Nishikawa Development
Nishikawa Development
The Way of
Endogenous Development
Nishikawa Jun
Foreword
In recent years, human development has been discussed in the field of Development
Economics.
an orthodox development paradigm faced more and more questions and challenges after
the 1980s. Neo-liberalism, which advocated for smaller government, grew into the
globalization era after the 1990s and emphasized marketization and liberalization
everywhere.
argues developmental efforts directed toward human beings themselves, has become
stronger in these periods.
Through inspection
In the
modern world, this development is known to have brought wealth to one part of human
society, and yet it has also brought disparity and inequality to human society.
Furthermore, we know that development has damaged the human environment
considerably.
This should
constitute one of the priorities of human society. With this in view, we will look at a
new prospective for development, i.e. the theory and practice of endogenous
how endogenous development can conserve the environment as well as ensure human
development.
Examples collected by the author from East Asia in recent years will be
used to make clear how civil societies have developed through peoples association in
realizing endogenous development.
and the environment as well as various human groups can live together, can be
conceived from this perspective.
between human beings and development, in view of a society where human beings can
live more peacefully and in harmony with the environment.
endogenous development.
In accordance with the purpose of this paper, to begin with, we will look at the origin
of the development issues in modern/contemporary world. Secondly, by examining the
shift in notion of development after World War II, we will analyze how environmental
deterioration on a world scale has resulted from the dominant development paradigm.
In order to cope with the serious situation of poverty aggravation and environmental
deterioration, the United Nations Development Program submitted a theory of human
development in the 1990s.
development concepts are often promoted by the formation and growth of civil societies.
As stated above, this paper will attempt to portray a society that can have some balance
between economy and society through human and endogenous development.
1.
1.1
In English, development is a single word, but when translated into Japanese there
are at least two different words kaihatsu, and hatten which have a similar
meaning.
The matter itself is interesting though we will first discuss the word
development.
The origin of the word comes from modern history, first appearing in
Western Europe.
word a definition.
Hegel, a philosopher on civil society, was the first one who gave the
Hegel observed the emergence of civil society by breaking up the
stratified status system in the feudal society and called it die Entwicklung in German
(a synonym of development in English).
Reason
is nothing but the citizens consciousness of liberty and the development of reason forms
the history of the world.
civil society which emerged and developed at that time, penetrating not only
philosophical thought, but also expressions of literature, the arts and music, etc.
Beethovens symphony is an artistic expression of Hegels philosophy.
In this sense, the original usage of the word that we call development was an
intransitive verb that has a closer meaning to self-development.
The development of civil society coincided with the development of capital
accumulation based on a market system.
areas in Western Europe (many of them were port cities) together with development of
international division of labor.
they supply labor force, raw material and food to the center developed as well. This
world system came to be known as the characteristic of the modern world since the 15th
and the 16th centuries (Wallerstein, 1985).
The development of a market system itself destroyed the feudal system based on
social stratification and introduced an equal and more democratic social system based
on the market.
capitalists/landowners who own capital/land and the labor classes who are deprived of
who sell their labor force became laborers. Land and natural resources, which had
been the common wealth of mankind, were now privately owned by the wealthy and
transacted as commodities.
dominated the non-western world and the latter were turned into colonies. Along with
the prevalence of this capitalist world system based on center-periphery division, social
conflicts, North-South issues and environmental problems were born and escalated.
In Hegels last years, he confessed his concern of a disordered situation caused by
the liberal development of civil society and he began to perceive reason, previously
based on the endogenous spirit of civil society, as more of the Raison dEtat (state
reason) and advocated for the role of the state in the development process.
The state
reason was considered to be under the control of a state that was formed by an organic
ideal of the nation.
German political philosopher Friedrich Meinecke (1862-1954) wrote his famous book
fundamental choice of developing into a cosmopolitan civil society or the nation state.
After WWI, it is well attested that Germany was led into the extreme form of the latter,
Nazism (State Socialism).
At that period, Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919), who was born in Poland when Poland
was semi-colonized both by Germany and Russia, pointed out that the capital
accumulation system conducted by imperialism emanated from the state reason and
expanded into the non-western world.
rural areas and developed itself into a world-scale capital accumulation system
(Luxemburg, 1952).
