technical or safety reasons or government regulations

for trenching or burying a submarine p i p e l i n e .

- -

- Adequate and reliable construction equipment, including survey equipment ( i . e .

vessel instrumentation systems), the tow vessel (as regards winches and cables),
diving support equipment and one or more submersibles.

As Phases 1 and 4 , covering onshore fabrication and pipeline operating conditions,

are normally predetermined by the nature and location of a specific p r o j e c t ,

only

Phase 2 , concerning tow-out to site is discussed in detail hereunder. For Phase 3,

discussion centers on the trailing-end connection method in order to emphasize the
importance of correctly forecasting the geometry or final configuration of the p i p e .
N o reference is made to problems that may be experienced as a result either of
pipeline vibration that may be caused by vortex shedding, or the effects of
corrosion or fatigue on the behavior of materials.

BOTTOM TOW
The bottom pull method has been extensively employed on marine pipeline projects,
and has established an excellent

r e l i a b i l i t y record. Typically this method employs

winches at fixed locations such as onshore, on anchored barges and, more recently,
on platforms where i t has been used to perform t i e - i n s . In the near future, i t w i l l
also be used on ice platforms for instal ling offshore pipelines in the A r c t i c .

With the bottom tow method, as shown in Figure 1 , a p i p e l i n e is towed along the
seabed by a tug to which i t is attached by a long c a b l e . The line may be a
single pipe or a bundle of pipes, as illustrated in Figure 2 . From vertical and
horizontal equilibrium, the maximum length of pipeline that can be towed using
available tow vessels, may be estimated by assuming: firstly that the pipe bottom
is in direct and continuous contact with the seabed, with no spans being present;
secondly that the system has a uniform negative buoyancy along its entire length;
and t h i r d l y , that the coefficients of f r i c t i o n between the pipe and the tow route
are known, based on reliable data concerning the seabed soils configuration and
the pipe characteristics.

 7 -

Seabed and Route Selection

A detailed marine survey is required to enable selection of the tow route corridor
from the pipe launchway to the location for final pipe positioning. The width of
the corridor is a function of the accuracy and tolerance of the positioning system
and survey equipment. The planned and achjal tow routes must be checked for the
presence of any maritime hazards.
The seabed along the tow route should preferably be relatively flat and straight,
and be free of obstructions such as sharp depressions or elevations, rock outcrops,
ship wrecks, and subsea strucKjres. Allowable span lengths, and minimum horizontal
bending of the pipeline must be calculated as criteria for route selection. The two
limiting conditions are considered as being when the pipe is at rest without tension,
and moving under tow.
To ease the task of a design analysis and route selection, i t is feasible to reduce
possible variety in types of soils along the route by grouping them into convenient
categories. This tactic should still enable acceptable forecasting of the lateral
and longitudinal friction coefficients needed for calculation of stability on the
seabed and the magnitude of the tow forces. For estimating the conditions when
the pipe is static; at the start of towing; and the dynamic case where the pipe is
being towed; i t is necessary to have a knowledge of the extremes of longitudinal
c o e f f i c i e n t . Because of continuous variations in the seabed configuration and soils
along the tow route, there are corresponding variations in the friction coefficients
and dynamic tow forces. For a given type of s o i l , the starting friction forces are
larger than the dynamic friction forces. In particular with cohesive soils, the ratio
of these forces may be as high as 3 : 1 .

The formulae for evaluation of skin friction coefficients for cohesive and noncohesive soils have been developed and documented by Potyondy [ 7 ] . In the case
of submarine pipelines, other factors contributing to determination of the f r i c t i o n
coefficients are:

- 8 -

- Smoothness of pipe surface, which is important when estimating the adhesion

with cohesive soils.
- Settlement of and/or grooving by the pipe in the seabed, this being a function
of the soil's load-'bearing capacity, the pipe characteristics, and the negative
buoyancy.

