Lecture #10

Three transistor operating modes:

IB = 0

IB > 0

Cutoff

IB >> 0

Linear
(PC > 0)

PC = 0 in both of these modes

Saturation

 Amplifier efficiency
an important consideration in the design of power
amplifiers is efficiency
Efficiency

power dissipated in the load

power absorbed from the supply

efficiency determines the power dissipated in the

amplifier itself
power dissipation is important because it
determines the amount of waste heat produced
excess heat may require heat sinks, cooling fans, etc.

Concept Preview
Efficiency is most important in power amplifiers.
Poor efficiency means that much of the input power is
converted to heat.
Class A amplifiers operate at the center of the load line and
have a large quiescent current flow conducts for the entire
signal cycle and has the lowest efficiency
Class B amplifiers operate at cutoff and have no quiescent
current flow. It conducts for only half of the signal cycle.
They are usually operated in push-pull configurations.
They have crossover distortion
Class AB reduces crossover distortion.
A class C amplifier conducts for less than half of the signal
cycle.
A class D amplifier switches between cutoff and saturation.
Bridge amplifiers provide four times the output power and
eliminate the output coupling capacitor.

High efficiency
means
heat.
HEAT
= PINless
- POUT

Input signal

Power
Amplifier

PIN

Output signal

Efficiency =

POUT
POUT
PIN

Efficiency
The dc power supplied to an amplifier is
PIN = VCC x IDC
Efficiency = POUT/PIN x 100%
The maximum efficiency for Class A
amplifiers with a dc collector resistance
and a separate load resistance is 25%.
Class A is usually not acceptable when
watts of power are required.

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

AB

0 2 4 6

8 10 12 14 16 18

The class of an amplifier

is determined by the bias
which establishes the Q-point.
Class C is established by reverse
biasing the base-emitter junction.

Conduction Angles
& theoretical max. efficiencies:

Class A
Class B
Class AB
Class C

= 360
o
= 180
o
@ 200
o
@ 90

50 %*
78.5 %
(between A & B)
100 %

*Class A amplifiers are seldom driven to

maximum output and typically provide much
less efficiency.

The major classes of amplifier operation

IC

IC

B
t

t
IC

IC
ISAT

D
t

Class and efficiency quiz

If POUT = 100 W and PIN = 200 W, the

efficiency is _________.
50%
The efficiency of an ideal amplifier is
__________.
100%

When efficiency is poor, too much of the input

is converted to ________.
heat
An amplifier that conducts for the entire cycle
is operating Class _______.
A
An amplifier that conducts for half the cycle
is operating Class _______.
B

Class C power amplifiers

Class C amplifier is obtained if the output current
conduction angle is less than 180
Class C have a greater efficiency than both class A
and class B
Class C also have larger distortion compared with
the A and B
Class C amplifier is used when there is no variation
in signal amplitude and the output circuit contains a
tuned circuit to filter out the harmonics
Class C amplifier is used for applications similar to
FM Modulation

Class C power amplifiers

The output of the class C conducts for less
than 180 of the AC cycle
The Q-point is below cutoff as shown below

Power Amplifiers Class C

Class C power amplifier

The
circuit
shown to the left
will
be
considered
in
analysis of the
class C amplifier

Class C power amplifier

The amplifier efficiency can be computed from

the following equation
Po PAC

Pi PDC
The output power is the AC power flowing in
the load resistance
The input power is the supply power which can
be determined from the multiplication of the
supply voltage and the average collector current
The main step in the analysis is to compute the
average collector current which is explained in
the next slide

Class C power amplifier

According to the
figure shown to
the
left,
the
collector current is
given by

Where ID is given
by

Class C power amplifier

The direct collector current is determined by its

average value which is given by
t2
1
I Cav ( I p sin t I D )dt
T t1
It is desired to find the current as a function of
the angles 1 and 2 rather than t1 and t2
This can be achieved by using the following
mapping t1 1 and t 2 2

Class C power amplifier

The average collector current can be rewritten as

2
1
I Cav ( I p sin t I D )dt
T 1

By evaluating this equation we may have the

following expression
ICav

To simplify the notation, the conduction angle

will be defined as

Class C power amplifier

By substituting the conduction angle expression

into the average collector current equation we
get
Ip
I Cav (sin cos )

