NDF WORKSHOP CASE STUDIES

WG 3 Succulents and Cycads

CASE STUDY 5
Cycas circinalis
Country INDIA
Original language English

CYCAS CIRCINALIS L. IN INDIA

AUTHORS:

Anita Varghese and Tamara Ticktin

Keystone Foundation (www.keystone-foundation) in collaboration with People and Plants International
(www.peopleandplants.org) and University of Hawaii (www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/ticktin).

I. BACKGROUND
1.

INFORMATION ON THE TAXA

BIOLOGICAL DATA

1.1. Scientific and common names:

Cycas circinalis L. Vernacular names: Hindi-Jangli madan must ka phul;
Kannada-Mund isalu, Goddu eechalu; Malayalam-Eentha panna;
Marathi-Malabari supari; Sanskrit-Hintalah; Tamil-Madana kama raja,
Salaparai, Eentha panai; Telugu-Rana guvva, Per ita, Madana
Kamakshi.
1.2. Distribution
C. circinalis is an endemic restricted to the Western Ghats (Fig.1) and
hilly regions of the southern peninsula, in the states of Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and the south of Maharashtra (Hill 1995). C.
circinalis is usually found in fairly dense, seasonally dry scrubby woodlands in hilly areas.

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.1

Fig.1 Locations of C.circinalis populations along the Western Ghats, India.

1.3. Biological characteristics

1.3.1. General biological and life history characteristics of the species
Very little is known to date about C. circinalis rates of reproduction,
recruitment, survival,or sex ratios although this information is
currently being gathered. There is some information available on
population structure, impacts of harvest, and rates of leaf production.
In a study of the population structure of C.circinalis in the Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve (Varghese & Ticktin 2006), it was found that populations that were harvested only for seeds showed a reverse J curve,
with many individuals in the smaller size classes. This suggests good
levels of regeneration despite seed harvest.
Populations subject to seed and leaf harvest showed a much lower
proportion of seedlings and saplings. This may indicate lower rates of
regeneration as compared to those populations that are not harvested
for their leaves. In addition there were no individuals in the 150-200
cm height size class. The very high rates of leaf harvest (92% of all individuals > 20 cm high were harvested for their leaves, and 91.3 15 %
of all leaves per tree were harvested) reported above suggest that the
lack of individuals in this size-class could be a result of repeated overharvest of leaves.
WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.2

The structure of the populations subject to seed, leaf, stem and

male cone harvest consisted almost entirely of individuals in the smallest size classes. There were no individuals larger than 100 cm in
height. The one exception was one very large individual (> 200 cm
height), but this was found among rocks and highly inaccessible. The
lack of adult individuals points to high levels of stem harvest and
depletion of the adult population.
Fig 2. Population structure of C. circinalis is dependent on harvest type (X2 = 25.02 p
< 0.001)
a. Seed harvest only, N= 63

b. Seed and leaf harvest, N=33

c. Seed, leaf and stem harvest, N=69.

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.3

Rates of leaf production are greatly variable, with larger individuals

producing more leaves per year and individuals in areas of higher precipitation producing a greater number of leaves per year. Individuals
in mid elevation dry deciduous forests appear to produce a flush of
leaves only once per year, even when harvested, whereas as harvested
individuals in low elevation wetter forests produce leaves throughout
the year.
Branching appears to be a response to heavy leaf harvest. None of
the C. circinalis individuals in populations that were not harvested for
their leaves showed any branching. However, 21.3 % of the individuals
in leaf harvested populations were branched, with the main apical
meristem not producing leaves anymore.
1.3.2. Habitat types:
Found from the coast up to 1200m in the hills. Mostly in the mid elevation deciduous tracts of the hills, low elevation moist deciduous
forests and along the low elevation riverine vegetation. Also found in
the low elevation teak plantations of Kerala. Appears to grow profusedly in fire prone areas. The regeneration levels were observed to be
very high. One of the populations along the hills in the Nilgiris were
observed on steep slopes that were prone to land slips.
1.3.3. Role of the species in its ecosystem
BUTTERFLY Plains cupid butterfly was observed laying eggs on the
immature leaves. The larvae rested at the base of leaf and in a period
of 7-9 days emerged.
SPIDER One species of Signature Spider was observed weaving its web
on the leaves.
BATS The juices of the seed coat are ingested by bats and the seed is
dispersed. Rates of regeneration from partially eaten seeds are being
recorded at the nursery.
Indian Sambar Deer-The Sambar deer found throughout Asia feeds on
the acrid tasting fibrous seed with little flesh.
BEES Dammer bees were observed collecting resinous sap from the
tender leaves of the plant.
Ants Two species of ants were also observed on Cycas circinalis trees,
collecting the resinous sap from the young unfurling leaves of the
cycad and collecting secretions from the bodies of plains cupid butterfly larva.
An article with regard to these observations was published in the
newsletter of the Cycad society and can be accessed at
http://www.cycadsg.org/publications/TCS-December2007-Varghese.pdf

