100% found this document useful (1 vote)
455 views13 pages

IB Further Math - Linear Algebra Summary

A summary of the results included in the syllabus of IB Further Mathematics, Topic 1, Linear Algebra

Uploaded by

Tony G
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
100% found this document useful (1 vote)
455 views13 pages

IB Further Math - Linear Algebra Summary

A summary of the results included in the syllabus of IB Further Mathematics, Topic 1, Linear Algebra

Uploaded by

Tony G
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 13

LinearAlgebraSummaryofResults

Compareresultswithsyllabusoutline(numbersrefertosyllabusTopic1)

1.Matricesandoperationswiththem,includinguseofGDC.

Payparticularattentionandthinkthroughthedifferentwaysofrepresenting
matrixmultiplication(seeHowardAnton,p.2934).Theywillbehelpfulfor
theoreticalinterpretationofmatrices,systemsoflinearequationsandvectorspaces.

Bycolumns,seeformula(6)onp.31.Thisisthemosthelpfulandimportantone
inthetopic!Itwillbeused(amongotheruses)alsointheEigenvaluespart.

MatrixproductAXasalinearcombinationofthecolumnsofmatrixA,(seebelow
(10)andExample8fromp.32.)

Matricesasrepresentationoflineartransformations(seeparagraph1.8,p.76)

2.

Matricesinsystemsoflinearequations
Matrixofcoefficients,augmentedmatrixofthesystem.
MethodofGaussianelimination,rowechelonform,reducedrowechelonform
useofGDCtofindthem.Useofelementarymatrices,includingwithGDC.
Numberofsolutionsfromrowechelonformsolutionofsystemswithinfinitely
manysolutions.
Homogeneoussystem Ax = 0 andthesetofitssolutions(thenullspaceorthe
kernelspaceofmatrixA).LetAbeamatrixofdimension m n .
N (A) = N ull(A) = K er(A) = {x Rn|Ax = 0} isasubspaceinthedomain
ofthelineartransformationrepresentedbymatrixA.
dimN(A) = nullity(A) = n rank(A) representstheranknullitytheorem
(box1.6ofsyllabus).Itisalsoequaltothenumberoffreevariablesin
thesolutionofthehomogeneoussystem.
ThenullspaceN(A)andtherowspace R(A) = Span(a1, a2, ..., am) are
orthogonalcomplements.
Solutionofthesystem Ax = b .
Thesystemisconsistent(hassolution)if,andonlyif,
b C (A) = Range(A) = Span(a1, a2, ..., an) = {x|x = m1a1 + m2a2 + ... + mnan}
i.e.bisalinearcombinationofthecolumnvectorsofA.
Thesolutionofthesystem Ax = b canberepresentedas
x = "particularsolution" + N (A) (box1.7syllabus).

Example1:

3. Someimportantspecialcases
ConsiderasquaresystemoflinearequationsAX=B,whereAisa n n matrix.Thenthe
followingstatementsareequivalent(partofthemTheorem1.6.4,p.63)
a) Aisinvertible(hasinverse,isnotsingular,)
b) detA =/ 0
c) ThehomogeneoussystemAx=0hasonlytrivialsolution.
d) ThereducedrowechelonformofAistheidentitymatrixIn.
e) Aisexpressibleasaproductofelementarymatrices.
f) ThesystemAx=bisconsistent(hassolution)forevery n 1 matrixb(righthand
sideofthesystem).
g) ThesystemAx=bhasexactlyonesolutionforevery n 1 matrixb(righthand
sideofthesystem).

h) ThelineartransformationTdefinedbythematrixAisbijective(onetoone).
i) TherangeofTisRn.Thekernel(orthenullspace,thesetofallvectorsmapped
tothezerovector)consistsonlyofthe0vector,i.e.is{0}.
j) Thesetofthecolumnvectors(andtherowvectors)ofthematrixAislinearly
independent.
k) Thesetofthecolumnvectors(andtherowvectors)ofthematrixAisabasisin
Rn.

ConsidernowasquarematrixAwhichisnotinvertible(discussthepossibilitiesand
formulateasimilarsequenceofequivalentstatementsasabove)
a) Aisnotinvertible(doesnothaveinverse,issingular,)
b) detA = 0
c) ThehomogeneoussystemAx=0hasnontrivialsolutions,i.e.hasinfinitelymany
solutions.
d) ThesystemAx=bisconsistent(hassolution)onlywhentherighthandsidevector( n 1
matrixb.)isfromtherangeofthetransformationdefinedbyA,i.e.bisfromC(A)the
columnspaceofthematrixA.
e) ThereducedrowechelonformofAwillhaveatleastonerowofzeroesi.eitwillhave
theform
(withpossiblyrearrangementofthecolumns).
ThentherankofthematrixAisr<n.
i. Thismeansthatinthesystemofncolumnvectors(rows)ofthematrixA,
{c1, c2, ....cn} thereareonlyrlinearlyindependentvectors(theycanbe
identifiedfromthepivotalcolumns).Thoselinearlyindependentvectorsforma
basisforthecolumnspace,C(A),ofthematrix.
ii. Asimilarresult(thereareonlyrindependentrowsformingabasesinR(A)the
rowspaceofA.