Now the supplied input power can be written as

Pi VCC I Cav

VCC

I p (sin cos )

If the output RLC circuit is a narrow band filter

tuned to the fundamental frequency of the
current pulses, then the output power will be

Class C power amplifier

Where I1 is the amplitude of the fundamental

current components which is determined by the
trigonometric Fourier series as shown below

By solving the previous equation we may have

The output power now can be written as

PO I RL VCC I1
1
2

2
1

1
2

VCC I p
4

(2 sin 2 )

Class C power amplifier

The efficiency of the amplifier can be written as

PO 12 VCC I1
2 sin 2

Pi VCC I Cav 4(sin cos )

A plot of the efficiency as a a function of the
conduction angle is shown below

Class C power amplifier design

There are four important design parameters
are of great importance for PA design in
general
These parameters are

The output power

Transistor power dissipation
Maximum collector to emitter voltage VCEmax
The maximum transistor output current Ip

Class C power amplifier design

The maximum collector current is given by
Since
The collector current can be rewritten as
The maximum current in terms of the output
current can be written as
Note that the value of the collector voltage VCC can
be written as

Class C power amplifier design

Now the maximum collector current can be
rewritten as

A normalized peak collector current is

defined as

Class C power amplifier design

A plot of the normalized peak current
versus the conduction angle is shown below

Class C power amplifier design

The power dissipated in the transistor is given by
PT Pi PO

VCC I P

VCC I1
( Sin cos )
2

Note the value of Ip can be expressed as

IM
Ip
1 cos

From

we can conclude that

If the value of Ip is substituted in the PT equation

then
2I1
Ip
2 sin 2

Class C power amplifier design

The power dissipated in the transistor is
given by
sin cos VCC I1
PT 2VCC I1 (
)
2 sin 2
2
Or PT can be rewritten as

27

Class C power amplifier design

A normalized plot of PT/PO versus theta is
shown below

Class C power amplifier design

example
Example: Design a class C amplifier that will
deliver 5-W average power to a 50 load at
a frequency of 1 MHz using a transistor with
a safe power dissipation rating of 0.5 W
Solution:
The average output power is given by

Or

VCC 2RL PO 2 50 5 22.4 V

Class C power amplifier design

example
Solution:
Since the allowable power dissipation is
The maximum conduction angle can be found
from the graph shown in slide 19 or by
solving the PT/PO equation 57.5
The value of the normalized current
corresponds to this angle is
refer to
the figure
The peak collector current is given by

Class C power amplifier design

An alternate design procedure for class C
amplifiers is
Select the power supply
Select the transistor
Determine the maximum output power without
exceeding the transistor ratings
The transistor then can be driven to its
maximum allowed value of output current
Determine the value of the load resistance that
twill result in the maximum current according to

Class C power amplifier design

Now the transistor power equation can be
modified as

The normalized transistor power dissipation

is given by
Where

4(sin cos ) (2 sin 2 )

f ( )
1 cos
32

Class C power amplifier design

33

Class C power amplifier design

example 2

Example 2: Determine the maximum output

power and the conduction angle of a class C
amplifier using a transistor with maximum
power dissipation rating of 4 W and a
maximum output current of 1.5 A. The
supply voltage is 48 V
Solution:
The
normalized
maximum
transistor
dissipation is given by
34

Class C power amplifier design

example 2
Solution:
The conduction angle for maximum
normalized transistor power PT is found to
be as
If we refer back (PT/PO vs ) plot we find that
the value of PT/PO which corresponds to this
angle is
The output power now can be found as
35

Class C power amplifier design

example 2
Solution:
Finally the value of the load resistance that
results in this output power is given by

36

Class C
Class C amps are never used for audio circuits.
They are commonly used in RF circuits.
Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a
state that results in tremendous distortion (it would
be totally unsuitable for audio reproduction).

Basic class C amplifier operation (non inverting).

Basic class C operation.

Class C waveforms.

Tuned class C amplifier.