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.4

1.4. Population:
1.4.1. Global Population size:

Table 1 Populations of Cycas circinalis observed in various locations along the Western
Ghats, India.
Locations

Site 1 Tamil Nadu

Altitude
(msl)

Habitat

1000

Site 2 Tamil Nadu

Site 3 Tamil Nadu

300-500
500-800

Site 1 Kerala

300-500

Site 2 Kerala

300-800

Site 3 Kerala
Site 4 Kerala

Not visited
300-500

Site 5 Kerala

300-500

Site 4 Tamil Nadu

Site 5 Tamil Nadu

300-500

Estimated
# of adults

Dry deciduous and Savanna woodland

type
Riparian forests
Dry deciduous, Savanna woodland,
Riparian
Semi evergreen, Moist deciduous, Teak
plantations
Riparian, Teak plantations,
Moist deciduous
Not visited
Semi evergreen, Moist deciduous,
Teak plantations
Semi evergreen, Moist deciduous,
Areca plantations
Moist deciduous, Teak plantations
Savanna woodland, Teak plantations,
Semi evergreen
Scrub woodland
Scrub woodland

Site 1 Karnataka
Site 2 Karnataka

1.4.2. Current global population trends:

___increasing
__X_decreasing

___stable

>300
>300
<200
>500
>200
Not visited
>300
>100
>200
>200
800
100

___unknown

1.5. Conservation status:

1.5.1. Global conservation status (according to IUCN Red List):
___Critically endangered
___Near Threatened
___Least concern
_X_Endangered
_X_Vulnerable
___Data deficient
1.5.2. National conservation status for the case study country
Cycas circinalis is included in the negative list of exports notified by the
GOI Notification 2 (RE-98) dt. 13-04-1998, 1997-2002 (Ravikumar and
Ved 2000). The plant is also listed as an RET species.
WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.5

1.5.3. Main threats within the case study country

___No Threats
_x_Habitat Loss/Degradation (human induced)
___Invasive alien species (directly affecting the species)
_x_Harvesting [hunting/gathering]
___Accidental mortality (e.g. Bycatch)
___Persecution (e.g. Pest control)
___Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species)
___Other_______________
___Unknown
2.

SPECIES MANAGEMENT WITHIN THE COUNTRY FOR WHICH

CASE STUDY IS BEING PRESENTED

2.1. Management measures

There have been no specific management plans so far put forth for the
management of this species in India.
2.2. Monitoring system
2.2.1. Methods used to monitor harvest
There is no formal monitoring program in place to monitor C. circinalis harvest throughout its range. However, Keystone Foundation has
established a monitoring program throughout the NBR (including
populations in Tamil Nadu and Kerala states) to monitor harvest. This
involved establishing permanent plots with tagged individuals, and
monthly monitoring of the number of leaves, seeds, cones or stems
harvested. This monitoring was carried out over a period of one year.
2.2.2. Confidence in the use of monitoring
The indigenous communities living closest to the Cycas populations are
being involved in a community monitoring program. For now the program has started with an interpretation center and a nursery in the
village. The cycas areas are being mapped with peoples participation.
The threats to the populations will be identified and a permanent plot
will be set up in consultation with the harvesters that will be monitored seasonally. This involves measures of growth, survival, reproduction, regeneration and a calculation of sex ratios.
2.3. Legal framework and law enforcement:
Listed in Appendix II of the CITES, the species is included in the negative list of exports notified by the Government of India (Notification 2
(RE-98) dt 13.04. 1998, 1997-2002) (Ravikumar and Ved 2000).
WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.6

3.

