Forensic Science International 117 (2001) 16

Editorial

Global forensic anthropology in the 21st century

Abstract
While it has a long history, the last 30 years have brought considerable advances to the discipline of forensic anthropology
worldwide. Every so often it is essential that these advances are noticed and trends assessed. It is also important to identify
those research areas that are needed for the forthcoming years. The purpose of this special issue is to examine some of the
examples of research that might identify the trends in the 21st century. Of the 14 papers 5 dealt with facial features and
identication such as facial prole determination and skull-photo superimposition. Age (fetus and cranial thickness), sex
(supranasal region, arm and leg bones) and stature (from the arm bones) estimation were represented by ve articles. Others
discussed the estimation of time since death, skull color and diabetes, and a case study dealing with a mummy and skeletal
analysis in comparison with DNA identication. These papers show that age, sex, and stature are still important issues of the
discipline. Research on the human face is moving from hit and miss case studies to a more scientically sound direction. A
lack of studies on trauma and taphonomy is very clear. Anthropologists with other scientists can develop research areas to
make the identication process more reliable. Research should include the assessment of animal attacks on human remains,
factors affecting decomposition rates, and aging of the human face. Lastly anthropologists should be involved in the education
of forensic pathologists about osteological techniques and investigators regarding archaeology of crime scenes.
# 2001 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Forensic anthropology; Human identication; Research trend in forensic anthropology

1. Introduction
For about 60 years anthropologists have participated in forensic research and assisted law enforcement personnel in solving crime [1]. Krogman also
contributed to the medico-legal community by his
book, The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine,
which was later revised extensively with Iscan
[2]. Following this there have been numerous inuential publications that made the forensic eld a
part of the anthropology curriculum [3,4]. Many
anthropologists organized forensic anthropology
sessions in scientic meetings. Moreover, there are
journal special issues fully dedicated to this eld
[5,6]. The author [7,8] has also edited two issues of
Forensic Science International to illustrate development within forensic anthropology. These not only
brought scientists together from around the world but
also made the eld a truly global topic of research
[913].

Forensic anthropology is an applied branch of

biological anthropology and an active part of forensic
medicine. Research topics are usually concentrated in
the areas of general population and specic personal
biology [14]. The rst includes population and demographic characteristics such as determination of sex
and race, and estimation of age and stature. The
second deals with factors of individualization used
to assign an unknown individual to a specic person.
Topics may vary and include but not limited to antemortem health, trauma and others.
It is essential that new ideas and effective research
techniques are brought together and shared frequently
through special journal issues, monographs and books
[8]. The purpose of this issue is as such to show
current trends in research by scientists from different
regions of the globe as we enter the 21st century. This
paper briey reviews 14 papers, in this issue, with
varying topics contributed by scholars from around the
world.

0379-0738/01/$ see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 9 - 0 7 3 8 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 4 3 3 - 3

Editorial / Forensic Science International 117 (2001) 16

2. Research
2.1. General skeletal biology
Research in the new millennium seems to be on
specic population and individual differences as suggested some 15 years ago [1519].
In general determination of sex is not a difcult
problem for a scientist when a complete skeleton is
available [2]. But this is not always the condition
remains are found in. For example, in airplane crashes
bones can be broken into many pieces and only a small
segment may be available to make identication. The
rst paper of the issue by SchiwyBochat deals with
the supranasal region (glabella) for the determination
of sex. It attempts to show a relationship between the
roughness of the supranasal region and sex. Eighty
skulls of known sex and age were collected from
autopsy material used in teaching and forensic cases
to run the test. The quantication of the region was
calculated via the box-counting dimension. Statistical
analysis showed that the males were well grouped but
the females widely overlapped the male range. The
trait qualities were classied using ve distinctive
descriptions of the morphological trait from hyperfemininity as the most smooth and regular to hypermasculinity, very rough and irregular. Other scientists
using different parts of the skeleton have carried
similar but morphologically more complex and
extensive studies on this range of sexual variation
[20,21].
Yet sex determination is more reliable when the
remains are from long bones and include those dimensions that characterize the width or circumference
[15,22]. The contribution by Asala is to determine
if the femoral head diameter can differentiate sex in a
large sample of South African whites and blacks.
Using the concept of a demarking point the author
concludes that sex from this bone must be calculated
separately for each population. A similar study in the
same white population by Steyn and Iscan [23] has
obtained an accuracy rate of 8691%.
Various scholars have pioneered stature estimation
early in the 19th and 20th centuries [2426]. In the last
quarter of the last century there were such studies
which expanded to all known large populations
[27,28]. Difculties with fragmented skeletons are
also dealt with by various scientists [2933]. The