Tuned class C amplifier with clamper bias.

Class C
However, the RF circuits where Class C amps
are used, employ filtering so that the final
signal is completely acceptable.
Class C amps are quite efficient.

Class B
A class B output stage can be far more
efficient than a class A stage (78.5 %
maximum efficiency compared with 25 %).
It also requires twice as many output
transistors
and it isnt very linear; cross-over
distortion can be significant.

Class B
Class B amplifiers are used in low cost designs or
designs where sound quality is not that important.
Class B amplifiers are significantly more efficient
than class A amps.

They suffer from bad distortion when the signal

level is low (the distortion in this region of
operation is called "crossover distortion").

Class B
Class B is used most often where economy of design
is needed.
Before the advent of IC amplifiers, class B amplifiers
were common in clock radio circuits, pocket
transistor radios, or other applications where
quality of sound is not that critical.

Power Amplifiers
Complementary Symmetry Power Amplifier (Class-B)

Crossover
distortion

Power Amplifiers
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier (Class-AB) (OCL)
To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome the
VBE of the transistors; this results in a modified form of operation called class
AB. In class AB operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight
conduction, even when no input signal is present.

}VCC
}VCC

Power Calculation is the same as class-B

Power Amplifiers
Single-Supply Push-Pull Amplifier (OTL)
The circuit operation is the same as that described previously, except the
bias is set to force the output emitter voltage to be VCC/2 instead of zero
volts used with two supplies. Because the output is not biased at zero
volts, capacitive coupling for the input and output is necessary to block
the bias voltage from the source and the load resistor.

Power dissipation of the class B output stage

versus amplitude of the output sinusoid.

Class AB
Class AB is probably the most common amplifier
class currently used in home stereo and similar
amplifiers.

Class AB amps combine the good points of class A

and B amps.
They have the improved efficiency of class B amps
and distortion performance that is a lot closer to
that of a class A amp.

Eliminating crossover distortion in a transformer-coupled push-pull amplifier. The

diode compensates for the base-emitter drop of the transistors and produces
class AB operation.

Load lines for a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier. Only

the load lines for the npn transistor are shown.

Single-ended push-pull amplifier.

A Darlington class AB push-pull amplifier.

A Class AB push-pull amplifier with correct output voltage.

Incorrect output waveforms for the amplifier in previous Figure.

Class AB
With such amplifiers, distortion is worst when the
signal is low, and generally lowest when the signal is
just reaching the point of clipping.
Class AB amps use pairs of transistors, both of them
being biased slightly ON so that the crossover
distortion (associated with Class B amps) is largely
eliminated.

 Distortion in push-pull amplifiers

 Improved push-pull output stage

arrangements

POWER TRANSISTOR BJT

EXAMPLE
Determine the required ratings
(current, voltage and power) of
the BJT.

POWER TRANSISTOR BJT

EXAMPLE Solution
For VCE @ 0 the maximum
collector current;

VCC 24
I C max

3A
RL
8
For I C 0 the maximum collectoremitter voltage;

VCEmax VCC 24 V

POWER TRANSISTOR BJT

EXAMPLE Solution
The load line equation
is;

VCE VCC I C RL
The load line must lie
within the SOA
The transistor power
dissipation;

PT VCE I C VCC I C RL I C VCC I C I C2 RL

POWER TRANSISTOR BJT

EXAMPLE Solution
dPT
0
The maximum power occurs when
dI C
i.e. when VCC 2I C RL 0

Differentiating

or when I C 1.5 A
At this point; VCE VCC I C RL 12 V
and;

PT VCE I C 18 W

POWER TRANSISTOR BJT

EXAMPLE Solution
Thus the transistor ratings are;

I C max 3 A
VCE max 24 V
PT 18 W

In practice, to find a suitable transistor for a given

application, safety factors are normally used. The
transistor with I C max 3 A, VCEmax 24 V, PT 18 W
will be required.

A large-signal amplifier can also be called a power amplifier.

This class A amplifier has a large quiescent collector current.