UTILIZATION AND TRADE FOR RANGE STATE FOR WHICH CASE STUDY
IS BEING PRESENTED.

3.1. Type of use (origin) and destinations (purposes)

In Kerala and Tamil Nadu indigenous communities harvest mainly the
seed and the young leaves of C. circinalis. These are considered delicacies and are highly valued. In Tamil Nadu, some villagers relish the
young leaves and steamed seed. Although in Tamil Nadu C. circinalis
seed is harvested for home consumption, in Kerala there is also local
demand for the dried seed. The harvest is heavy here as the harvesters
harvest the seed and sell it after some processing and drying to the
market. The ripe seed is picked (about 25 kg per day) and smoked on
a bamboo mat and then dehusked and dried. Harvesters report that 25
kg of seed would yield only up to two kg of dried seed. In a harvest
village 20 tonnes of fresh seed were collected in 2008.
Harvesters in Tamil Nadu and Kerala harvest the mature leaves of C.
circinalis yearly for making the shelters for special rituals.The mature
leaves are also heavily harvested for the floriculture industry and the
pith from Tamil Nadu is sold in medicinal markets. The price per kg of
dried pith is 20 rupees per kg, if it is milky white. A traditional trader
at Virudhanagar market in Tamil Nadu estimated that from Tamil Nadu
itself about 200-300 tons of the pith is being traded annually. He reported that the bulk of it was coming from Kerala. The pith is sent to traders in North India to supply to the herbal medicine industry. An extract
of the pith is used to increase milk production in lactating mothers. He
also reported that the male cone is very important for the production
of a male aphrodisiac and much in demand but difficult to get.
The vendor emphasized that C. circinalis trees were very abundant
about 10 years ago and even found in gardens, but now they are gone
so that pith is now brought from homesteads in Kerala, where the
whole tree is purchased for Rs. 50 -60. When gatherers harvest in the
monsoons it is difficult to dry the produce properly making it brown
in color. When the color is brown the price also drops and the traders
are not able to sell the produce then.
In Kerala, there is a demand for C. circinalis male cones by local farmers. Most paddy farmers place the cone in the middle of their paddy
fields to drive away a particular insect which attacks the young paddy.
The insect is drawn to the cone because of the smell and leaves the
paddy alone.

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.7

Demand

Kerala

Harvest patterns

Tamil Nadu

Indigenous
villages

Use
Kerala

Indigenous
villages

Indigenous
villages

South Tamil
Nadu

None
Local farmers
come in to harvest
within the
this for use in their
district
paddy fields

be used
in medicinal
preparations.
South Tamil
Nadu

Indigenous
villages and
markets within
the district due
to local
demand for the
dried kernel to

Local farmers

Traders from
Tamil Nadu come
to collect the
whole plant form
the homesteads
where it grows
abundantly

Men and women

involved,
collection rates of
about 80% per
individual.
Observed in
August.

Men and women

involved, young
and old people.
Harvest once per
year.

Traders bring their

own set of
harvesters.
Clandestine
operations with no
local people
involved. High
harvest rates.
Exhaustion of
populations in
Tamil Nadu
resulted in move to
harvest from
homesteads in
Kerala.

Indigenous
villages

Harvest Status

Food

Floriculture,
Thatching

Food and
medicine

Medicine

Medicine,

Indigenous
villages and
local markets
within the
district

Tamil Nadu

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

For religious and

cultural events.
Men go for
collection. Not
sold.