study by Mall and associates attempts to determine

sex and estimate stature from the long bones of the
upper extremity in a German anatomic sample. Discriminant function statistics provide a correct classication rate of more than 88%. Yet the authors have
not reached a satisfactory conclusion in estimate of
stature from these bones.
For a long time age estimation from the skeleton has
been a challenge for many anthropologists [34]. It is
thought to be less difcult for children. Yet fetal age is
not as simple as has been assumed. It is investigated in
different populations [3538]. In a joint work Castellana and Kosa use a large sample of fetuses aged from
4 to 10 lunar months to estimate age from the rst and
second cervical vertebrae. A close association
between the bone size and age is found and in turn
fetal length. Factorial analysis implies that the shape
of the dens of the axis might be useful in determining
fetal viability.
Many parts of the skeleton have been analyzed to
estimate age at death [34]. Of these, cranial suture
closure and pubic symphyseal metamorphosis have
been the most favored until about the 1980s. Yet as
summarized by Iscan and Loth [14,39] these two areas
show considerable variation. It is claimed that age can
be more accurately estimated from the sternal end of
the fourth rib than any other bone [40,41]. One of the
regions of the skeleton that has been analyzed extensively is the cranial vault thickness [2,4244]. In the
next paper, Lynnerup describes his endeavor to reanalyze the cranial thickness at four different locations
in a small Danish sample. He concludes that the
cranial thickness does not allow any age estimation
or association with sex or body build.
2.2. Factors of individualization
As Krogman and Iscan [2] explain factors of individualization, specic characteristics of a skeleton
make a person unique and thus separate one from
others. As noted above, these personal biological
characteristics may include ante-mortem health,
trauma, anomalies and congenital bone deformations.
The contribution by Schafer tests the hypothesis of
whether or not the color of the skull can be associated
with diabetes. Using a large sample of skulls from
autopsies, the color was determined using a tristimulus color measuring system. The results reveal

Editorial / Forensic Science International 117 (2001) 16

that there is no difference between the inner and outer

layers and between skulls of diabetic and non-diabetic
sample of eight individuals. However, a correlation
between the age of the person and the yellowness of
the skull could be demonstrated.
Case studies are excellent examples of personal
biology because they identify a particular problem
in association with a victim and a missing person [45].
Because these studies show the skill in observing what
is unique about the remains. Jit and associates in their
paper analyze a mummied body including the stomach and kidneys to illustrate what techniques can be
used. They also add that natural mummication may
occur as early as 14 weeks after death. Yet the time is
highly varied because of the many conditions that may
accelerate dehydration and mummication.
A study that examines an entire skeleton to show the
place of forensic osteology next to DNA ngerprinting
is carried out by KemkesGrottenthaler. This paper
rightly raises the issue as to whether skeletal morphological and metric studies are needed any longer when
DNA can provide a more reliable identication. The
author sees the two aspects of the analysis as running
parallel to one another. It is claimed that anthropological analysis is a quicker way to nd a missing person
because of numerous personal descriptions such as
age, sex, body size and body morphology can open
the investigation more effectively. DNA extraction
may follow later as long as there is a reliable sample
to use.
Time since death studies have been done on numerous biological remains including bone [4649]. The
present study by Swift and associates attempt to
estimate postmortem interval of 1577 years from
the skeletal remains. They note that there is an association between radionuclide and time since death.
The same elements are also found intercorrelated with
time interval. Moreover, the paper provides an extensive bibliography dealing with the issue.
Comparing a particular anatomic structure among
individuals presents another problem. There have
been many case studies using radiographic comparisons to make positive identications [5052]. Riepert
and associates compare radiographic images using CT
data from 30 skulls. They note the frontal sinuses are
highly varied not only between individuals but also in
the same individuals when placed in different positions. Of the cranial dimensions cranial, biorbital and

byzygomatic breadths are very reliable in comparing

unknown specimens. Also shown in the study is the
calculation of probability that two images are of the
same person can be as high as 98%. As usual such a
quantitative assessment of accuracy is also important
for the court to indicate how reliable the identication
is.
2.3. Facial image analysis and identication
Craniofacial identication can be made in a number
of ways but mostly by a clay build-up over a skull,
comparing a photograph with a skull via electronic or
digital superimposition and comparing one face with
another in a photograph or video. Several methods and
morphological variations on the face and skull can be
found in a book by Iscan and Helmer [53]. Others [54]
have followed this text. Research in these areas is
still in its infancy and little is known about the
relationship between the face and the skull and how
a human face ages. One of the areas that have been
investigated in different populations is the facial tissue
depth [2]. El-Mehallawi and Soliman present their
result using over 200 young adult Egyptians. They
compare their data with various white and black
populations. Sexual dimorphism was also seen in a
number of dimensions.
Ghosh and Sinha present a system called an economized craniofacial identication to identify a skull
by superimposition. The method involves a frontal
view of a picture and a complex set of computer
hardware and software based on neural network. It
is claimed that the method is complex but can provide
a reliable conclusion. Another contribution on this
subject is an extensive paper by Jayaprakash and coworkers. The paper starts with the statistic that over
90% of photo-to-skull identications have not been
successful in identifying the remains. Cranio-photoanalysis uses a detailed anthropological approach to
obtain better results using a sample of 30 males and
females. The authors rst introduce a form to show
craniometric dimensions and morphologic variation in
many regions of the face similar to that discussed by
Iscan [55]. A possible association between facial
features with those on the skull is summarized in
another table. In many gures the face and skull of
several subjects are shown together to illustrate their
morphological association.