Pipe Stability
To maximize the pipeline length and/or optimize the tow speeds and forces for
long distance bottom tow by tugs, the negative buoyancy of the system must be
minimized. The negative buoyancy and stability of the line are determined by risk
analysis rather than by standard stability c r i t e r i a . To quantify the risks, the
f o l l o w i n g factors may be taken into consideration:
-

The contents of the p i p e l i n e , e . g . water, gas or crude o i l , during and after

installation, and in the operating c o n d i t i o n .

- The expected maximum bottom current velocities during tow-out and operation of
the l i n e .
- The possible use of a holdback tension vessel during t o w - o u t , or a holdback
anchor when stationary, to enhance s t a b i l i t y .
-

The possible use of pipe b u r i a l , trenching or anchoring following t o w - o u t .

For weight-coated pipes, the spoilage, abrasion and water absorption of the
concrete

The probable need for a more reliable survey when weight-coated pipe is being
used.

Strict control of weight and dimensional tolerances during pipe manufacture and the
application of protective or weight coatings, is recommended. The negative
buoyancy, and hence also pipe stability and t o w - o u t , are very sensitive to small
changes in w e i g h t . For an accurate estimate of the negative buoyancy obtained
during installation, every item which contributes to the weight must be considered

 9 -

and checked. This operation, which is in addition to the strict control of weight
during f a b r i c a t i o n , should Include:
- Seawater density and temperature, to f a c i l i t a t e evaluation of positive buoyancy
-

Line p i p e , steel physical properties, Including welds

- Anti-corrosion protection, including coatings, anodes and ancillary equipment

- Pipe contents, such as pressurizing gas
- Pulling head, sled and ancillary equipment
- Equipment, such as pontoons or tanks, cables or chains and attachment lugs, for
increasing or decreasing the buoyancy
-

Spacers and ancillary equipment required for bundled lines

- Concrete density, thickness, abrasion, spoilage, water absorption and steel

reinforcement for weight-coated pipe
-

Field joints, i . e .

mastic, steel wrap-around e t c .

In areas of high current v e l o c i t y , such as shore approaches and river crossings,

heavyweight pipe and weight coating are usually recommended. The negative
buoyancy of the system is normally determined by means of a standard stability
analysis; and installation is performed using pull winches positioned at a f i x e d
l o c a t i o n . Considering the typical speed of a bottom pull and the probably detailed
knowledge of the pull route, abrasion and spoilage in this case are l i k e l y to be
sufficiently small as to be neglected.

Link Cable and Alternative Bottom Tow Method

Selection of the link cable and forecasting the cable geometry and related parameters, can be done using normal catenary equations. The known factors are: the
available tow forces; tow speeds; drag forces on the cables as per Kullen [ 8 ] or
similar references; and the cable properties. The cable must transmit only a x i a l
forces to the p i p e l i n e . Torsional forces originating from possible cable spin or

10 -

stretch should be avoided by installing a swivel at the connection point between

the cable and pipe pullhead.
Compared with the length of cable necessary to maintain the pullhead on the sea
bottom, shown in Figure 1 Bottom Tow, considerable reductions in link cable
length can be achieved by carefully l i f t i n g the pullhead off the bottom after
towing has commenced. This modified bottom tow method, which is shown in
Figure 3 , offers the following additional advantages:
-

Reduced abrasion and friction forces on the cable as i t is no longer in contact

with the seabed

Enhanced control, positioning and maneuverability of the pipeline because of the

reduced cable length

Some reduction in the longitudinal friction forces because the pipeline is l i f t e d

off the bottom under tension

As identified in Figure 3, tow parameters such as the l i f t - o f f distance ' Y ' ; the
tensions at points ' 1 ' and ' 2 ' ; and the maximum stresses at section ' 2 ' - ' 3 ' , may,
w i t h some assumptions, be obtained from the equilibrium equations f the system
and by use of the f o l l o w i n g procedures:
-

Normal catenary equations for the link cable over section ' 1 ' - ' 2 ' .

