Fyp-Hydraulic Brakes
Fyp-Hydraulic Brakes
Fyp-Hydraulic Brakes
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BRAKE
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion.
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy
into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be
employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of
the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later
use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential
energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized
oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic
energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which
is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by
transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but
may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid
(flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a
combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars
with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both
wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (
), an object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as
much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and
consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at
the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles
usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag
rises quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even
baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a
moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel
brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air
brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable
examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft,
primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the
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CHARACTERSTICS
Brakes are often describe according to several
characteristics include:
Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating
effect that can be obtained. The peak force is often
greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case
the brake can cause a wheel skid.
Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get
hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high.
The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that
can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the
continuous power dissipation. Continuous power
dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and
speed of ambient cooling air.
Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective,
called brake fade. Some designs are inherently prone to
fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further,
use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big
effect on fade.
Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter,
or otherwise exerts varying brake force may lead to skids.
For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and
friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead
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(b) To control the speed of vehicle at turns and also at the time
of driving down on a hill slope.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES
On the Basis of Method of Actuation
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DISC BRAKE
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of
a road wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually
made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the
axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake
pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced
mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction
causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES
Electromagnetic brakes slow an object through electromagnetic
induction, which creates resistance and in turn either heat or
electricity. Friction brakes apply pressure on two separate
objects to slow the vehicle in a controlled manner.
PARKING BRAKES OR EMERGENCY BRAKES
Parking brakes or emergency brakes are essentially mechanical
brakes operated by hand. These are used to prevent the motion
of vehicle when parked at a place or when parked on slopes. In
cars, these brakes are generally attached to rear wby pushing a
button (provided on lever) and pressing the lever down. heels.
In this type, a cable connects the hand lever to the brake.
Brakes are applied by pulling the lever and released.
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DRUM BRAKE
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of
shoes or pads that press against a rotating drum-shaped part
called a brake drum.
The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes
press on the inner surface of the drum. When shoes press on
the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake.
Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a
conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum
brake, though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type
called a band brake uses a flexible belt or "band" wrapping
around the outside of a drum.
HISTORY
The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by
Louis Renault. He used woven asbestos lining for the drum
brakes lining, as no alternative dissipated heat like the asbestos
lining, though Maybach has used a less sophisticated drum
brake. In the first drum brakes, levers and rods or cables
operated the shoes mechanically. From the mid-1930s, oil
pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons (as in the
picture) operated the brakes, though some vehicles continued
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COMPONENTS
Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum,
shoe, wheel cylinder, and various springs and pins.
BACKING PLATE
The backing plate provides a base for the other components. It
attaches to the axle and forms a solid surface for the wheel
cylinder, brake shoes, and assorted hardware. Since all braking
operations exert pressure on the backing plate, it must be
strong and wear-resistant. Levers for emergency or parking
brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were also added in
recent years.
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BRAKE DRUM
The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron
that is heat-conductive and wear-resistant. It is positioned close
to the brake shoe without actually touching it, and rotates with
the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the brakes, the lining
pushes against the inner surface of the drum, generating
friction heat that can reach as high as 600 F (316 C).
WHEEL CYLINDER
One wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two
pistons operate the shoes, one at each end of the wheel
cylinder. Hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder acts on
the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing
them against the drum. When the driver releases the brakes,
the force of the brake shoe return springs returns the piston to
its original position. The parts of the wheel cylinder are as
follows:
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BRAKE SHOE
Brake shoes are typicaslly made of two pieces of sheet
steel welded together. The friction material is either
riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive.
The crescent-shaped piece is called the Web and
contains holes and slots in different shapes for return
springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage and
self-adjusting components. All the application force of
the wheel cylinder is applied through the web to the
lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining
table generally has three V"-shaped notches or tabs on
each side called nibs. The nibs rest against the support
pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are
installed. Each brake assembly has two shoes, a primary
and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the
front of the vehicle and has the lining positioned
differently than the secondary shoe. Quite often the two
shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any
variation is important.