Fausts development
The notion of die Entwicklung has another aspect from the beginning, if we look at
the classical masterpiece of the play Faust written by the great writer of the Romantic
refers to how the literary work has caught the essence of a society at that time and has
continued to be read generation after generation. It still reflects the same message even
though the time and background may differ.
We may well say the protagonist Faust was a self-portrait of civil society at that time.
Faust desired to pursue almighty power and absolute freedom although he could not
obtain these through reading and scholarship.
appeared to him and proposed to endow him with whatever he desired in exchange for
his soul.
For this Faust agreed. One day Mephistopheles came and whispered into
Astounding
things shall be achievedI feel in me the strength that will sustain bold efforts.
I wish to rule and have possessions!
Standing before the beautiful green and open landscape he dreamed of building it into
a platform.this masterpiece the human spirit has wrought to augment, by
intelligent planning, the space its peoples have for living. (Part II, Act V, Palace)
Here we see the other meaning of Entwicklung as a transitive verb which means open
up and build something new from the top (property owner, developer, elite, intellectual,
etc.)
Nevertheless, the obstacle of his great plan was a very old couple called Baucis and
Philemon. They were kind, always willing to help people and lived simple lives in their
small house on a hill.
those lindens part of my estate; the few trees spoil, because I do not own them.
This old couple became an obstacle to his development plan so he asked them to move.
However the couple was satisfied with their living there and did not want to leave.
Mephistopheles then suggested, why not make them colonize?. Faust approved and
said, So be it! Go and rid me of their presence. Mephistopheles went with three
mighty men and soon cleared them out. They set a fire to the cottage and the innocent
old couple died. (Part II, Act V, Palace)(Goethe Faust I & II, Edited and translated by
Stuart Atkins, 1984)
Here the word development as a transitive was interpreted by Faust and his opening
up business (Ernungen) by development from the top.
enormous sacrifice that human society suffered while a prosperous civil society pursued
its absolute freedom and possessions.
closely connected to each other and their land were uprooted under the shadow of a
great developer flying the brilliant flag for peoples living and human spirit.
Faust also reflected a gender problem that issued with the development of modern
society.
He abandoned his lover Gretchen who was pregnant with his child for the
reason of freedom.
In despair the young woman threw herself and the newborn baby
into a pond although she herself was saved and imprisoned, bearing thereafter the
sense of guilt all her life.
freedom and equality of a prosperous civil society was accompanied by the sacrifice of
community and humanistic mind and thus gave birth to a mythological interpretation
of civil society in the western world.
The autonomous development of reason itself is contained inside the state reason
and the dependence on the authorities.
the application of the transitive verb side kaihatsu was always superior to its
intransitive verb side hattenn from the very beginning.
The word kaihatsu (development) was first used in Japan from the second phase of
Hokkaido colonization where field soldiers (soldiers turned into farmers) and
prisoners were originally the main labor force. At that time, a professor from Sapporo
As the Meiji State took its model of The Constitution of the Great
Nippon Empire from the Bismarck Constitution at Preussen through Ito Hirobumi,
Japan at that time was a nation trying hard to establish absolute political order in order
to copy the example of the state of Preussen.
By the time of the Showa era, Development of Hokkaido developed further into the
colonization called Manchuria and Mongolia Development.
immigration to Hawaii or west coast of the U.S. or South America. It was actually part
of an attempt to form a unique economy of international division of labor / specialization
with Japan as the central axis and the surrounding yen region (including Taiwan,
Korea, Manchuria and Mongolia, Micronesia) as a periphery.
(modernization)
system.
(Wakefield,
1834)
Again,
in
this case,
The central government made its budget allocation mainly to the Pacific
Pacific coastal side was developed in order to import raw material resources from
abroad and export the products to overseas markets.
provide the labor force.
This was, after all, out of a top-down developmental thought and as a result,
provides these raw materials / foods to developed countries and imports finished
products from developed countries).
On the other hand, the negative aspects of this development mechanism were often
observed.
In 1972 when Okinawa was returned to Japan, the Special Measures Law
for Promotion and Development of Okinawa was drawn, which was based on the law
of an Okinawa revitalizing plan and special funds for it.
Agency was set up to allocate this fund to Okinawa.
top-down development model through which a huge amount of money was distributed
unmethodically.