VCC
18 V
IB =
=
= 15 mA
RB
1.2 kW
IC = b x IB = 60 x 15 mA = 0.9 A

RL = 12 W

RB = 1.2 kW

CC

C
b = 60
E

VCC = 18 V

ISAT =

IC in A

VCC
18 V
=
= 1.5 A
12 W
RL

This is a Class A amplifier.

Q

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
PC = VCE x IC = 7.2 V x 0.9 A = 6.48 W

25 mA
20 mA

15 mA
10 mA
5 mA
0 mA

This is a Class B amplifier.

Its quiescent power dissipation is zero.

IC in A

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts

PC = VCE x IC = 18 V x 0 A = 0 W

25 mA
20 mA

15 mA
Q
10 mA
5 mA
0 mA

25 mA

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6

20 mA
15 mA
10 mA
5 mA

8 10 12 14 16

0 mA
The collector signal
is too distorted for
linear applications.

The complementary-symmetry Class B

push-pull amplifier has acceptable
linearity for some applications.

+VCC

C
B

NPN

E
E
PNP

PNP

NPN

Class B

Since the base-emitter junction potential

is 0.7 V, there is some crossover distortion.

+VCC

C
B

NPN

E
E
PNP

Crossover distortion is eliminated

by applying some forward bias
to the transistors (class AB).
+VCC

C
B

NPN

1.4 V

E
PNP

The quiescent power dissipation is moderate for class AB.

The efficiency is much better than class A.

IC in A

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts

Push-pull amplifiers
Push-pull operation helps to increase values of input and output impedances
and to additionally suppress even harmonics
For 50% duty cycle of each device (ideal Class B) with
driving sinusoidal voltage:

ic1

T2

T1
n1

icc
Vcc

Vb

first transistor collector current

iL

RL

n2

second transistor collector current

n1

0,
0

ic2
I c sin , 2

ic2
ic1

Being transformed through output

transformer T2, total collector current:

Ic
icc

icL

iL ic1 ic2 I c sin

Ic

Ic

ic2

Ic0

Ic

I c sin , 0
ic1
0,
2

Current flowing in center tap of primary

winding of transformer T2:

icc ic1 ic2 I c sin

82

Push-pull amplifiers
Ideally, even-order harmonics are canceled as they
are in-phase and combined in center tap of primary
winding of output transformer

ic1

T2

T1
icc

n1

Vcc

Vb

iL

n2

RL

n1

As for 50% duty cycle, third- and higher-order

odd harmonics do not exist, ideally sinusoidal
signal will appear in load

ic2

vL I c RL sin VL sin

Total DC collector current

1
I co
2

icc d
0

Ic

For zero saturation resistance when collector

voltage amplitude Vc = Vcc and equal turns of
winding when VL = Vc, DC and fundamental
output powers

P0

I cVcc

To eliminate losses, it is necessary to

connect bypass capacitance to this center
point

Pout

1
I cVcc
2

Maximum theoretical collector

efficiency that can be achieved in
Class B operation

Pout

@ 78.5%
P0
4
83

POWER TRANSISTOR
Transistor limitations
Maximum rated current,
Maximum rated voltage,
Maximum rated power.
The maximum rated power is related to the maximum
allowable temperature of the transistor.

POWER TRANSISTOR BJT

Large-area devices the geometry and doping
concentration are different from those of small-signal
transistors
Examples of BJT rating:
Parameter

Small-signal
BJT
(2N2222A)

Power BJT Power BJT

(2N3055)
(2N6078)

VCE (max) (V)

IC (max) (A)

40
0.8

60
15

250
7

PD (max) (W)

1.2
35 100

115
5 20

45
12 70

fT (MHz)

300

0.8

Summary & Revision

and some extra Material

Amplifier Power Dissipation

VCC

The total amount of power

being dissipated by the
amplifier, Ptot , is

I CC

Ptot = P1 + P2 + PC + PT + PE

I1
I CQ
P =

I12R1

1
The difference between this
total value and the total
power being drawn from the
supply is the power that
actually goes to the load i.e.
P2 = I22R2
output power.