Linings must be resistant against heat and wear and have a
high friction coefficient unaffected by fluctuations in
temperature and humidity. Materials that make up the brake
shoe include, friction modifiers (which can include graphite and
cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass,
aluminium and other metals that resist heat fade, binders,
curing agents and fillers such as rubber chips to reduce brake
noise.
AUTOMATIC SELF-ADJUSTER
The self-adjuster is used to adjust the distance between the
brake shoe and the drum automatically as brake shoes wear.
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IN OPERATION
NORMAL BRAKING
When the brakes are applied, brake fluid is forced under
pressure from the master cylinder into the wheel cylinder,
which in turn pushes the brake shoes into contact with the
machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action
reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled to the
wheel. Hence the speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the
pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their
rest position.
AUTOMATIC SELF-ADJUSTMENT
As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater
distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a
certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts
by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are
closer to the drum. Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough to
advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has
threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it
turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear
a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always
keeps the shoes close to the drum.
EMERGENCY BRAKE
The parking brake (emergency brake) system controls the
brakes through a series of steel cables that are connected to
either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is that the system
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SELF-APPLYING CHARACTERISTIC
Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic,
better known as "self-energizing." The rotation of the drum can
drag either one or both of the shoes into the friction surface,
causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the force
holding them together. This increases the stopping power
without any additional effort being expended by the driver, but
it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the brake's
sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake
fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of
brake assist.
Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the
hydraulic pressure acting on the pads is perpendicular to the
direction of rotation of the disc. Disc brake systems usually
have servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the driver's
pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and
smaller brakes for motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos.
Note: In most designs, the "self-applying" effect only occurs on
one shoe. While this shoe is further forced into the drum
surface by a moment due to friction, the opposite effect is
happening on the other shoe. The friction force is trying to
rotate it away from the drum. The forces are different on each
brake shoe resulting in one shoe wearing faster. It is possible to
design a two-shoe drum brake where both shoes are selfapplying (having separate actuators and pivoted at opposite
ends), but these are very uncommon in practice.
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ADVANTAGES
Drum brakes are used in most heavy duty trucks, some
medium and light duty trucks, and few cars, dirt bikes, and
ATVs. Drum brakes are often applied to the rear wheels since
most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of
the vehicle and therefore the heat generated in the rear is
significantly less. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a
parking brake.
Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and
emergency) brake even when the rear wheels use disc brakes
as the main brakes. The vast majority of rear disc braking
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DISADVANTAGES
Drum brakes, like most other brakes, convert kinetic energy
into heat by friction. This heat should dissipate into the
surrounding air, but can just as easily transfer to other braking
system components. Brake drums must be large to cope with
the massive forces involved, and must be able to absorb and
dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to air can be aided by
incorporating cooling fins onto the drum. However, excessive
heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking, which can
cause the drum to distort, leading to vibration under braking.
The other consequence of overheating is brake fade. This is due
to one of several processes or more usually an accumulation of
all of them.
1. When the drums are heated by hard braking, the diameter
of the drum increases slightly due to thermal expansion,
so the shoes must move farther and the driver must press
the brake pedal farther.
2. The properties of the friction material can change if
heated, resulting in less friction. This can be a much larger
problem with drum brakes than disc brakes, since the
shoes are inside the drum and not exposed to cooling
ambient air. The loss of friction is usually only temporary
and the material regains its efficiency when cooled, but if
the surface overheats to the point where it becomes
glazed the reduction in braking efficiency is more
permanent. Surface glazing can be worn away with further
use of the brakes, but that takes time.
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HYDRAULIC BRAKES
The brakes which are actuated by the hydraulic pressure
(pressure of a fluid) are called hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic
brakes are commonly used in the automobiles.
PRINCIPLE
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Hydraulic Brake
The master cylinder is connected to all the four-wheel cylinders
by tubing or piping. All cylinders and tubes are fitted with a
fluid which acts as a link to transmit pedal force from master
cylinder to wheel cylinders.