- Equations derived from elastic beam theory and small deflections for section
'2' - ' 3 ' of the suspended pipe: these are solved for boundary conditions where
the pipeline is horizontal on the seabed from touchdown point ' 3 ' ; and where
there are no bending moments at ' 3 ' or at the pipe end ' 2 ' . (For further d e t a i l s ,
see analysis of the constant tow depth method).
-

The horizontal and v e r t i c a l equilibrium of section ' 3 ' -

'4'.

The operational differences between the 'conventional' and 'modified' bottom tow
methods, may be summarized as follows:

11 _

- Continuous application of tension is required for safety reasons, while the pipe
is lifted off the sea bottom.
-

Pay-out of the cable and changes in tension are necessary when concluding the
tow, and to ensure safe lay-down of the lead-end of the pipe on the seabed.
Monitoring charts listing tow parameters such as a schedule of tensions and cable
lengths, are required with the modified bottom tow method for use during
i n i t i a t i o n and termination of towing.

With careful planning and supervision, it should be possible to achieve the same
levels of r e l i a b i l i t y with the two methods.

Installation Stresses
The stresses used for design purposes are those induced by the forces acting on the
p i p e l i n e . They are mainly functions of;
- Maximum water depth since i t determines external hydrostatic pressure
-

Pipe diameter and out-of-roundness. A pipe section is never perfectly

circular,

and the deviation from this c o n d i t i o n , which is termed out-of-roundness, is

expressed as a percentage of the pipe diameter.
- Wall thickness and the pipe material properties such as the stress-strain r e l a t i o n ship.
-

Internal pressurization, where this is recommended.

Pipeline geometry and seabed configuration .

The stress-strain limits and associated safety factors are derived from the appropriate
design codes and related c r i t e r i a . For maximum combined stresses, the total stress
may be calculated as a function of longitudinal and circumferential stresses as
formulated, for example, by the Huber-Hencky-von Mises expression.

The longitudinal stress is a function of tow conditions, water depths, pipe geometry
and seabed configuration. For practical purposes, only the extreme conditions are
assessed. From an analysis of the Von Mises formula, i t may be seen that the

12 -

limiHng condition is that associated with maximum longitudinal compressive stress,

and maximum circumferential compressive stress. As the axial stresses from hydrostatic
head and tow tension forces are in opposition, the worst or extreme design
condition is when the tow force is ignored: in other words, when the line is at
rest.
The circumferential compressive stress is induced by the positive difference between
the external hydrostatic pressure and the pipe Internal pressure. Under these
circumstances, the main factor affecting the longitudinal stress is bending a n d , as
in principle the pipeline follows the local contours of the seabed over which i t is
towed, this becomes an important factor when selecting and evaluating the tow
route. The sources of bending imposed during towing are:
- Curvature of the tow route in the horizontal plane
-

Deflections in the vertical plane caused by the configuration of the seabed,

spanning, obstructions in the tow route and other restraints of the soil on the
pipe.

The circumferential stress induced by a positive difference between the hydrostatic

and internal pressures, which may cause collapse, is greater for out-of-round pipe
than for perfectly round p i p e . For either type of p i p e , the stress may be calculated
using standard elasticity theory. To prevent the line from collapsing and b u c k l i n g ,
an approach based on theoretical and experimental results, is recommended.
The majority of published work on the state-of-art [ 9 , 10, 111 , even taking into
account the most recent research on collapse and b u c k l i n g , does not adequately
reproduce the conditions of a pipeline in deep water in terms of its bending stresses,
axial compressive forces, stress-strain relationship, pipe diameter/wall thickness
ratios, out-of-roundness, and positive pressure d i f f e r e n t i a l .

For design purposes, one possibly conservative approach which may be adopted is
as follows:

13 -

Introduce air or gas to the pipeline at a pressure sufficient to reduce the effects
of the hydrostatic head without significantly increasing the negative buoyancy.
The degree of Internal pressurization may be based on the criteria for buckle
initiation pressure as presented by Mesloh et al [10] . As per this reference,
the theoretical collapse pressure for a long, straight and perfectly round pipe
subjected to external pressure may be calculated using standard elasticity theory.

