What Is Statistics?

Statistics is the science of learning from data, and of measuring, controlling, and communicating uncertainty; and
it thereby provides the navigation essential for controlling the course of scientific and societal advances.
Statisticians apply statistical thinking and methods to a wide variety of scientific, social, and business endeavors
in such areas as astronomy, biology, education, economics, engineering, genetics, marketing, medicine,
psychology, public health, sports, among many. "The best thing about being a statistician is that you get to play
in everyone else's backyard." (John Tukey, Bell Labs, Princeton University)
Many economic, social, political, and military decisions cannot be made without statistical techniques, such as the
design of experiments to gain federal approval of a newly manufactured drug.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple
summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of
virtually every quantitative analysis of data.

Inferential Statistics
With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend
beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics
to try to infer from the sample data what the population might think. Or, we
use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an
observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might
have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to
make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use
descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.
Population statistics is the use of statistics to analyze characteristics or
changes to a population. It is related to social demography and demography.
Population statistics can analyze anything from global demographic
changes to local small scale changes. For example, an analysis of global
change shows that population growth has slowed, infant mortality rates have
declined and there have been small increases in the aged.
Quantitative Variable
Variables can be classified as categorical (aka, qualitative) or quantitative
(aka, numerical).
Categorical. Categorical variables take on values that are names or labels.
The color of a ball (e.g., red, green, blue) or the breed of a dog (e.g., collie,
shepherd, terrier) would be examples of categorical variables.
Quantitative. Quantitative variables are numerical. They represent a
measurable quantity. For example, when we speak of the population of a city,

we are talking about the number of people in the city - a measurable

attribute of the city. Therefore, population would be a quantitative variable.
In algebraic equations, quantitative variables are represented by symbols
(e.g., x, y, or z).
Qualitative Variable
Variables can be classified as categorical (aka, qualitative) or quantitative
(aka, numerical).
Categorical. Categorical variables take on values that are names or labels.
The color of a ball (e.g., red, green, blue) or the breed of a dog (e.g., collie,
shepherd, terrier) would be examples of categorical variables.
Quantitative. Quantitative variables are numerical. They represent a
measurable quantity. For example, when we speak of the population of a city,
we are talking about the number of people in the city - a measurable
attribute of the city. Therefore, population would be a quantitative variable
Discrete Variable
If a variable can take on any value between its minimum value and its
maximum value, it is called a continuous variable; otherwise, it is called a
discrete variable.
Some examples will clarify the difference between discrete and continuous
variables.
Suppose the fire department mandates that all fire fighters must weigh
between 150 and 250 pounds. The weight of a fire fighter would be an
example of a continuous variable; since a fire fighter's weight could take on
any value between 150 and 250 pounds.
Suppose we flip a coin and count the number of heads. The number of heads
could be any integer value between 0 and plus infinity. However, it could not
be any number between 0 and plus infinity. We could not, for example, get
2.5 heads. Therefore, the number of heads must be a discrete variable.
Continuous Variable
If a variable can take on any value between its minimum value and its
maximum value, it is called a continuous variable; otherwise, it is called a
discrete variable.
Some examples will clarify the difference between discrete and continuous
variables.

Suppose the fire department mandates that all fire fighters must weigh
between 150 and 250 pounds. The weight of a fire fighter would be an
example of a continuous variable; since a fire fighter's weight could take on
any value between 150 and 250 pounds.
Suppose we flip a coin and count the number of heads. The number of heads
could be any integer value between 0 and plus infinity. However, it could not
be any number between 0 and plus infinity. We could not, for example, get
2.5 heads. Therefore, the number of heads must be a discrete variable.
Nominal Level of Measurement

The nominal level of measurement is the lowest of the four ways to

characterize data. Nominal means "in name only" and that should help to
remember what this level is all about. Nominal data deals with names,
categories, or labels.
Data at the nominal level is qualitative. Colors of eyes, yes or no responses to
a survey, and favorite breakfast cereal all deal with the nominal level of
measurement. Even some things with numbers associated with them, such as
a number on the back of a football jersey, are nominal since it is used to
"name" an individual player on the field.
Data at this level can't be ordered in a meaningful way, and it makes no
sense to calculate things such as means and standard deviations.