BRAKE FLUID
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MASTER CYLINDER
VEHICLE APPLICATIONS
The most common vehicle uses of master cylinders are in brake
and clutch systems. In brake systems, the operated devices are
cylinders inside of brake calipers and/or drum brakes; these
cylinders may be called wheel cylinders or slave cylinders, and
they push the brake pads towards a surface that rotates with
the wheel (this surface is typically either a drum, or a disc,
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WHEEL CYLINDER
A wheel cylinder is a component in a drum brake system. It is located in
each wheel and is usually at the top, above the shoes. Its responsibility is
to exert force onto the shoes so they can contact the drum and stop the
vehicle with friction. What connects these wheel cylinders to the shoes are
usually small rods shaped like a birds beak. It is very similar to a master
cylinder and functions in pretty much the same way, consisting of just a
simple little plunger on the inside. On older vehicles these will begin to
leak and hinder the performance of the brakes, but are normally
inexpensive and easy to replace.
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HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Hydraulic fluids, also called hydraulic liquids, are the medium
by which power is transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common
hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water. Examples of
equipment that might use hydraulic fluids include excavators
and backhoes, hydraulic brakes, power steering systems,
transmissions, garbage trucks, aircraft flight control systems,
lifts, and industrial machinery.
Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work
most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has low
compressibility.
Property
Low compressibility (high bulk
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modulus)
Fast air release
Low foaming tendency
Low volatility
Medium for heat transfer
Sealing Medium
Lubricant
Pump efficiency
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Fire resistance
Special function
Friction modifications
Radiation resistance
COMPOSITION
BASE STOCK
The original hydraulic fluid, dating back to the time of ancient
Egypt, was water. Beginning in the 1920s, mineral oil began to
be used more than water as a base stock due to its inherent
lubrication properties and ability to be used at temperatures
above the boiling point of water. Today most hydraulic fluids are
based on mineral oil base stocks.
Natural oils such as rapeseed (also called canola oil) are used
as base stocks for fluids where biodegradability and renewable
sources are considered important.
Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as
for fire resistance and extreme temperature applications. Some
examples include: glycol, esters, organophosphate ester,
polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils.
OTHER COMPONENTS
Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical
compounds, including: oils, butanol, esters (e.g. phthalates, like
DEHP, and adipates, like bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate),
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BRAKE FLUID
Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling
point, both when new (specified by the equilibrium boiling
point) and after absorption of water vapor (specified by wet
boiling point). Under the heat of braking, both free water and
water vapor in a braking system can boil into a compressible
vapor, resulting in brake failure. Glycol-ether based fluids are
hygroscopic, and absorbed moisture will greatly reduce the
boiling point over time. Silicone based fluids are not
hygroscopic, but their inferior lubrication is not suitable for all
braking systems.
SAFETY
Because industrial hydraulic systems operate at hundreds to
thousands of PSI and temperatures reaching hundreds of
degrees Celsius, severe injuries and death can result from
component failures and care must always be taken when
performing maintenance on hydraulic systems.
Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids.
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TRADE NAMES
Some of the trade names for hydraulic fluids include Arnica,
Tellus, Durad, Fyrquel, Houghto-Safe, Hydraunycoil, Lubritherm
Enviro-Safe, Pydraul, Quintolubric, Reofos, Reolube,Valvoline
Ultramax and Skydrol.
SPECIFICATION
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CONTAMINATION
Special, stringent care is required when handling aircraft
hydraulic fluid as it is critical to flight safety that it stay free
from contamination. It is also necessary to strictly adhere to
authorized references when servicing or repairing any aircraft
system. Samples from aircraft hydraulic systems are taken
during heavy aircraft maintenance checks to check
contamination.
APPLICATION OF BRAKE
When brake pedal is pressed to apply the brakes, the piston in
the master cylinder forces the brake fluid. This increases the
pressure of fluid. This pressure is transmitted in all the pipes
and upto all wheel cylinders according to Pascals law. This
increased pressure forces out the two pistons in the wheel
cylinders. These pistons are connected to brake shoes. So, the
brake shoes expand out against brake drums. Due to friction
between brake linings and drum, wheels slow down and brakes
are applied. Two pipes carrying braked fluid are connected to
front wheel cylinders which may be same as rear wheel
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cylinders. The front wheels may also have same type of brakes
(drum brakes) as shown in the rear wheels. But, in modern cars,
there are disc brakes in the front wheels and drum brakes in
the rear wheel.