However, in
forecasting this sad situation, the Ryukyu Autonomous Government already before the
restitution announced key points for its own vision of the rebuilding of the region in
the Suggestions on Restitution Measures in November 1972, while it was still under
the U.S. rule.
development and growth, which would not be limited by improvement of income, (2)
the respect for the right of self-government, (3) building up a prefecture of peace by
removal of the military base.
which were not at all mentioned by the Tokyo based restitution plan called Special
Measures, were selected to be their doctrine for development. (Teruya, 2000)
As a
matter of fact, in most of the public documents of Okinawa at the time, kaihatsu and
hatten were often used together. This shows that Okinawa did not submit to an
expectation of a top-down development, but rather sought their own development
dimension on the three pillars of human-centered, right of self-government, and peace,
which could be seen as a pattern of endogenous type of development.
What is
interesting today is that, after 2002, the word development in the new law regulation
was removed.
Measure. This action revealed a new direction free from dependence on the central
government towards a more decentralized relationship.
the will of both sides, in which Tokyo expected to diminish the free lunch budget and
Okinawa wanted more autonomy.
2.1
After WWII, President Truman declared a Soviet containment policy together with
a worldwide development strategy as a set policy in order to prevent the penetration of
communism in the non-western world.
Development (IBRD, so called World Bank) was established from that time and its main
function was to set up strategies for world development and offer necessary funds.
The
promote development in support of capitalist market expansion. From the 1950s to the
1960s when the former colonies of the Western powers such as Asian and African
countries became independent successively, the idea of development immediately
affected these developing countries.
pursuit of a market economy but also to match developed countries by a mixed system of
capitalism and a planned economy for which government holds strong power in
(as advocated
by Adam Smith and Karl Marx, who saw commercialized and industrialized societies of
equality as the ultimate achievement for development). During this period, Rostow
analyzed that the pre-modern society received strong shocks from the outside (such as
the black ship), and then grew quickly. Their saving and investment rate increased so
as to set the national path into an orbit of economic growth, and eventually entered into
a period of mass production/mass consumption. (Rostow, 1961)
Edwin O. Reischauer,
who was a historian and the U.S. ambassador to Japan during Kennedys tenure, said
that Japan was a representative case of this theory and thus he promoted Japan as a
model of Asias modernization and economic development. (Reischauer, 1965)
The Modernization theory has set aside the problem of the international labor
division system and accompanying gaps among nations that were generated from the
modern world system. Its premise was that all nations stood by the same start line
and were always ready to run their race.
development but not necessarily any other which had played a supportive role to the
former.
As long as
capitalism relied on a market economy and free competition, it would inevitably bring
the so-called market failures which occur both in domestic and external spheres.
Developed countries might well use the profit they gained from an international labor
division system to construct their domestic welfare state system and improve the
education, health or social capital of the society to ensure national integration.
On the
contrary, when former colonies turned into developing countries their economy was
10
They therefore
could not enjoy the same benefit from the existing international labor division system
and were forced into a disadvantaged position.
up to the developed economies, the state power of these countries was often
strengthened to a level that severely restricted human rights and freedoms.
Therefore, during the 1960s and the 1970s, these two heterogeneous types of
countries both contributed to the escalation of mal-development issues on a world
scale.
This was especially serious in terms of the distortion of social relations and
environments.
2.2
There were a large number of victims of the high growth period of Japan.
Many died
or were injured by water/chemical pollution that occurred in the period of average 10%
of high economic growth.
desirable results.
However, the democratization after the war has considerably increased the middle
class in Japans society.
attract multinational enterprises from the North and export products or semi-products
to developed countries to obtain foreign currency and to accumulate capital.
In other
words, most of them took the path of export-oriented development. Big countries tend
11
to protect their domestic market and at the same time take an import-substitution
industrialization strategy, which means that they replace imported goods with domestic
products as quickly as possible.
while in East or Southeast Asia, they prefer the export-oriented industrialization path.
Combination of the two ways has also been found in Thailand, Indonesia and other
countries.
Since the 1970s, almost all developing countries began to deny the traditional
international specialization path and started to promote a new international economic
order based on the nationalization of resource and energy to transform them in
domestic plants and pursue more added value.
three-fourths of
mankind were producing only 7% of the world industrial production (1975) and the
recognition of this fact began to reverse the traditional international labor division
system.