- Calculate the minimum bending radius for the pipeline which avoids b u c k l i n g ,
using Ikedo's empirical expression [ 1 0 , 111 . As per these references, which
relate only to bending and external pressure, the theoretial collapse bending
moment at atmospheric pressure may be determined using standard elasticity
theory.

OFF-BOTTOM TOW
The off-bottom tow technique as shown in Figure 1 , may be considered as a
variation of the bottom tow method. The main distinguished feature is

that the

pipeline is floating at a uniform height off the seabed. Negative buoyancy and
stability are introduced by means of chains, and positive buoyancy or l i f t force
may be provided by the buoyancy of the pipeline itself, or by pontoons or floats
attached to the l i n e , as illustrated in Figure 2 . Following installation of the l i n e ,
the floats may be released to the water surface, of flooded on the. seabed.
Provision for this operation is made beforehand, during f a b r i c a t i o n .

The length and weight of the chains are a function firstly of the lateral stability
analysis w i t h the iine at rest, and secondly of the tow speed. In the static case,
the negative buoyancy and lateral stability of the system are determined by the
weight and length of the chains. During tow, the longitudinal drag forces on the chains
reduce the length of chain which is in contact with the seabed. To confirm that the
chains w i l l maintain the pipeline at a set height above the seabed,it Is recommended
that a stability analysis of the system is made, during tow.

Analysis of the design, f a b r i c a t i o n , and tow-out for off-bottom tow is similar to

that employed for the bottom tow method. The advantages of off-bottom tow
compared to bottom tow are:

14 -

Smaller tow forces at the start and during towing may be expected because of: a) Lighter pipe and probable lower negative buoyancy of the system, after risk
and stability analysis
b) Soil friction forces relate only to the lengths of chain in contact with the
seabed, and even this contact is reduced during tow as a result of the drag
forces on the chains.
c) The lack of contact of the pipeline with the seabed, resulting in an absence
of adhesion or skin friction forces.

Smaller stresses induced by changes in seabed topography. This Is because, when

traversing an uneven seafloor, the pipeline w i l l tend to remain more h o r i z o n t a l ,
without following a l l sea bottom variations, under the influence of its own
stiffness and the applied tension: only the chains w i l l tend to follow these
vertical contour changes [12]

- With the system floating off the bottom, there are less risks of damage or
abrasion to the pipeline from contact with the seabed, or from impacts.

SURFACE TOW
With this method a p i p e l i n e , buoyed with floats or pontoons as shown in Figure 1,
is towed on or near the sea surface to the location where i t is to be installed.
Taking into consideration the influences of the environment, the pipe characteristics
and the installation equipment, the line may be lowered to the seabed in one of
the f o l l o w i n g ways:
a) By coordinated release of the floafs or pontoons, a procedure which can only be
used in shallow water depths - probably less than 20 m - where l i t t l e tension Is
required to ensure safe lowering of the buoyant p i p e l i n e . The tension needed
for lowering, control and alignment of the pipe may be applied by the tow
vessel and/or a holdback w i n c h , possibly onshore. This procedure has been extensively employed, an early example being in the 190s in the Persian G u l f when
a string of several kilometres length was installed by this means; more recently,
the method was u t i l i z e d in the swamp areas south of M e x i c o . To analyse the

