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Some Consequences of Surface Tension

Surface tension is caused by unbalanced cohesive forces between liquid molecules at an interface which create tension along the surface. This results in spherical droplets and the ability of some liquids to rise in thin tubes. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to shear forces and flow. Newtonian fluids have viscosity that does not depend on shear rate, while non-Newtonian fluids exhibit variable or yield-dependent viscosity. Viscosity decreases with temperature for liquids and increases for gases, affecting fluid flow properties.

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79 views34 pages

Some Consequences of Surface Tension

Surface tension is caused by unbalanced cohesive forces between liquid molecules at an interface which create tension along the surface. This results in spherical droplets and the ability of some liquids to rise in thin tubes. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to shear forces and flow. Newtonian fluids have viscosity that does not depend on shear rate, while non-Newtonian fluids exhibit variable or yield-dependent viscosity. Viscosity decreases with temperature for liquids and increases for gases, affecting fluid flow properties.

Uploaded by

Serdar Bilge
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Surface Tension

Some consequences of
surface tension.

At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or


between immiscible liquids, cohesive forces acting
on the liquid molecules are unbalanced.
The apparent physical consequence of this
unbalanced force is the creation of a surface
tension/hypothetical skin.

A tensile force due to molecular attraction may be


considered to be acting in the plane of the surface
along any line.
For a given liquid, the surface tension depends on
the temperature as well as the other fluid in
contact.

Due to surface tension, a steel needle may float on


a liquid surface.
Similarly, a small droplet of mercury will form into a
sphere due to large cohesive forces holding the
molecules together.

The origin of surface tension

Figure shows a liquid in contact with its vapor.


There is a gradual change of properties in the interface region
between the phases, which is about 1nm thick. Molecules are
attracted to each other: those at the surface of a liquid have no
molecules above them, resulting in a net attractive force
inwards.

We just noted that:


At the interface between a liquid and a gas,
or between immiscible liquids, cohesive
forces acting on the liquid molecules are
unbalanced.

When the lower end of a vertical glass


tube is placed in a liquid such as
water, a concave meniscus forms.
Surface tension pulls the liquid column
up until there is a sufficient mass of
liquid for gravitational forces to
overcome the intermolecular forces.

Capillary action of water


compared to mercury
The edge of the water that sticks up above
the water's surface is called a "meniscus."

With some pairs of materials, such as


mercury and glass, the interatomic
forces within the liquid exceed those
between the solid and the liquid, so a
convex meniscus forms and capillary
action works in reverse

The weight of the liquid column is approximately:


W=mg=Vg= g(r2h)
Equating the vertical component of the surface tension
force to the weight gives:

W=Fsurface
g(r2h)= 2rs cos

2r

2rs

The height h of a liquid column is given by:

where:
s is the liquid-air surface tension (energy/area)
is the contact angle
is the density of liquid (mass/volume)
g is acceleration due to gravity (length/time2)
r is radius of tube (length).

2r

2rs

Example:

For a water-filled glass tube in air at sea level, using SI units:


s is 0.0728 N/m at 20C
is 20 (0.35 rad)
is 1000 kg/m3
g is 9.81 m/s
therefore, the height of the water column is given by:
r1

r2
h

Thus for a 2 m wide (1 m radius) tube, the water would rise an


unnoticeable 0.014 mm.
For a 2 cm wide (0.01 m radius) tube, the water would rise 1.4 mm,
For a 0.2 mm wide (0.0001 m radius) tube, the water would rise 140 mm.

Water

Mercury

Because of the surface tension, some liquids can


adhere to solid surfaces. In such fluid-surface
systems, the fluid is said to wet the surface.
Other fluids can be nonwetting because of strong
cohesion between liquid molecules, liquid in a tube is
depressed. A ball-like mercury droplets form solid
surfaces, mercury exhibits nonwetting behaviour.

Wetting forces equilibrium diagram

SV

LV

SL

SV, the surface tension between the solid (for example, a laminate surface) and the surrounding
vapour (for example, gas or flux)

SL, the surface tension between the solid and the liquid (for example, solder or adhesive)
LV, the surface tension between the liquid and the surrounding vapour

The capillary rise of water and the capillary


fall of mercury in a small-diameter glass tube.