R1

PC = I2CQR C
PT = I2TQ R T

I EQ

R2
I2

Amplifier Efficiency

RC

RE

PE = I2EQ R E

Amplifier Efficiency
A figure of merit for the power amplifier is its efficiency, .
Efficiency ( of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac
output power (power delivered to load) to dc input power .
By formula :
ac output power
Po (ac)

100%
100%
dc input power
Pi (dc)

As we will see, certain amplifier configurations have much

higher efficiency ratings than others.
This is primary consideration when deciding which type of
power amplifier to use for a specific application.
Amplifier Classifications

Amplifier Classifications
Power amplifiers are classified according to the percent of
time that collector current is nonzero.
The amount the output signal varies over one cycle of
operation for a full cycle of input signal.
vin

Av

vout

Class-A

vin

Av

vout

Class-B

vin

Av

vout

Class-C

Efficiency Ratings
The maximum theoretical efficiency ratings
of class-A, B, and C amplifiers are:
Amplifier

Maximum Theoretical
Efficiency, max

Class A

25%

Class B

78.5%

Class C

99%

Class A Amplifier
vin

Av

vout

output waveform same shape input waveform +

phase shift.
The collector current is nonzero 100% of the time.
inefficient, since even with zero input signal, ICQ is
nonzero
(i.e. transistor dissipates power in the rest, or quiescent,
condition)

Basic Operation
Common-emitter (voltage-divider) configuration (RC-coupled amplifier)
+VCC
I CC

I1

I CQ

R1

RC

RL

v in

R2
RE

Typical Characteristic Curves for

Class-A Operation

Typical Characteristic
Previous figure shows an example of a
sinusoidal input and the resulting collector
current at the output.
The current, ICQ , is usually set to be in the
center of the ac load line. Why?
(DC and AC analyses discussed in previous sessions)

DC Input Power
+VCC

The total dc power, Pi(dc) , that an amplifier

draws from the power supply :

I CC

I1

I CQ

R1

RC

Pi (dc) VCC I CC

RL

I CC I CQ I 1

I CC I CQ

( I CQ I 1 )

v in

R2
RE

Pi (dc) VCC I CQ
Note that this equation is valid for most amplifier power analyses. We can rewrite for the
above equation for the ideal amplifier as

Pi (dc) 2VCEQ I CQ

AC Output Power
AC output (or load) power, Po(ac)

ic
vo

Po (ac) ic ( rms ) vo ( rms )

vo ( rms )

RL

Above equations can be used to

calculate the maximum possible
value of ac load power. HOW??

vce

vin

rC

RC//RL

R1//R2

Disadvantage of using class-A amplifiers is the fact that their efficiency

ratings are so low, max 25% .
Why?? A majority of the power that is drawn from the supply by a
class-A amplifier is used up by the amplifier itself.
Class-B Amplifier

IC(sat) = VCC/(RC+RE)

IC(sat) = ICQ + (VCEQ/rC)

DC Load Line

ac load line
IC

IC
(mA)

VCE(off) = VCC

VCE(off) = VCEQ + ICQrC

VCE

VPP2
VCEQ I CQ 1
Po (ac)

VCEQ I CQ
8 RL
2 2 2

ac load line
IC

VCE

Q - point
dc load line

VCE

Po ( ac)
Pi ( dc)

1
VCEQ I CQ
2
100%
100% 25%
2VCEQ I CQ

Limitation

Example

+VCC = 20V

Calculate the input power [Pi(dc)], output power [Po(ac)],

and efficiency [] of the amplifier circuit for an input
voltage that results in a base current of 10mA peak.
VCC VBE 20V 0.7V

19.3mA
RB
1kW
ICQ bI B 25(19.3mA) 482.5mA @ 0.48 A
I c ( sat)

VCC 20V

1000mA 1A
RC
20W

VCE ( cu to ff ) VCC 20V

IC ( p ea k) bIb ( p ea k) 25(10mA peak ) 250mA peak
Po ( ac)
Pi ( dc)

I C2 ( peak)

250 10 A

RC
(20W) 0.625W
2
2
VCC I CQ (20V )(0.48 A) 9.6W

Po ( ac)
Pi ( dc)

100% 6.5%

1kW

IC

RC

20W
Vo

b 25

IBQ

VCEQ VCC ICRC 20V (0.48 A)(20W) 10.4V

RB

Vi

Transformer-Coupled Class-A Amplifier

+VCC

A transformer-coupled class-A amplifier

uses a transformer to couple the output
signal from the amplifier to the load.