15 -

suspended pipe and program the release of the floats, simple beam theory may
be used In view of the relatively small deflections Involved. A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,

the

method represented by Konuk [13] and based on rod theories, is particularly

appropriate where a heavy pipeline has to be installed under conditions of low
tension.
b) By taking the pipe strings consecutively onboard a lay barge; detaching the
floats or pontoons; welding the string ends and progressively lowering the p i p e line to the seabed. This technique is especially relevant in deep waters where
use would be made of a dynamically-positioned lay barge equipped with tensioner
gear and a stinger [ 5 ] . Under favorable weather conditions, when i t is feasible
to use long pipe strings, this method can achieve very high laying rates.
c) By taking the pipe strings consecutively onboard a barge, replacing the
pontoons with variable-buoyancy floats, welding the string ends and progressively
lowering the pipeline to the seabed. Because the variable-buoyancy system
remains attached to the line during the lowering process, very l i t t l e tension
needs be applied at the surface and the barge is not required to have a stinger.
As w i t h the previous method, relatively long pipe strings may be used.
Patented nearly 20 years ago, and called the 'S' curve method, this technique
has been employed for laying In very deep waters [ 5 ]

The surface tow method differs from the other tow procedures in that i t is also a
laying procedure. Its main disadvantage is the sensitivity of the buoyant pipeline
to weather conditions. Wind and waves can greatly disturb not only the tow, but
also the welding and laying operations. Where other tow methods are feasible, the
surface tow technique may be uncompetitive because of its need for a lay barge.
This method may also be rendered too expensive when i t is used in conjunction
with first and second end connection of the p i p e . With the tow-out floats removed,
the line w i l l become heavier and d i f f i c u l t to maneuver on the seabed, thus
entailing the additional cost of f i t t i n g new floats specially for this purpose. A
further disadvantage can be the d i f f i c u l t y involved in handling pipeline bundles
for welding on the barge.

16 -

Conversely, where there is l i t t l e risk of bod weather, surface tow can offer an
attractive solution: for example, in shallow protected waters, method 'a'

which

requires only a small surface spread to perform the coordinated release of the
buoyancy pontoons, is particularly appropriate.

C O N S T A N T TOW DEPTH METHOD

As the most recently developed tow technique, the constant tow depth (CTD)
method, as shown in Figure 1 , is effectively a variant of the off-bottom tow
method. Fabrication, s t a b i l i t y , stress analysis and the limiting design considerations
are Identical to those developed for off-bottom tow: only the method of transportation is different.
By introducing tension with a holdback vessel, the pipeline system is elevated In a
symmetrical curve to any desired height above the seabed. Both the tow vessel at
the front and the holdback vessel at the rear apply tension to the pipe continuously throughout t o w - o u t . Although the pipeline system in its suspended condition

may

be relatively l i g h t , the required tension levels are quite h i g h . However, they are
probably lower than the tow forces for a system in contact with the seabed, and
ensure safe maneuverability and low longitudinal stresses during transportation.

The r e l i a b i l i t y of the CTD method was recently and successfully confirmed during
installation of some pipelines in the UK Sector of the North Sea. The technique is
ideal for deepwater installations and long distance towing and, in addition to
offering a l l the advantages of the off-bottom tow method, also provides the benefits
that:
-

The entire system of pipeline and chains is lifted off the seabed, totally freeing
i t of the problems related to the bottom configuration and potential obstructions
such as ship wrecks,

rock outcrops and other pipelines or cables.

- Selection of the tow route is easier, and a less rigorous and probably less
expensive survey is necessary before and during transportation than for the bottom
tow method.

- Smaller tow forces are required than for tow methods where the pipeline is in
contact with the seabed: also, smaller longitudinal stresses can be guaranteed.

It has been demonstrated by, among others, Reid [14] in 1951, and Brando and
SebastianI

[15] in 1971, that for a submerged slender lightweight pipeline sub-

jected to a large axial tension, the stiffness of the line may be neglected,
enabling i t to be treated as a catenary. Acceptable limits for the v a l i d i t y of
catenary equations with a suspended pipeline have been established as a function
of pipe stiffness, length, tension and negative buoyancy.