Example2:
Considerthesystemoflinearequations:

Theaugmentedmatrixis

anditsreducedrowechelonformfromtheGDCis
.
Theinformationthatwecanreadfromtherrefis:
Column3ofthematrixisalinearcombinationofcolumns1and2,more
precisely(checkit!) c3 = .6c1 .8c2 .Inotherwordscolumns1and2forma
basisforthecolumnspaceC(A)andthethirdcolumnhascoordinates ( .6, .8)T
inthisbases.
Thesystemofthelinearequationsisconsistent(hassolution),asitsrighthand
sidethevector b = ( 1, 4, 2)T isinthecolumnspaceC(A).Indeedtherreftells
usthat(checkit!) b = 1.4c1 + 1.2c2 .
Thegeneralsolutionofthesystemis (x, y, z)T = (1.4, 1.2, 0)T + t(.6, .8, 1)T .Itis
thesumofthesolutionofthehomogeneoussystem(orthenullspaceofthe
matrixA) N (A) = {t(.6, .8, 1)T , t R} ,andtheparticularsolution(any
particularsolution),inourexample (1.4, 1.2, 0)T ofthesystem Ax = b .Thisis
ageneralresult(theorem)trueforallsystemsoflinearequations.

4.

Matricesasrepresentationsoflineartransformations

Definitionofvectorspace.SpecificexamplesRn,Cn,P2,M22,etc.
Themostimportantis Rn .
Wecanvisualize,orinterpretgeometricallyresultsin R2 thecoordinateplane or
R3 the3 dimensionalspace .
Whatarethepossiblesubspacesin R2 ?
Whatarethepossiblesubspacesin R3 ?

Lineardependenceandbasis.(Seeparagraph4.3and4.4inbook).

Example3:
Tocheckthatasystemofvectorsisindependent
1.Determinewhetherthevectorsarelinearlydependentin R3 iftheyarenotfindanexpression
forthelinearcombinationequaltozero.
a) ( 3, 0, 4)T , (5, 1, 2)T , (1, 1, 3)T

MakethematrixAconsistingofthegivenvectorsasrespectivecolumns,i.e.


Thequestionaboutthelineardependenceofasystemofvectorsisequivalentto:
findingoutwhetherthehomogeneoussystem Ax = 0 hasnontrivialsolutions.Anon
trivialsolutionwillprovidethelinearcombinationofvectorsequaltozeroandwillmake
thevectorslinearlynonindependent.
Anotherpossibleformulationis detA =/ 0 ?Ifyes,thenthesystemofvectorsis
linearlyindependent(andformsbasesinthecorresponding(sub)space.
Inthecaseofarectangularmatrixthequestioncanberewordedaswhethertherankof
thematrixAisfull(equaltotheminimumdimensionofthematrix).

Inalldifferentrewordingsofthequestion,asusual,ourmaintoolistherrefofA.Inthiscase
rref(A) = I ,(i.e. detA =/ 0 ,or rank(A) = 3 ),thereforethesystemofvectorsisindependentand
formsabasisin R3 .
2. Considernowthesystemofvectorsfrom R4 givenas
{(2, 1, 3, 0)T , ( 1, 1, 0, 2)T , (7, 5, 6, 6)T } .Thecorrespondingmatrixof

columnvectorsis

anditsreducedrowechelonformis

.
Fromtherrefwededucethat:
TherankofAis2,thisissmallerthan3(thenumberofvectorsinthesystem),therefore
thesystemofvectorsislinearlydependent.Indeedtherreftellsusthat c3 = 2c1 3c2 .
Thusthereareonly2independentvectorsinthesystem {c1, c2} andtheyformabasis
fora2dimensionalsubspace,Sin R4 (ortheyspana2dimensionalsubspaceS)namely
S = {m(2, 1, 3, 0)T + n( 1, 1, 0, 2)T m, n R}

b) Changeofbases(notincludedinsyllabusexplicitly,couldbeasked?)
Example4.
Giventhevector v = (6, 1, 3)T inthestandardbasisof R3 {e1, e2, e3} ,finditscoordinates
inthenewbases {b1, b2, b3} ,where
b1 = e1 + e2 + 2e3
b2 = 2e1 e2
b3 = e1 + e2 + e3 .

Thequestioncanberewordedasoneaboutasystemoflinearequations,(asalmost
always!)i.e.wearesearchingforscalars m, n, t suchthat v = mb1 + nb2 + tb3 = B(m, n, t)T ,where

thematrix
iscalledthetransitionmatrix B = T be frombasis {b1, b2, b3} tothe
standardbasis {e1, e2, e3} .Inthetransitionmatrixeachcolumnrepresentsthecoordinatesof
correspondingvectoroftheoldbasisthroughthenewone.Itiseasytoseethatthesolutionof
thesystemis (m, n, t)T = B1v = (1, 3, 1)T ,sothecoordinatesofvinthenewbasisare (1, 3, 1)T
(Checkit!).Notethatthematrix B1 = T eb .