Kerala

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Men and women

involved, but
mostly older
people. Harvest
once per year
Oct/Nov or mid
April. Hill
communities
For cultural events
and small traders
who pay up to 2
rupees per leaf.
Mostly men
involved. Heavy
harvest for market.
Men and women
involved,
collection rates of
about 80% per
individual

Tamil Nadu

Table 2. Use, harvest patterns and demand for C. circinalis products in Tamils Nadu and Kerala portions of the NBR.
Part
harvested

Young leaves

Mature leaves

Seed

Pith

Male cone

Insect
repellent

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.8

3.2. Harvest:
3.2.1. Harvesting regime
Harvest of young leaves:
The young leaves are collected around October to November and in
mid April. All new leaves from an individual are harvested. This harvest
is only for home consumption and not frequent.
Harvest of seed:
Harvesters report that the seeds are not available for harvest every
year. The seed is collected during the months of July and August in the
Nilambur area and between February and March in the Nilgiris area.
Harvest of mature leaf and pith:
Harvest of mature leaf and pith continues today in the Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve area. Since the harvest of pith is not permitted by
the Forest Department the harvests happen secretly and are usually
from distant areas. Occasionally the indigenous peoples are paid a perleaf rate and harvest the mature leaves for the floriculture industry.
There are many small time contractors operating from the base of
the forested slopes of the Nilgiris. One forest contractor reported that
he used to contract harvesters to extract C. circinalis leaves and pith.
One rupee is paid per mature leaf. Leaf is in most demand around
January-February and October to November. He confirmed that pith
harvesters look for the younger trees around 5 ft. tall and it is the pith
found at the lower end of the trunk that is used. Bigger trees have
more fibrous piths and are not favorable.
3.2.2. Harvest management/ control
No permits are issued for collection of Cycas parts.
3.3. Legal and illegal trade levels
Since there is no clarity on the legislation regarding this species, levels
of trade are difficult to assess. The only trade is the illegal trade. 200300 tonnes of the dried pith was one of the estimates given by a trader who was located near the coast in Tamil Nadu. In Kerala a trader
came asking for the male cones and one village harvested 350 kgs of
the cone for him.
A recent study on methods to identify authenticity of raw material
cites the use of dried pith of Cycas sp. as an adulterant for tuber of
Peuraria tuberosa (Devaiah & Venkatasubramanian, 2008).

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.9

II. NON-DETRIMENT
II.
1.

(NDFS)

IS THE METHODOLOGY USED BASED ON THE IUCN CHECKLIST

FOR NDFS?

__yes
2.

FINDING PROCEDURE

Non-detrimental Finding procedure (NDFs)

_X__no

CRITERIA, PARAMETERS AND/OR INDICATORS USED

1)Part of plant that is harvested. Harvest of pith and male cones

appears to be unsustainable. Harvest of seeds and leaves may be
sustainable at some levels depending on at least some of the following:
2)Quantity that is harvested as determined by amount of leaves or
seeds harvested/individual and proportion of individuals in a population that remain unharvested. Preliminary research (Varghese &
Ticktin 2006) suggests that repeated heavy leaf harvest of C. circinalis may decrease growth and reproductive output, leading to lowered regeneration. Very heavy seed harvest could also lead to lowered regeneration.
3)Time for recovery after harvest and timing of harvest, as determined
by frequency and seasonal timing of harvest of leaves. For example,
the harvest of leaves once a year, soon before they are (naturally)
shed, may have little impact on the individual.
4)Local management for regeneration: Harvest of seeds and/or leaves
can be sustainable in communities that are actively growing Cycas in
nurseries, maintaining their homestead populations and planting
them out to increase populations.
5)Size of population: It would probably not be sustainable to harvest from very small populations especially if it is an isolated
population.
6)Region harvested: C. circinalis populations have been observed in
many different habitats with very different environmental conditions and these appear to significantly affect vital rates. For example, individuals in wetter regions have significantly greater rates of
growth and reproduction than those in drier regions. It is possible
that some populations may withstand higher levels of harvest
because of the more favourable growing conditions.
3.

MAIN SOURCES OF DATA, INCLUDING FIELD EVALUATION

OR SAMPLING METHODOLOGIES AND ANALYSIS USED

1. Part of plant harvested: easily identified.

2. Quantity that is harvested: This would have to be provided by the
seller, along with location of harvest. It could also be verified
WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.10

through field evaluation because both leaf harvest rates (through

evidence of harvested leaves) and the proportion of individuals harvested can be quantified. Since seeds and leaves are not sold
through organised markets or government mechanisms actual data
on volume could only be gathered through a community based
monitoring where possible. Visits to local markets can also provide
some of this information.
3. Frequency and timing of leaf harvest: This would also have to be
provided by the seller and/or through community-based monitoring
where possible. In the case of protected areas like National Parks
and Sanctuaries collections are technically not permitted.
4. Local management for regeneration: Evidence in community nurseries, out planted populations in home gardens and/or forests.
5. Population size: Documented through field evaluation.
4.