For the purposes of formulation, the pipeline and link cables may be considered as
combined catenaries, symmetrical about the mid-point of the p i p e . For a given tow
speed, the increased drag force of the suspended system is added to the cable
tension at the tow vessel. The bending stresses in the pipe may be determined
from the curvature of the l i n e .
To prepare tow procedures and monitor the tow-out and pipeline installation,

tow

parameters are calculated listing pipe geometry, the position of the line relative
to the seabed, and tow and holdback cable lengths for different tow speed and
tension forces at the tow and holdback vessels. Results observed during actual
Installation by the CTD method have been found to be comparable to forecast data
using the catenary approach.
Finite element techniques or rod theories [13] may be used for analysis of
undesirable or extreme conditions as regards insufficient tension, too heavy a
p i p e l i n e , or exessive bending. If the r e l i a b i l i t y of the catenary analysis in safeguarding the integrity of the pipeline is accepted then, when using the CTD method
installation, a more general formulation

[16] may not be necessary.

SECOND END C O N N E C T I O N
The second end, or trailing end connection technique may be employed with single
or bundled pipelines where there is a relatively short distance between the two
structures to be connected, such as between a wellhead and/or platform, SPM or

18 -

central manifold, e t c . N o t considered here are second end connections which

require the use of a swivel connection [ 1 7 ] or flexible pipe comprising alternate
layers of plastic and steel. While some of the design difficulties have been
presented before [ 9 , 18] , the following is Intended to emphasize the more prominent design and construction prerequisites for the safe accomplishment of pipeline
connection and operation.

To perform first and second end connection, i t is preferable to have a light and
f l e x i b l e pipeline system to assist in minimizing pipe pull forces and bending loads
[4].

By virtue of their use of a stable system, elevated off the seabed and In

contact w i t h the bottom v i a chains uniformly distributed along the length of the
p i p e , the CTD and off-bottom tow methods boHi offer these benefits during the
connection phase. By contrast, the other tow techniques require costly in-place
preparations.
For t o w - o u t , submersibles and diving support are helpful in providing route
selection and survey data: for first and second end connections, the assistance of
such equipment is invaluable. Here, their functions may include:
- A s - b u i l t survey and inspection of the pipeline before, during and after connection.
- Subsea installation of rigging needed for connection of the l i n e , and attachment
and disconnection of t o w / p u l l cables.
-

Inspection of the seabed as regards soils, scour, pipe spans e t c .

- Sand bagging of the line

- Emergency services.
The pipe geometry and pull forces are very sensitive to soil characteristics, seabed
configuration, chain properties, pipe buoyancy, and survey accuracy. The
acquisition of data relating to these various elements - which is not always easy and their subsequent modeling, must be performed with great care to avoid the use
of incorrect boundary conditions In turn leading to Incorrect solutions. It is also
important to check the operating conditions that w i l l obtain when the pipeline is

_ 19 "

in its second-end connection configuration as these can interact with the prior
design phases.
A theoretical analysis can assist in identifying the optimum construction procedures,
and in specifying the types of equipment needed to perform the t o w / p u l l - i n
connections of the pipe ends. The advantages of this method have already been
emphasized.

CONCLUSIONS
The four tow techniques are each technically feasible. For a given location,
selection of the installation method to be used should be based on a thorough
evaluation of the l i k e l y alternative construction procedures. As outlined in this
paper, each method has its own advantages and limitations, and the best solution
may be found when these are related to the known boundary conditions of the
particular installation. A technical assessment and cost estimate w i l l indicate the
feasibility of, and risks attaching t o , each of the tow techniques, and in some
instances w i l l identify positive reasons promoting a particular method.

***************

- 20 -

REFERENCES
1

Gombert, D . W . , "Huge Subsea Pipe Bundle installed from Shore" The O i l and
Gas Journal, August 4 , 1975, pp 60-64

Menezes, P.F. de, "Emissario Submarine de Santos, Brazil: Opera9ao

Puxamento", DAE Journal, N o 116, 1978, pp 24-27

Staff reporter, "Bottom-tow Holds Influential Impact", Offshore, July 1977,

pp 48-53

Brown, R . J . ,

"Pipeline Stabilization and Automated C o n n e c t i o n " , paper

presented at the "1980 European Seminar^Offshore O i l and Gas Pipeline

Technology",

London, 1980

Staff reporter, " R . A . T . Pipelaying Method Passes Test in North Sea",

Pipeline & Gas Journal, October 1977, pp 49-52

Staff reporter, "Tomorrow's Frontiers - Today's Experience", N o r o i l , May 1980,

pp.