N1:N2
R1

The relationship between the primary

and secondary values of voltage,
current and impedance are summarized
as:
N 1 V1 I 2

N 2 V2 I 1

N1

N2

RL

Z1

Z2 = RL

Input

R2

Z
Z
1 1
Z 2 RL

N1, N2 = the number of turns in the primary and secondary

V1, V2 = the primary and secondary voltages
I1, I2 = the primary and secondary currents
Z1, Z2 = the primary and seconadary impedance ( Z2 = RL )

RE

Transformer-Coupled Class-A Amplifier

An important characteristic of the transformer
is the ability to produce a counter emf, or kick
emf.
When an inductor experiences a rapid change
in supply voltage, it will produce a voltage with
a polarity that is opposite to the original voltage
polarity.
The counter emf is caused by the
electromagnetic field that surrounds the
inductor.

Counter emf
SW1

10V

10V

10V

10V

This counter emf will be present only for an instant.

As the field collapses into the inductor the voltage decreases in value
until it eventually reaches 0V.

DC Operating Characteristics
The dc biasing of a transformer-coupled class-A amplifier is very similar to any
other class-A amplifier with one important exception :

the value of VCEQ is designed to be as close as possible to VCC.

+VCC

The dc load line is very close to being a vertical line

indicating that VCEQ will be approximately equal to VCC
for all the values of IC.

N1:N2
RL

Z1

R1

Z2 = RL

The nearly vertical load line of the transformercoupled amplifier is caused by the extremely low dc
resistance of the transformer primary.

Input

R2
RE

VCEQ = VCC ICQ(RC + RE)

The value of RL is ignored in the dc analysis of the
transformer-coupled class-A amplifier. The reason for
this is the fact that transformer provides dc isolation I
between the primary and secondary. Since the load
resistance is in the secondary of the transformer it
dose not affect the dc analysis of the primary
circuitry.

DC load line

IB = 0mA
VCE

AC Operating Characteristics
1. Determine the maximum possible change in VCE

+VCC
N1:N2

Since VCE cannot change by an amount

greater than (VCEQ 0V),
vce = VCEQ.

RL

Z1

R1

Z2 = RL

2. Determine the corresponding change in IC

Find the value of Z1 for the transformer: Z1 =
(N1/N2)2Z2 and ic = vce / Z1

3. Plot a line that passes through the Q-point and

the value of IC(max).
IC(max) = ICQ + ic

R2

Input

RE

IC
IC(max)

= ??
DC load line

4. Locate the two points where the load line

passes through the lies representing the minimum
and maximum values of IB. These two points are
then used to find the maximum and minimum
values of IC and VCE

Q-point
ac load line

IB = 0mA
~ VCEQ ~ VCC

~ 2VCC

VCE

+VCC
N1:N2
RL

Z1

R1

IC

Z2 = RL

IC(max)

= ??
DC load line

R2

Input

RE
Q-point

ICQ

ac load line

ic
IB = 0mA

vce

vin
R1//R2

Z1

vo

~ VCEQ ~ VCC

~ 2VCC

VCE

Maximum load power and efficiency

The Power Supply for the amplifier : PS = VCCICC
Maximum peak-to-peak voltage across the primary of the transformer
is approximately equal to the difference between the values of VCE(max)
and VCE(min) : VPP = VCE(max) V-CE(min)
N1 :

Maximum possible peak-to-peak load voltage

found by
V(P-P)max = (N2 / N1)V PP

N2

is
VPP

RL

V(P-P) max

The actual efficiency rating of a transformer-coupled class-A amplifier

will generally be less than 40%.