The forces acting on a liquid column that


has risen in a tube due to the capillary
effect.

For non-wetting fluids like Mercury

h<0

Viscosity

Viscosity

Consider a fluid placed between plates separated by a


small distance h as shown:
U
P
h

Assume a force P is applied on the upper plate, and the


plate moves with a constant velocity U.

Viscosity
A closer inspection reveals that the fluid in contact with the
upper plate moves with the plate velocity, U, and the fluid
in contact with the bottom surface has a zero velocity.
The experimental observation that the fluid sticks to the

solid boundaries is usually referred as the no-slip


condition. All fluids satisfy no-slip condition.

P
h

The fluid between the plates moves with velocity


u=u(y)
that would be found to vary linearly

The velocity gradient developed in the fluid between plates


would be a constant

P
h
P: is the force applied to the upper plate

The experimental data show that for common fluids such as


water, oil and air, the shearing stress, , is linearly
proportional to the U/h ratio, that is the velocity gradient:

or

Where the constant of proportionality is designed by

(mu) and is called Absolute (dynamic) viscosity of the fluid

Viscosity is a property of a fluid that affects the shear


stress developed within the fluid as a result of its
motion.
In fluids, shear resistance is independent of the normal
force (pressure) acting within the fluid. In contrast, in
solids, shear resistance is totally dependent on the
normal force.

Consider a fluid flow, where all the fluid is moving in the


same direction but with a speed that varies in a
perpendicular direction;
That is the only non-zero component of the velocity is the xcomponent, u, and it is a function of y coordinate u(y).
y
u (y)
A

B
Shear stress

Across any plane perpendicular to y within the fluid a stress


will act (see line AB)
The faster fluid above the plane will drag the fluid below
forward, and the slower fluid below will drag the fluid
above back.
y
u (y)
A

B
Shear stress

Equal and opposite forces will thus act on


the fluid above and below.
The generation of this internal stress is
known as viscous stresses
y
u (y)
A

B
Shear stress

If viscosity is zero, the thermal conductivity of the


fluid is also zero
The dimension of viscosity () is FTL-2.
In SI units, it is given as N.s/m2

In flow problems, the viscosity often appears


combined with density in the form:

This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity (nu)


Its dimension is L2/T
In SI units: m2/s

Newtonian Fluids

Fluids for which the shearing stress is


linearly related to the rate of shearing
strain (also known as the rate of angular
deformation) is designated as Newtonian
Fluids.

Non-Newtonian behavior can arise in


liquids with long molecules, suspensions,
emulsions such as blood, paints. NonNewtonian fluids are classified as: shear
thickening, shear thinning, ideal Bingham
plastic. Most non-Newtonian fluids are of
shear thinning.
(Shear thinning)

Bingham plastic, such as


toothpaste, can withstand a
finite shear stress without any
motion, however it moves like
a fluid once this yield stress is
exceeded

(Shear
thickening)

The actual value of viscosity depends on the


particular fluid, and for a particular fluid the
viscosity is also highly dependent on temperature.
The effect of pressure is usually neglected.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with an
increase in temperature
The viscosity of gases increase with an
increase in temperature.

The viscosity of gases increase with an


increase in temperature.
For gases the empirical Sutherland equation
gives the effect of temperature on viscosity.

Where C and S are empirical constants.


T is temperature in Kelvin

Shear thinning

Shear thickening

The rate of deformation (velocity gradient)


of a Newtonian fluid is proportional to
shear stress, and the constant of
proportionality is the viscosity.

Variation of shear stress with the


rate of deformation for Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids (the slope
of a curve at a point is the apparent
viscosity of the fluid at that point).

The variation of
dynamic
(absolute)
viscosity of
common fluids
with temperature
at 1 atm

33

Standard Atmosphere
Although pressure and density in the earths atmosphere varies with altitude, a

standard atmosphere is used in the design of aircraft, missiles, and


spacecraft, and in comparing their performance under standard conditions.

Properties of Standard Atmosphere at sea level:

Temperature, T
Pressure, p
Density,
Specific Weight, s
Viscosity,
gravity, g

288.15 K (15C)
101325 Pa (absolute pressure)
1.225 kg/m3
12.014 N/m3
1.789x10-5 Ns/m2
9.81 m/s2

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