111-116

Potyondy, J . G . , "Skin Friction Between Various Soils and Construction

M a t e r i a l s " , Geotechnique, V o l . X I , The Institution of C i v i l Engineers,

1961,

pp 339-353

Ku Hemberg, B . , "Shape of Trawling C a b l e " , Report of the Swedish Deep Sea

Expedition, V o l . I l l , N o 2

-Fernandez, M . L .

and Carlson, W . O . , "Theory and Practice In Deep Water

Pipe L a y i n g " , paper presented at the "1980 European Seminar, Offshore

and Gas Pipeline Technology", London, 1980

Oil

- 21 -

Mesloh, R., Johns, T . G . and Sorenson, J . E . , "The Propagating B u c k l e " ,

Proceedings Boss ' 7 6 , The Norwegian Institute of Technology,

1976,

pp 787-797

N A S A T N D - 1 5 1 0 , " C o l l e c t e d Papers on Instability of Steel Structures",

Langley Research Center,

Virginia

Kermel, I . and Chauvaux, G . , "Laying Underwater Pipelines by Float and

Chains M e t h o d " , Ocean Resources Engineering Journal, A p r i l 1978

Konuk, I . , "Higher Order Approximations In Stress Analysis of Submarine

Pipelines", ASME paper N o 8 0 - P e t - 7 2 , 1980

Reld, R . O . ,

"Some Oceanographic and Engineering Considerations in Marine

Pipeline Construction", Proceedings

Second Conference on Coastal

Engineering, Chapter 28, 1 9 5 1 , pp 325-393

Brando, P. and Sebastidnl , G . ,

"Determination of Seal ines Elastic Curves

and Stresses to be Expected During Laying C o n d i t i o n s " , Proceedings of the

Offshore Technology Conference, Paper OTC 1354, 1971

Kan, W . C . and H e a l e y , A . J . , "Finite Element A n a l y s i s w i t h the State

Variable Transfer Matrix and Geometric Non-1 i n e a r i t / for Marine Pipelines
in Sub Surface Tow", ASME Paper N o 8 0 P e t - 4 7 ,

Pros, S . , Level lois, E. and Gouraud, O . ,

1980

"Second End Flowllne

Connection Without Length Adjustment", Proceedings of the Offshore

Technology Conference, Paper OTC 3074, 1978

Hibbitt, H . D . ,

Becker, E.B. and Taylor, L . M . ,

" N o n Linear Analys is of

Some Slender P i p e l i n e s " , Computer Methods in A p p l i e d Mechanics and_

Engineering, V o l . 17, North H o l l a n d ,

1979, pp 203-225

BOTTOM

OW METHOD

W.D,

OFF BOTTOM TOW METHOD

fe,^

W.D.

NEAR SURFACE TOW METHOD

W.D.

CTD METHOD-(CONSTANT TOW DEPTH)

LEGEND;

SEAGOING TUG

CHAINS

CABLE

FLOATS

PULL H E A D

L = P I P E L I N E LENGTH
FIGURE 1

FERNANDEZ

O
H A R D SEABED
PIPE

SOFT S E A B E D

W I T H CASING
AND SPACERS

ON BOTTOM

WITHOUT GASSING

PIPELINE BUNDLE

(WITH OR WITHOUT WEIGHT COATING)

W I T H FLOAT A N D

CHAINS

WITH

CHAINS

PIPELINES OFF THE BOTTOM

FIGURE 2

MODIFIED BOTTOM TOW METHOD

FIGURE 3

FERNANDEZ

ONLY