RELEASE OF BRAKES
When pedal is released, the piston of master cylinder returns to
its original position due to retractor spring provided in master
cylinder. Thus, fluid pressure drops to original value. The
retractor spring provided in the wheel cylinders pulls the brake
shoes and contact between drum and brake linings is broken.
Therefore, brakes are released.
Disadvantages
(a) Whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from
brake linings.
(b) Presence of air inside the tubings ruins the whole system.
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ADJUSTMENT OF BRAKES
When pedal is pressed to apply brake, there should be atleast
1/2 inch free pedal movement before breaking action starts.
This may vary from company to company.
The brakes are adjusted as per the above mentioned
recommendation before they are ready to use. This is done by
following a definite procedure.
(a)List the wheels by screw jack.
(b) Loosen the lock nut for the forward brake shoe and keep it
in this position.
(c) Turn the eccentric with other wrench towards the front of
automobile till the brake shoe touches the drum.
(d) Release the eccentric while turning the wheel with one
hand, till wheel turns freely.
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(e) Hold the eccentric in this position and tighter the lock nut.
(f) Repeat the same operation to adjust other shoe, but turn the
eccentric in the backward direction of the vehicle.
(g) Above procedure is repeated for all the four wheels.
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spring in the top position. Note that left hand side brakes are a
mirror image to right hand side brakes.
Fit the drum over the brake shoe and reassemble.
BACK SIDE
PLATE
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DISC BRAKE
A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel
by the friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake
disc with a set of calipers. The brake disc (or rotor in American
English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be
made of composites such as reinforced carboncarbon or
ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel
and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form
of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake caliper, is
forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction
causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes
convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they
become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade.
Modern motor cars are fitted with disc brakes instead of
conventional drum type brakes. In Santro car and Maruti-800,
front wheels are provided with disc brakes whereas rear wheel
are provided with drum brakes. A disc brake consists of a
rotating disc and two friction pads which are actuated by
hydraulic braking system as described earlier. The friction pads
remain free on each side of disc when brakes are no applied.
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They rub against disc when brakes are applied to stop the
vehicle. These brakes are applied in the same manner as that
of hydraulic brakes. But mechanism of stopping vehicle is
different than that of drum brakes.
HISTORY
Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the
1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was
patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham,
UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars.
Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping
performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. As a
consequence discs are less prone to the "brake fade"; and disc
brakes recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are
less effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one
leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc
brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always
proportional to the pressure placed on the brake pad by the
braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or lever, this
tends to give the driver better "feel" to avoid impending lockup.
Drums are also prone to "bell mouthing", and trap worn lining
material within the assembly, both causes of various braking
problems
Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the
1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was
patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham
factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars.
However, the limited choice of metals in this period meant that
he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc.
The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty,
rough tracks, meant that the copper wore quickly, making the
disc brake system non-viable (as recorded in The Lanchester
Legacy). It took another half century for his innovation to be
widely adopted.
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The 1950 Crosley Hot Shot is often given credit for the first U.S.
production disc brakes but the Chrysler Crown Imperial actually
had them first as standard equipment at the beginning of the
1949 model year. The Crosley disc was a Goodyear
development, a caliper type with ventilated rotor, originally
designed for aircraft applications. Only the Hot Shot featured
it.Lack of sufficient research caused enormous reliability
problems, especially in regions requiring the use of salt on
winter roads, such as sticking and corrosion. Drum brake
conversions for Hot Shots were quite popular.
The Chrysler four-wheel disc brake system was more complex
and expensive than Crosley's, but far more efficient and
reliable. It was built by Auto Specialties Manufacturing
Company (Ausco) of St. Joseph, Michigan, under patents of
inventor H.L. Lambert, and was first tested on a 1939 Plymouth.
Unlike the caliper disc, the Ausco-Lambert used twin expanding
discs that rubbed against the inner surface of a cast-iron brake
drum, which doubled as the brake housing.The discs spread
apart to create friction against the inner drum surface through
the action of standard wheel cylinders.