The
2000/2001 version especially explored the poverty problem and was entitled Attacking
Poverty. According to the report, the population in poverty whose living costs was
under US$1 reached 1.2 billion in the year of 1998 (World Bank, 2000).
The same WB
investigation on poverty conducted in 1985 had found a total of 700 million (World Bank,
1990).
70%.
This means that within 15 years the world poverty population had increased by
Presently, one out of four people living in developing countries are considered
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sustainability
of
development
was
threatened.
(Nishikawa,
1998,
2001)
Furthermore, the World Summit on Development and Environment, hosted by the UN,
was held at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in 1992.
of water and soil, water shortage, repeated drought and heat waves, frequent flooding
and countless abnormal weather patterns and the so-called natural disasters. We
may say that, in many cases, these disasters are related to deforestation,
industrialization, commercialization and marketization.
This sandstorm has now even proceeded into Korea and Japan in the
13
In Latin America,
the 1990s and raised the problem of paradigm shift in development. The UNDP now
advocates the theory and policy of human development. Human development in this
case is a new paradigm that places human beings in the center of development. It is
also called endogenous development in terms of viewing culture as a key factor to ones
development.
Behind the thought there lies the issue of the change of the actors in
3.
3.1
Nevertheless, this
balance greatly depends on social relations and the value system of stakeholders.
In the 1990s, along with the progress of economic globalization, the increasingly
serious poverty problem came to light and the need for social development was
presented. It recognizes poverty, unemployment and the division of society as three
major social issues.
The Social
14
society should be associative in solving the social development issues together with
traditional stakeholders such as the government and enterprises (market).
Human development, a new developmental paradigm advocated by UNDP in the
1990s, is based on the capabilities theory of the Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, who see
that development should be focused on the enlargement of human free choices.
(Nishikawa, 2000, Part I Ch. 12)
measured by achievement in health and education, and the real purchase power of per
capita (ppp) income.
As we can see here, the ppp income is calculated on the basis of GDP per capita;
therefore, we have to say that the notion of human development is not totally free from
the concept of GNP or economic growth.
It emphasizes, therefore,
nature of the human development theory, one has to admit that it still has limitations,
in the sense that human development has been advocated in the framework of a public
policy theory while trying to resolve various socio-environmental problems.
However, in our investigation on the developmental process of East Asia, we have
encountered several good examples that may have reached some breakthrough to
resolve environmental or social problems.
3.2
(She-Cu) (in Japanese Shaku) movement for environmental and culture conservation.
What is common in these cases?
15
top-down style development approaches and attempt to generate their own development
from the grass-root level in local areas.
And
what are the dynamics that produced the green environment in those areas?
(1)
The following example was made during 1994-96 survey in the rural area of Thailand
by Nishikawa and Noda (2001)
Due to high economic growth realized in Thailand, the growing population kept on
inflowing into the capital of Bangkok.
about 6 million, which is far higher than the second largest city of Chiangmai that had
only 600 thousand people in the 1980s.
and rural areas to metropolitan areas and thus the rural areas are left with elderly and
children.
refrigerators become three civilized machines anywhere in the villages. Villagers are
often seen addicted to alcohol and disputes between couples and neighbors occur
frequently.
Droughts have devastated the north and northeast area frequently and the
soil becomes cracked, salted, and many farmlands are found with white alkaline.
Observing these difficult situations, many monks who had traditionally taken care of
the spiritual life of the villagers, began to cast their doubt on the development style
from the top that was called Pattana.
and further away from spiritual achievement and understanding and are unable to
have Pavana (Kaihotsu=enlightenment). Spiritually, they become darkened.
These monks are called enlightened monks (Kaihotsu monks), and they are involved
in village promotion or environment conservation activities in the grass-roots level.
They work in rural areas as well as in cities. In rural areas, they use the rice offered
by villagers to establish something like a rice bank which offers low interest seed rice
16
to village people in order to free them from Chinese money lenders who take even half of
the farmers crops.
calves, i.e., the borrowers give the temple back the calf and baby calves become owned
by villagers.
The monks ask the villagers to obey the basic religious precepts such as not killing,
not abusing, not cheating, not committing adultery, loving your parents and so on.