Lineartransformationsandmatrices
Definitionandpropertiesoflineartransformation(operator)

Tofindthematrixrepresentingalineartransformation
Example:Considerthetransformation M y=x Reflectionintheline y = x (thisisthe
geometricdescriptionofthetransformation)
TofindthematrixArepresentingthistransformation:
Findtheimagesofthecoordinatevectorsunderthetransformation
and
.
ThematrixofthetransformationAisformedbytheimagevectorsascorrespondingcolumn
vectors,i.e. A = (e1|e2) .
So

andthetransformationisrepresentedbythematrixasfollows

(thisisthematrixrepresentationofthetransformation).

Whatcanyoureadfromthematrixofatransformation?

Theimagesofthecoordinatevectors.
Thescalefactorbywhichtheareaoftheoriginalistransformed.
Areaimage = detA Areaoriginal
Compositionoftransformations(transformationaftertransformation)
Likeinthecaseoffunctionsweconsidertransformationsthataretheresultof
othertransformationsperformedoneaftertheother.Letthetransformation T A
representedbythematrixA,beperformedafterthetransformation T B
representedbythematrixB.Thenthecompositetransformation T B followedby
T A or T A after T B isdenotedby T A T B andisrepresentedbythematrix
AB .Notetheorder!(fromrighttoleft)

Famoustransformationsin R2 wearesupposedtorecognizeandknowthe
matricesofthefamoustransformationsintheplane

Geometry

Determinant

Rotationbyangle
clockwise

detR = 1

Matrix

Reflectioninline
y = tan.x

detM = 1

Projectiononline
y = tan.x

detP = 0

Projectiononline
y = mx

detP m = 0


Enlargement
w.r.t.O(0,0),
scalefactork

detEk = k2

KernelandRangeofLinearTransformations

Example:
Findthekernelofthetransformation T = P m projectionontotheline y = mx .
Geometricallythekernelconsistsofallvectorsfrom R2 whoseimageisthezerovector,orthe
origin O(0, 0) .Thusthekernelconsistsofallvectorsonthelinepassingthroughtheoriginand
perpendiculartothelineontowhichweproject.
K er(P m) = {(x, y)T |y = ( 1/m)x}
Therangeofthetransformationcoincideswiththecolumnspaceofthematrixandconsistsof
thevectorsonthelineontowhichweproject.
Range(P m) = C (P m) = {(x, y)T |y = mx}

EigenvaluesandEigenvectors

EigenvalueisaGermanword,notevennearlypronouncedasifitwasanEnglishone.Itstands
forownvalue.Eigenvectorsformamatrix,whichdiagonalizesthecoefficientmatrix.

Theeigenvalueproblem:
Foranysquare n n matrixA,findthevaluesofthescalar suchthatthesystemofequations
Ax = x
hasnonzerosolutions.
Thesevaluesof arecalledeigenvaluesofthematrixA.
Thesolutionsofthesystemofequations(infinitelymany!WHY?)corresponding
tothevaluesof ,arecalledeigenvectorsofthematrixA.

Thesystem Ax = x canberewrittenas Ax x = (A I)x = 0 .Thereforethesystemisa


homogeneousoneandwillhavenonzerosolutionsif,andonlyif
det(A I) = 0

ThisiscalledthecharacteristicequationofmatrixA.Itisapolynomialequationof
degreen.Wearerequiredtosolveonlycaseswhen n = 2 withreal,distinctroots.

Example
Giventhematrix
.
Thecharacteristicpolynomial P () is

Thecharacteristicequationis P () = 0 anditssolutions,theeigenvaluesofthematrix,are
1 = 5or2 = 2 .

Propertiesofcharacteristicequationandeigenvaluesproveandthinkthrough!
1 + 2 = a11 + a22 = T race(A) .Inotherwords,thesumofeigenvaluesequalsthesumof
thediagonalelementsofthematrix(thetraceofthematrix).Trueforalln,weneedto
knowandunderstanditforn=2.
12 = det(A)
ThematrixAsatisfiesitscharacteristicequation,i.e. P (A) = A2 3A 10I = 0

Thecorrespondingsolutionsare: y = 3/4x, when = 5 and y = x, when = 2 .Sothe


eigenvectorsare,e.g. (4, 3)T when = 5 and (1, 1)T when = 2 .

ThematrixPcontainingtheeigenvectorswilldiagonalizethematrixA.Finishtheexample!
..

Somesynonymsglossary

Topic(context)

Systemsoflinear
equations

Matrices

Linear
transformations

Solution(s)of Ax = 0 Nullspace N (A)

Kernelofthelinear
transformation
representedbythe
matrixA,Ker(A)

Setofvectorsbfor
which Ax = b has
solution(is
consistent)

Rangeofthelinear
transformation
representedbymatrix
A

Columnspaceof
matrixA, C (A)

Linearindependence SystemAx=0has
ofasystemofvectors onlytrivialsolution.

MatrixAofthe
vectorsascolumns
hasfullrank.

You might also like