There are several reasons for the

difference between the practical and
theoretical efficiency ratings for the
amplifier :
1. The derivation of the = 50% value assumes
that VCEQ = VCC . In practice, VCEQ will always
be some value that is less the VCC .
2. The transformer is subject to various power
losses. Among these losses are couple loss
and hysteresis loss. These transformer power
losses are not considered in the derivation of
the = 50% value.

 One of the primary advantages of using the

transformer-coupled class-A amplifier is the
increased efficiency over the RC-coupled class-A
circuit.
Another advantage is the fact that the
transformer-coupled amplifier is easily converted
into a type of amplifier that is used extensively in
communications :- the tuned amplifier.
A tuned amplifier is a circuit that is designed to
have a specific value of power gain over a specific
range of frequency.

Class B Amplifier
In class B, the transistor is
biased just off. The AC signal
turns the transistor on.
The transistor only conducts
when it is turned on by onehalf of the AC cycle.
In order to get a full AC cycle
out of a class B amplifier, you
need two transistors:

An npn transistor that provides the

negative half of the AC cycle
A pnp transistor that provides the
positive half.

Class B Amplifier
Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal
high during one half-cycle and the other part
pulls the signal low during the other half cycle,
the circuit is referred to as a push-pull circuit

Input DC power
The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is
drawn from the power supply
The amount of this DC power is calculated using

Pi ( dc) VCC I dc
The DC current drawn from the source is the average
value of the current delivered to the load

Input DC power
The current drawn from a single DC supply has the
form of a full wave rectified signal, while that drawn
from two power supplies has the form of half-wave
rectified signal from each supply
On either case the average value for the current is
2
given by
I dc I p

The input power can be written as

Pi ( dc)

VCC I p

Output AC power
The power delivered to the load can be calculated
V
using the following equation P V

L ( p p)

o ( ac)

8RL

L( p)

2 RL

The efficiency of the amplifier is given by

VL ( p )

Not that
R
Therefore the efficiency can be re-expressed as
Ip

Output AC power
The maximum efficiency can be obtained if
The value of this maximum efficiency will be

Power dissipated by the output transistors

The power dissipated by the output transistors as heat is
given by
The power in each transistor is given by

Example
Example 1: For class B amplifier providing a 20-V peak
signal to a 16- speaker and a power supply of VCC=30
V, determine the input power , output power and the
efficiency
Solution:
The input power is given by
Pi ( dc)

VCC I p

The peak collector load current can be found from

Example
Solution:
The input power is

Pi ( dc)

30(1.25) 23.9 W

The output power is given by

The efficiency is

Maximum power dissipated by the output

transistors
The maximum power dissipated by the two transistors
occurs when the output voltage across the load is
given by
The maximum power dissipation is given by

Example
Example 2: For class B amplifier using a supply of
VCC=30 V and driving a load of 16-, determine the
input power , output power and the efficiency
Solution:
The maximum output power is given by

The maximum input power drawn from the supply is

Example
Solution:
The efficiency is given by

The maximum power dissipated by each transistor is

Class B Amplifier circuits

A number of circuit arrangements can be used to

realize class B amplifier
We will consider in this course two arrangements
in particular
1. The first arrangement uses a single input signal fed to
the input of two complementary transistors
(complementary symmetry circuits)
2. The second arrangement uses two out of phase input
signals of equal amplitudes feeded to the input of two
similar NPN or PNP transistors (quasi-complementary
push-pull amplifier)

Complementary symmetry circuits

first arrangement

This circuit uses both

npn and pnp
transistor to construct
class B amplifier as
shown to the left
One disadvantage of
this circuit is the need
for two separate
voltage supplies

Complementary symmetry circuits

another disadvantage of this circuit is the

resulting cross over distortion

Cross over distortion can be eliminated the by

biasing the transistors in class AB operation where
the transistors are biased to be on for slightly
more than half a cycle

Class B Output Stage

A class B output stage.
Complementary circuits.
Push-pull operation
Maximum power-conversion
efficiency is 78.5%

Transfer Characteristic

Crossover Distortion

Class AB biasing to solve crossover

distortion

Complementary symmetry circuits

A more practical version of

a push-pull circuit using
complementary transistors
is shown to the right
This circuit uses to
complementary Darlington
pair transistors to achieve
larger current driving and
lower output impedance