Villagers are also asked to meditate on the truth of the world and they are encouraged
to live out a life according to the three ways to reach the truth (percepts, meditation,
wisdom).
Meditation meetings are hosted by the village cooperative once a week and
education as important so they often open their temples for children to learn or they
make their facilities into libraries.
On many occasions, baby plants are also grown and distributed to villagers for the
purpose of improving the environment.
gown on the trees near the entrance of a forest in order to declare the place holy and
forbid theft by cutting trees.
They
abandoned the monoculture of rice and tried to involve themselves in raising livestock
and fishery, creating a circular economy in the village.
all work together for building irrigation facilities and make their village full of greenery
and stable water resources.
Some villages are even having contracts with cities or foreign countries to sell organic
rice.
In the cities, some enlightened monks help street-children to live, training them in
professional jobs, adopt children of AIDS patients or HIV infectors, and others run
hospices for terminal AIDS patients.
doctrine of religion helping the weaker and thats why their work attracts more and
more attention of the public in a world of globalization and marketization economy.
As the basic discipline of Buddhism is to encourage self-reliance through human
efforts, likewise, it is the enlightened monks purpose to help the villagers become more
17
independent from the external forces such as the market, or money lenders, etc.
These
monks are challenging village people toward an almost forgotten spirit of association of
life where people help each other in a profit-driven world.
(2)
Two
It also
areas along Yangtze River and Yellow River which have a slope of over 25 degrees are
restricted from farming, and trees or grass are required to be planted.
The project is
All
mountain top areas become protected forest, and the lower half of the hills become
economic forests where owners may plant fruit trees or forestry or mushrooms, etc. for
making their living.
inhabitants in the form of aid or support mainly with food and some money. This lasts
for 5-8 years until people become independent from the aid of Forestry Bureau.
However, ecology forest areas and protected forests, where people are not allowed to
enter, have become cracked after some years along with much soil damage.
Though it is still too early to evaluate the result of the Giving land back to forestry by
retreating from cultivation policy, it seems there is still a long way to go.
The policy
requires an enormous input of expenditures as well as labor while the young plants
have an average survival rate of 50-60%.
essential in the future.
after the deluge of the Yangtze River in 1998, which was traumatic and brought a
serious sense of crisis to the government in tackling its ecological problems.
This
18
This campaign was advocated in the 1980s by a group of intellectuals and was soon
supported by the Agricultural Department of China. (Kojima, 2000)
are a total of around 100 places of this kind throughout China.
Presently there
more than 300 places in the next ten years. This paper will discuss two cases located
at Beijing, Da-xing County, Lio-Ming-Ying Village (the Chinese meaning is, Keeping
People Village), and another one at Si-Chuan Province, Chong-Qing City, Da-zu County
(the Chinese meaning is Big-foot County). Both were investigated in August, 2001.
Keeping People Village in He-Bei Province is located in a rocky tableland where soil
is salty and barren.
from kitchen garbage and livestock excrement, and also used the fermentation as
fertilizer to replenish soil.
organic material.
Other than the two major methane gas generating tanks in the
center of the village, each household has a small facility of their own to supply the
energy needed efficiently.
Diversified business has been extended over the area of 27 hectares producing not
only rice but also vegetables, mushroom, and livestock (chickens, ducks, pigs, cows and
rabbits), dairy industry and fishery products (they also raise fresh water fish in an
artificial pond of about 4 hectares), etc.
Chang Guan-Hui, who is in charge of the administration of the village, told us green
food takes time and labor and yet the market price does not meet its cost.
Our future
19
juice and bean products, ice-candy, pickled eggs as well as use their own machine repair
factories.
In 1982, the average income per capita was 405 RMB (peoples Yuan), but in the year
2000 it rose more than 12 times to 5000 RMB.
the village to work now find jobs to do in their own place and they even absorb the
shortage of labor force from neighboring localities.
Since the forested areas increased by 30%, and many people do flower cultivation in
greenhouses, many visitors are attracted from Beijing to sightsee.
Side businesses
such as home vegetable gardens, guesthouse operations and restaurants have become
more popular than ever.
visited.
A monthly old-age security pension for 180 RMB is now being paid to retired people.
The village has a primary school that begins from the third grade.
commute to other places for higher education.