Editorial / Forensic Science International 117 (2001) 16

Perhaps the most popular aspect of facial image

analysis is the reconstruction. Many individual cases
have been made with limited success. Jedrzejowska's
work takes a mathematical approach using craniometry to determine craniofacial prole. The approach is
based on how to install the nose on a face in a sample
of over 150 males and females at age 16 or over. A
teleroentgonegram is taken from each subject. It is
found that cranial tissue thickness does not vary
signicantly and thus is not a major factor that causes
human variation in the face. Instead it is the contour of
the skull that individualizes a person. Proceeding from
this, a mathematical model is developed and the nose
size and angle on the face calculated.
3. Discussion
Anthropology and the use of its techniques are
among the most advancing areas of forensic sciences.
Many aspects of humans (extant or extinct) have been
subjects of the discipline. The papers of this special
issue show the diversity as well as the contributions
that many emerging scientists can make to a forensic
case analysis. The forensic scientists whose papers are
included in this issue are from around the world from
countries such as, Germany, India, Denmark, Egypt,
Poland, South Africa, Spain, and UK. One of the
present studies retests whether age can be determined
from cranial thickness. In the last few years papers on
sex and racial variation have been few. In this issue,
there are a several investigations on estimation of age
and determination of sex from the bones of the axial
skeleton particularly the vertebral column. The forensic analysis of race has always been complex and
yet plays and important role in countries like the US
and formerly colonized states where geographically
diverse groups of people live.
Concern about time interval has never faded away
and Swift and associates have come a step closer to the
problem. Anthropologists have contributed little to the
subject other than by the experimental burial of
humans and observing the decay process. Personal
experiences and regional studies should be added as
was done by Morse [56].
Trauma analysis is the core of death investigation
and can be seen in many different forms [57]. This
journal issue does not contain papers of trauma of an

anthropological nature. A literature survey shows that

trauma studies are few and mostly limited to case
studies [58,59]. Experimental and experiential studies
are very few in spite of the fact that forensic pathology
and most skeletonized anthropological cases deal with
trauma. There are some exceptional studies [60,61].
To these others dealing with gunshot wounds, specically, beveling in entrance and exit holes, should be
added [62,63]. It is anticipated that as anthropologists
take a more active role in skeletonized cases the
number of these studies would be more common
and therefore add to the growing database.
Facial image analysis has a long history and has
been summarized extensively by Krogman and Iscan
[2]. Techniques range from creating the face from the
skull, to skull-photo superimposition and to this one
must also add the comparison of a picture or video
image to the face of a person or another image. Iscan
and Helmer [53] present a series of scientically
sound papers in their book. It has been clear that
more work needs to be done [54]. Yet the area of facial
image identication is far from complete in spite of
the fact that the number of case studies is high. As a
matter of fact very little methodological work has been
carried out. This special issue introduces many new
and original research techniques to identify a skull.
The studies show how to reconstruct a facial prole
and compare a skull with a picture. It is anticipated
that scholars of this century will spend considerably
more time to understand the human face, how expressions are made, and how the face changes. Other
factors such as sun, cold, diet, disease, and genes
affecting the human facial morphology and how all
these are associated with age are also in need of study.
Forensic scientists of the new millennium will
continue to test hypotheses that are of critical importance and discover new areas in the human skeleton.
Studies on age and sex are still few at regional
population levels. Research on taphonomy has gained
some attention since 1980s [2,64]. Anthropologists
need to collaborate with other scientists to identify
areas so that new knowledge is gained. Among these
should be the assessment of animals on human
remains [65], decomposition, and aging of the human
face [66]. Lastly anthropologists should be involved in
the education of forensic pathologists to teach them
some of the basic osteological techniques and crime
scene investigators [67] on how archaeological

Editorial / Forensic Science International 117 (2001) 16

techniques can be employed in places where decomposed and skeletonized remains are found.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the contributors of this special issue
for their well thought out papers and for their patience.
Studies as such make forensic anthropology a unique
discipline. I thank Barbara McCabe for her editorial
assistance.
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Mehmet Yasar Iscan

Istanbul Universitesi Adl Tp Enstitusu

Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
Tel.: 90-212-588-0880; fax: 90-212-588-0011
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.Y. Iscan)