Second arrangement

As stated previously the second arrangement which

uses two equal input signals of opposite phase has
to be preceded by a phase inverting network as
shown below

Quasi-complementary push pull amplifier

second arrangement

In practical power amplifier circuits it is preferable

to uses npn for both transistors
Since the push pull connection requires
complementary devices, a pnp high power transistor
must be used.
This can be achieved by using the circuit shown

Example
Example: For the circuit shown, calculate the input
power, output power and the power handled by
each transistor and the efficiency if the input signal
is 12 Vrms
Solution:
The peak input voltage is
The output power is

Example
Solution:
The peak load current is
The dc current can be found from the peak as
The input power is given by

The power dissipated by each transistor is given by

Crossover Distortion

If the transistors Q1 and Q2 do

not turn on and off at exactly
the same time, then there is a
gap in the output voltage.

Class B Amplifier Push-Pull Operation

During the positive

half-cycle of the AC
input, transistor Q1
(npn) is conducting
and Q2 (pnp) is off.

During the negative

half-cycle of the AC
input, transistor Q2
(pnp) is conducting
and Q1 (npn) is off.

Each transistor produces one-half of an AC cycle. The transformer combines the

two outputs to form a full AC cycle.

This circuit is less commonly used in modern circuits

Amplifier Distortion
If the output of an amplifier is not a complete AC sine wave,
then it is distorting the output. The amplifier is non-linear.
This distortion can be analyzed using Fourier analysis. In
Fourier analysis, any distorted periodic waveform can be
broken down into frequency components. These
components are harmonics of the fundamental frequency.

Harmonics
Harmonics are integer multiples of a fundamental frequency.

If the fundamental frequency is 5kHz:

1st harmonic
2nd harmonic
3rd harmonic
4th harmonic
etc.

1 x 5kHz
2 x 5kHz
3 x 5kHz
4 x 5kHz

Note that the 1st and 3rd harmonics are called odd harmonics and the
2nd and 4th are called even harmonics

Harmonic Distortion

According to Fourier
analysis, if a signal is not
purely sinusoidal, then it
contains harmonics.

138

Harmonic Distortion Calculations

Harmonic distortion (D) can be calculated:

An
% nth harmonic distortion %D n
100
A1
where
A1 is the amplitude of the fundamental frequency
An is the amplitude of the highest harmonic

The total harmonic distortion (THD) is determined by:

% THD D 22 D 23 D 23 100

Power Transistor Derating Curve

Power transistors dissipate

a lot of power in heat. This
can be destructive to the
amplifier as well as to
surrounding components.

Power Dissipation
The load power
2
1 Vo
PL
2 RL

Maximum load power

PL max

2
1 Vo

2 RL

Vo VCC

VCC

2 RL

Power Dissipation
Total supply power
2 Vo
Ps
VCC
RL

Maximum total supply power

Ps max

2
2 Vo
2 VCC

VCC

RL
RL
V V
o

CC

Power Dissipation
Power-conversion efficiency

Vo
4 VCC

Maximum power-conversion efficiency

max

Vo
4 VCC

78.5%
Vo VCC

Power Dissipation
Power dissipation
2
2 Vo
1 Vo
PD
VCC
RL
2 RL

Maximum Power dissipation

PDN max PDP max
2

2
2 Vo
1 Vo

VCC
RL
2 RL

2VCC
0.2 PL max
2
RL

2
Vo VCC

Class AB Output Stage

A bias voltage VBB is applied between the bases of QN and QP, giving rise to a bias
current IQ . Thus, for small vI, both transistors conduct and crossover distortion is
almost completely eliminated.

A Class AB Output Stage Utilizing Diodes

for Biasing

A Class AB Output Stage Utilizing A VBE

Multiplier for Biasing

Amateur Radio Extra Class

Amps & Power Supplies

E1XXX

A push-pull type amplifier reduces or eliminates even-order harmonics.

E7B17

A grounded-grid amplifier has low input impedance.

E7B07

A vacuum-tube power amplifier can be neutralized by feeding back an

out-of-phase component of the output to the input.