Villagers need to
out that the key for developing the village is to promote further education facilities
and welfare institutions.
Another case is Da-zu County, which is located in the suburbs of Chong-Quing city.
Da-zu County (Big-foot) is a touring spot famous for its stone carving.
The whole
county has become involved in ecological agriculture now after trying to fit a large
population into too small a space. They also lack water resources as most mountains
and hills are barren and soil has continuously eroded.
county has been considered as a desertificated area.
thousand farmers, which is about 80% of the population in the county, they finally
proposed the idea to build water saving dams, ponds, and river sluices for over 4000
places from the 1980s under the leadership of the local government.
Water resource
and road paving, etc., have been developed upon the primary industries like wet-rice,
20
corn, green peas, melons, fruit trees, livestock, fishery, and forestry.
connected to the third industries like ecological gardening, stone carving business, and
historic culture conservation work.
These localities also submit to the government policy of Giving land back to forestry
by retreating from cultivation.
form a protected area. Fruit trees are planted mid-way, and on the hills and plains
paddy rice fields are seen everywhere.
landscape, they also place fish in rice fields and plant lotus in ponds to harvest lotus
flowers and their seeds and roots. These products are offered to restaurants to attract
more visitors.
Under strong leadership and technology carefully chosen from non-local sources,
people share the same vision and work together to better their living standards.
Although each area of ecological environmental agriculture may differ from another by
their different conditions, these areas have constructed a circulating regional green
economy by their own initiative.
(3)
made great progress in democratization during the past decade and this higher
community consciousness is related to environment conservation.
the administration offers construction fees for building community centers on the
condition that inhabitants provide the land.
Progress Party successfully took over political power from the former authoritarian
government of Kuo Ming Tang (KMT), Taiwanese people have shown more and more
21
Community
cultural leaders, people in Yi-Lan area were especially encouraged and are known to be
zealous for their local cultural revival activities.
industry area located in the south of the prefecture. This area has had a history of an
opposition movement against a thermal power plant construction plan during
1993-1994.
The candidate area was located in a wetland area inhabited by more than
Gang-Bien Community
Association was established at that time in 1994 and through the 8 years of resistance
they finally drove out the power plant project and successfully protected the wetland
area of 102 hectares for water birds.
Therefore
22
children to learn of nature, a community school for adults, and many volunteers are
interviewing old people and all kinds of professional people to re-discover their local
history and traditional culture which once was nearly lost.
with exhibition windows and shopping streets for all kinds of local hand-made articles.
There are exhibits of traditional art activities, aborigine life styles, and so on.
The
number of visitors is increasing, and in Ms. Huangs view, the Gang-Bien area may well
turn out to be a good eco-tourism spot for its wetland, which is rare in a sub-tropic zone.
San-Mei Village is close to a valley of Mountain Ali over 3000 meters high.
The
valley is called Da-Na-Yi and the village is located in a zone from 500 to 2000 meter of
the slopes. When our study group visited the place, the small road was jammed by a
number of large touring buses full of tourists. At least half an hour elapsed before we
arrived at the entrance of the village and parked in a parking area large enough for 20
large buses and 80 small cars.
This explains the prosperity of Da-Na-Yi Valley as a famous sightseeing spot now.
Nearly 400 inhabitants of the Zow Tribe lived there. As late as the 1980s, they lived
simple and poor lives and concentrated in agriculture and fishery.
They sometimes
worked for road construction businesses. However, some villagers soon began to use
the dynamite they obtained while they were engaged in road works and tried bombing
the water in an effort to catch fish.
decimated.
river-valley.
The key person who rebuilt the village was Mr. Gao Zhen-Shen (63 year old in 2000),
the head of the community association.
saw a natural preserve area and it reminded him that he might be able to do the same
for his homeland where people could live a harmonious life with nature just like their
ancestors. He then came back to the valley and talked to the seven tribal chiefs who
23
Gu which symbolized the tribe. Time has past and now along the length of 18 km of
the river the fish are flourishing.
Mr. Gao established the San-Mei Community Development Association in 1994. He
built a 4 km promenade by the riverside and made culture booths, fish restaurants and
resting stands to attract visitors.
tourists and help them to know more of the plants and animals living in the area. The
government assigned the place as a first class natural ecological preservation park in
1995.