Ordinal Level of Measurement

The next level is called the ordinal level of measurement. Data at this level
can be ordered, but no differences between the data can be taken that are
meaningful.
Here you should think of things like a list of the top ten cities to live. The
data, here ten cities, are ranked from one to ten, but differences between the
cities don't make much sense. There's no way from looking at just the
rankings to know how much better life is in city number 1 than city number 2.
Another example of this are letter grades. You can order things so that A is
higher than a B, but without any other information, there is no way of
knowing how much better an A is from a B.
As with the nominal level, data at the ordinal level should not be used in
calculations.

Interval Level of Measurement

The interval level of measurement deals with data that can be ordered, and in
which differences between the data does make sense. Data at this level does
not have a starting point.
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales of temperatures are both examples of data
at the interval level of measurement. You can talk about 30 degrees being 60
degrees less than 90 degrees, so differences do make sense. However 0
degrees (in both scales) cold as it may be does not represent the total
absence of temperature.

Data at the interval level can be used in calculations. However, data at this
level does lack one type of comparison. Even though 3 x 30 = 90, it is not
correct to say that 90 degrees Celsius is three times as hot as 30 degrees
Celsius.
Ratio Level of Measurement
The fourth and highest level of measurement is the ratio level. Data at the
ratio level possess all of the features of the interval level, in addition to a zero
value. Due to the presence of a zero, it now makes sense to compare the
ratios of measurements. Phrases such as "four times" and "twice" are
meaningful at the ratio level.
Distances, in any system of measurement give us data at the ratio level. A
measurement such as 0 feet does make sense, as it represents no length.
Furthermore 2 feet is twice as long as 1 foot. So ratios can be formed
between the data.
At the ratio level of measurement, not only can sums and differences be
calculated, but also ratios. One measurement can be divided by any nonzero
measurement, and a meaningful number will result.
Frequency distributions are visual displays that organize and present
frequency counts so that the information can be interpreted more easily.
Frequency distributions can show absolute frequencies or relative
frequencies, such as proportions or percentages.
The absolute frequency describes the number of times a particular value
for a variable (data item) has been observed to occur.

A relative frequency describes the number of times a particular value for a

variable (data item) has been observed to occur in relation to the total
number of values for that variable.
Class Mark (Midpoint)
The number in the middle of the class. It is found by adding the upper and
lower limits and dividing by two. It can also be found by adding the upper and
lower boundaries and dividing by two.

Histogram
A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to
represent frequencies. The horizontal axis can be either the class boundaries,
the class marks, or the class limits.
CLASS INTERVAL
In statistics, the data is arranged into different classes and the width of such class is called class
interval. Class intervals are generally equal in width but this might not be the case always.
Also, they are generally mutually exclusive. Class Intervals are very useful in drawing histograms.
For example the following are the data of ages of a randomly selected population of 10 people
8, 19, 58, 35, 45, 12, 6, 13, 18, 47
Then they are grouped as follows:

Class

Frequen
cy

0-10

10-20

20-30

30-40

40-50

50-60

60 and
above

Here, class interval is 10-0=20-10=30-20= 10

In firs row, upper limit=10, lower limit= 0, class width= 10-0=10.
The grouping can be done differently with different class intervals also.

Pie Chart
Graphical depiction of data as slices of a pie. The frequency determines the
size of the slice. The number of degrees in any slice is the relative frequency
times 360 degrees.
Stem and Leaf Plot
A data plot which uses part of the data value as the stem and the rest of the
data value (the leaf) to form groups or classes. This is very useful for sorting
data quickly.
stem and leaf display is a graphical method of displaying data. It is
particularly useful when your data are not too numerous. In this section, we
will explain how to construct and interpret this kind of graph.