Chrysler discs were "self energizing," in that some of the
braking energy itself contributed to the braking effort. This was
accomplished by small balls set into oval holes leading to the
brake surface. When the disc made initial contact with the
friction surface, the balls would be forced up the holes forcing
the discs further apart and augmenting the braking energy. This
made for lighter braking pressure than with calipers, avoided
brake fade, promoted cooler running, and provided one-third
more friction surface than standard Chrysler twelve-inch drums.
But because of the expense, the brakes were only standard on
the Chrysler Crown Imperial through 1954 and the Town and
Country Newport in 1950. They were optional, however, on
other Chryslers, priced around $400, at a time when an entire
Crosley Hot Shot retailed for $935. Today's owners consider the
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BRAKE DISC
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same effect lets the front wheel transfer a lot more stopping
power before locking up.
BICYCLE
BICYCLE BRAKE RAKE DISC BRAKES
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OTHER VEHICLES
SLIPPERY RAIL DISC BRAKES
Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road
vehicles, where previously large drum brakes were nearly
universal. One reason is that the disc's lack of self-assist makes
brake force much more predictable, so peak brake force can be
raised without more risk of braking-induced steering or
jackknife on articulated vehicles. Another is disc brakes fade
less when hot, and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and
engine braking are small parts of total braking force, so brakes
are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade
can occur in a single stop. For these reasons, a heavy truck
with disc brakes can stop in about 120% the distance of a
passenger car, but with drums stopping takes about 150% the
distance.In Europe, stopping distance regulations essentially
require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are
allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase
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RACING
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such as when braking for the first time in cold weather, often
are made of materials which decompose unevenly at higher
temperatures. This uneven decomposition results in uneven
deposition of material onto the brake disc. Another cause of
uneven material transfer is improper break in of a pad/disc
combination. For proper break in, the disc surface should be
refreshed (either by machining the contact surface or by
replacing the disc as a whole) every time the pads are changed
on a vehicle. Once this is done, the brakes are heavily applied
multiple times in succession. This creates a smooth, even
interface between the pad and the disc. When this is not done
properly the brake pads will see an uneven distribution of stress
and heat, resulting in an uneven, seemingly random, deposition
of pad material. The third primary mechanism of uneven pad
material transfer is known as "pad imprinting." This occurs
when the brake pads are heated to the point that the material
begins to break-down and transfer to the disc. In a properly
broken in brake system (with properly selected pads), this
transfer is natural and actually is a major contributor to the
braking force generated by the brake pads. However, if the
vehicle comes to a stop and the driver continues to apply the
brakes, the pads will deposit a layer of material in the shape of
the brake pad. This small thickness variation can begin the
cycle of uneven pad transfer.
Once the disc has some level of variation in thickness, uneven
pad deposition can accelerate, sometimes resulting in changes
to the crystal structure of the metal that composes the disc in
extreme situations. As the brakes are applied, the pads slide
over the varying disc surface. As the pads pass by the thicker
section of the disc, they are forced outwards. The foot of the
driver applied to the brake pedal naturally resists this change,
and thus more force is applied to the pads. The result is that
the thicker sections see higher levels of stress. This causes an
uneven heating of the surface of the disc, which causes two
major issues. As the brake disc heats unevenly it also expands
unevenly. The thicker sections of the disc expand more than the
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SCARRING
Scarring (US: Scoring) can occur if brake pads are not changed
promptly when they reach the end of their service life and are
considered worn out. Once enough of the friction material has
worn away, the pad's steel backing plate (for glued pads) or the
pad retainer rivets (for riveted pads) will bear directly upon the
disc's wear surface, reducing braking power and making
scratches on the disc. Generally a moderately scarred / scored
disc, which operated satisfactorily with existing brake pads, will
be equally usable with new pads. If the scarring is deeper but
not excessive, it can be repaired by machining off a layer of the
disc's surface. This can only be done a limited number of times
as the disc has a minimum rated safe thickness. The minimum
thickness value is typically cast into the disc during
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CRACKING
Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which may develop
small cracks around edges of holes drilled near the edge of the
disc due to the disc's uneven rate of expansion in severe duty
environments. Manufacturers that use drilled discs as OEM
typically do so for two reasons: appearance, if they determine
that the average owner of the vehicle model will prefer the look
while not overly stressing the hardware; or as a function of
reducing the unsprung weight of the brake assembly, with the
engineering assumption that enough brake disc mass remains
to absorb racing temperatures and stresses. A brake disc is a
heat sink, but the loss of heat sink mass may be balanced by
increased surface area to radiate away heat. Small hairline
cracks may appear in any cross drilled metal disc as a normal
wear mechanism, but in the severe case the disc will fail
catastrophically. No repair is possible for the cracks, and if
cracking becomes severe, the disc must be replaced.