Thereafter more than 1 million people rush every year into the small and almost
inaccessible mountain village to see the mysterious fish, listen to the shrilling of cicadas,
walk along the promenade and enjoy the fresh smell of the forest.
into the cheerfully cool water and feel the joy that nature brings to them.
If they desire,
fish barbeque and traditional Zow tribal dance are also available for them.
The income of the village has improved a great deal and young people who used to be
employed outside began to come back to work.
problems of another dimension. They asked questions of whether the tourism business
was really what they wanted in order to recover their traditional life style. Were they
truly protecting environment while it was actually deteriorating by receiving so many
tourists all the time?
From that period, the community campaign revised their path more and more closer
to a general community development plan that the government was promoting and
gave more space to the restoration of their lost language, culture and history.
The
elders teach children how to speak their tribal language, preserve traditional cultures
and wits, and apply traditional rituals to their weddings and funerals.
The old
traditions that help old people, the disabled and the weaker in society have been
revalued through these activities.
What is really amazing about the village is that not only has the natural environment
been restored but that through the exchange with urban people they were able to
restore their way of life. They once had been so unconfident of themselves and tried to
24
hide their tribal origins because there had previously been much discrimination against
indigenous people.
Now they have become much more comfortable with their language,
culture and lifestyle and are even able to feel proud of themselves. Their development
objective now is not restricted to commercialized tourism but a whole set of values such
as human and ethnic development, local culture promotion and restoration of
participative associational life which symbolizes the practice of endogenous
development.
(4)
Sub-conclusion
one step out with hope, using external resources to seek their own development by their
own initiatives. Therefore, local participation and initiative may be concluded as the
two necessary major conditions for environment conservation.
The perspective of endogenous development is actually indivisible with the rise of
contemporary civil society.
used development and growth (Kaihatsu and Hatten) as the two moments in the
structure.
Now, the civil society is composed of citizens who are aware of their
sovereignty as well as responsibility over society and who are willing to participate in
the social process in association with others, respecting their environment. This leads to
the revision of the notion of development from traditional growth-based one to
self-awakening and enlightenment to the universal truth.
revision of the notion of development and growth is related to the thrust of the civil
society movement.
Conclusion
There are several meanings for citizen.
25
lives in a city.
person who does not use violence but uses communication or rules or simply civic
culture, to solve problems.
The third is, like Marx often used, a bourgeois who sits
within the protection of the walls of a castle (nation) and conducts profit-oriented
business. The fourth is the usage took by the Declaration of the Right of the Man and
Citizen (1789) adopted by the France Revolution.
natural person (liberty, property and security) but also should be treated as a main
constituent of a nation or society who is aware of their sovereignty over society.
The civil society, which gave birth to the concept of development in the 19th century,
promoted the slogan Freedom, Equality, and Fraternity. While they performed the
above four meanings of citizens in their countries, they actually obtained their freedom
by suppressing social barriers of the feudal society, establishing the equality of
propertied classes and by practicing fraternity among those who own capital and power.
For this reason, the more civil society developed themselves on the basis of capitalism,
the more they became dependent on the state, which finally led to an era of imperialism
ruled by the great powers.
The
mechanism played out in the time of the east-west cold war rivalry and then through
the globalization era.
North-South
deterioration.
division,
social
disparities,
poverty,
and
environmental
And from that time, the development paradigm had shifted into human
of profit making paled, and the consciousness of the fourth dimension as a citizen who is
aware of sovereignty became stronger.
concerned with global issues and act positively to tackle them, global citizens.
26
These new global citizens pay more attention to associational life and co-existence
with nature than development itself.
and attempt to resolve global issues by finding their roots in the local societies and thus
work out their own development based on their own culture and identities.
The new
dynamics have gone beyond human development and have begun to emphasize local
initiatives to promote peoples participation and environment conservation.
dynamic is called endogenous development.
And this
been considered more and more as important in East and Southeastern Asia, including
Japan, the key word in common is found in civil society and its active commitment in
tackling with the revision of development and environment deterioration problems.
Therefore, this paper has analyzed how the new Asian and global civil society has
appeared through the initiatives of endogenous dynamics and has become the major
catalyst in opening a new way to realize more balanced development and environment
relationships.
27
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