EVALUATION OF DATA QUANTITY AND QUALITY FOR THE ASSESSMENT

1. Plant of part harvested: easily determined accurately.

2.Quantity that is harvested. This can be determined fairly accurately through field surveys. The limitation is that it is not practical
to do regularly, especially given that many populations are in
remote locations. Community-based monitoring programs can
obtain the information accurately, documenting harvest that
could include both local people and outsiders. The limitation is
number of communities where programs can be established, right
now these programs are just in initiation in a very small number
of communities.
3. Frequency and timing of harvest. This can only be determined accurately by fairly regular monitoring and so may only be a possibility
in communities with community- monitoring programs. This is
because C. circinalis appear to flush at different times of the year
depending on their location, so it is difficult to identify a time of
year when harvest is optimal across all regions. For the same reason,
annual monitoring cannot accurately determine when/how frequent harvest was.
4. Local management for regeneration: easily generated by assessment of nurseries and out plantings
5. Population size: can be determined fairly accurately in the field.
Limitation is localizing the existing populations.

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.11

5.

MAIN PROBLEMS, CHALLENGES OR DIFFICULTIES FOUND ON THE ELABORATION OF NDF

Right now there is not enough data to develop specific guidelines on

harvest practices that are sustainable (especially with respect to quantity and frequency). We have ongoing studies specifically aimed at
addressing this and expect to have this information within the next
few years.
There is also no clarity on the species in each location, this needs to
be determined and we need to develop a good field guide to the
Cycads of India. When the species itself is not clearly defined then framing management practises for it become even more tricky.
Another problem is the lack of transparency on the uses of the
cycad parts that find themselves in the trade, especially of pith and
male cones. There is still very little information available on trade
(quantities traded, demand for different plant parts, trade routes etc)
of C. circinalis (and other Cycas species).
There also needs to be a complete ban on destructive harvests that
involve stems and piths.
6.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Identify sustainable management practices/plans (quantity, frequency,

timing of harvest) that can be promoted at the community level and
maintained through community-monitoring programs. This will entail
further research on the ecology of this species, its uses/harvest by communities across its range and their impacts.
Strengthen and further promote the community-based Cycas monitoring programs that have been initiated.
Improve identification of the cycad species in India, with an easy to
read Field Guide that would help to identify species in the wild and
potentially from parts in markets. This would help to clarify which
populations are actually C. circinalis or other species.
Carry out a survey of the market for Cycas (including both South
and North India). This has not yet been done and could throw more
light on quantity of trade and demand (including timing of demand)
for different parts of the plant.
Develop a Cycas database which could be held with the Biodiversity
Board to disseminate and enhance information on species/populations
in the wild.
Dialogue with the Medicinal Plant Board to identify the threats to
the species and work with them to come up with criteria for procurement of raw material.

WG 3 CASE STUDY 5 p.12

REFERENCES:
1.RAVIKUMAR, K. & D.K.Ved. (2000). Illustrated Field Guide-100 Red Listed Medicinal Plants
of conservation concern in Southern India. FRLHT, Bangalore, India
2.HILL KD (1995) The genus Cycas (Cycadaceae) in the Indian region, with notes on the
application and typification of the name Cycas circinalis. Taxon 44: 2331.
3.HILL, K.D. 2003. Cycas circinalis. In: IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A.B. & Kent, J. 2000.
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853.
4.VARGHESE, A. & Ticktin, T. 2006. Harvest, Trade, and Conservation of the Endemic Multiuse Cycad, Cycas circinalis L., in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, South India.
http://cycadsg.org/publications/Cycas-circinalis-case-study.pdf
5.DEVAIAH, K.M. and Venkatasubramanian, P. 2008. Development of SCAR marker for
authentication of Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex. Willd.) DC. Current Science, Vol. 94,
No.10.

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