RUSTING
The discs are commonly made from cast iron and a certain
amount of what is known as "surface rust" is normal. The disc
contact area for the brake pads will be kept clean by regular
use, but a vehicle that is stored for an extended period can
develop significant rust in the contact area that may reduce
braking power for a time until the rusted layer is worn off again.
Over time, vented brake discs may develop severe rust
corrosion inside the ventilation slots, compromising the
strength of the structure and needing replacement.
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CALIPER
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BRAKE PADS
Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad
material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while
wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two parts: Adhesive
and abrasive.
Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad
and the disc and the configuration and the usage, pad and disc
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BRAKE SQUEAL
Sometimes a loud noise or high pitched squeal occurs when the
brakes are applied. Most brake squeal is produced by vibration
(resonance instability) of the brake components, especially the
pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation). This type of
squeal should not negatively affect brake stopping
performance. Simple techniques like adding chamfers to
linings, greasing or gluing the contact between caliper and the
pads (finger to backplate, piston to backplate), bonding
insulators (damping material) to pad backplate, inclusion of a
brake shim between the brake pad and back plate, etc. may
help to reduce squeal. Cold weather combined with high earlymorning humidity (dew) often worsens brake squeal, although
the squeal stops when the lining reaches regular operating
temperatures. Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal; there
are many commercial brake cleaning products that can be used
to remove dust and contaminants. Finally, some lining wear
indicators, located either as a semi-metallic layer within the
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BRAKE DUST
When braking force is applied, the act of abrasive friction
between the brake pad and the rotor wears both the rotor and
pad away. The "brake dust" that is seen deposited on wheels,
calipers and other braking system components consists mostly
of rotor material. Brake dust can damage the finish of most
wheels if not washed off. Generally brake pad that aggressively
abrades more rotor material away, such as metallic pads, will
create more brake dust.
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AIR BRAKE
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SUPPLY SYSTEM
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CONTROL SYSTEM
The control system is further divided into two service brake
circuits: the parking brake circuit and the trailer brake circuit.
This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel
circuits which receive compressed air from their individual
reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The service
brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which
regulates both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated
spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring
brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control
valve. The trailer brake consists of a direct two line system: the
supply line (marked red) and the separate control or service
line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from the prime
mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay valve and the
control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The
operating signals for the relay are provided by the prime mover
brake pedal air valve, trailer service brake hand control (subject
to a country's relevant heavy . vehicle legislation) and the
prime mover park brake hand control.
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BRAKE TESTER
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DECELEROMETER
A decelerometer is a hand held device for measuring dynamic
braking forces during a vehicle road test . A vehicle
decelerometer operates as if it were, and it could also be known
as, an accelerometer.
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FUTURE
OF
HYDRAULIC
BRAKE
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CONCLUSION
Brake System is an important mechanism for usage of any
vehicles. The above is an attempt to give the relevant
information in as simple manner as possible. There are much
technical concepts used in designing of brakes .All are welcome
to post relevant queries and comments.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.K RAJPUT A TEXTBOOK OF AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING,Laxmi Publication.
HIETNER A TEXT BOOK OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING.
V. GANESHAN A TEXTBOOK OF I.C ENGINE.
R.S KHURMI &J.K GUPTA THEORY OF MACHINES .
WEBSITE EXPLORED
WWW.howhtaffwork.com
www.mhhe.com/ganeshan/ice4e
www.mhhe.com/hietner/ae4e
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