Architectural Acoustics
Architectural Acoustics
Architectural Acoustics
Handbook of Professional
Practice, 13th edition, 2000
Architectural Acoustics
Christopher Jaffe, Ph.D., Hon. AIA, and Russell A. Cooper
Architectural acoustical services encompass investigating, problem identification and solving, and designing solutions for matters dealing with sound
and vibration in buildings.
Summary
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICAL SERVICES
Why a Client May Need These Services
To achieve sound quality appropriate for a building
space
To address facility environments in which sound quality
is paramount
To control sound in facilities located near high-noise
areas
To rectify sound problems in existing facilities
To include acoustical information in environmental
impact studies
Knowledge and Skills Required
Fundamental understanding of acoustical theory and
concepts
Background in science, math, and engineering
Knowledge of architecture, music, theater, and construction techniques
Knowledge of noise in mechanical equipment
Ability to operate equipment used to measure sound
Ability to clearly communicate technical information
Representative Process Tasks
Develop acoustical objectives and criteria
Develop recommendations for meeting acoustical
objectives
Develop details for acoustical treatments
Prepare specification language for required materials
and products
Ensure conformance to acoustical details during construction
Conduct on-site sound measurements for existing
buildings
The acoustical consulting profession developed rapidly following the end of World War II, when architects and government
agencies engaged individuals and firms to research and study
practical applications for various fields related to transportation,
housing, and electronics. The field has now matured but is still
growing as the population increases and people become more
sensitive to and selective about sound quality.
Architectural acoustics embraces acoustical analysis,
design, and control in new and existing buildings. Acoustical services that architects may be involved with can be categorized into
one or more of the following groups:
Product and materials testing, measurement, and
reporting
Control of noise related to transportation systems
Control of noise from building systems
Environmental noise control within and near buildings
Vibration and seismic control
Electronic reinforcement and enhancement of sound
(electroacoustics)
CLIENT NEEDS
Acoustical services involve all kinds of spaces in and around
buildings and are needed when clients are, or should be, concerned
about the quality of sound throughout a completed building. Recent
areas of concern are the effects of noise on office workplace performance and on classroom teaching and learning. More traditional
engagements are for auditoriums, courtrooms, performing arts facilities,
broadcast and recording studios, worship spaces, and the like. Specific
reasons clients may need acoustical services include the following:
They are designing spaces specifically for audience listening (e.g., theaters, auditoriums, concert halls,
rehearsal halls, education rooms in music and theater
facilities, dance theaters, etc.).
They are designing a school building in which speech
intelligibility in auditoriums and classrooms is paramount.
They are designing facilities for which a satisfactory acoustic environment is perceived to be important to the projects success (e.g., restaurants, libraries, trading floors, dining rooms, executive offices, research facilities, nightclubs, etc.).
They are designing multiple-use spaces.
2000 AIA
The chief benefit of acoustical services for an existing problem is the assurance of a
solution that works from the outset, thus saving time and money because a client wont have to
try multiple unsatisfactory solutions. In the case of new construction or a building renovation,
acoustical analysis can result in recommendations that avoid surprises once the building is in use.
Fees for professional acoustical services vary according to geographical region, facility type, length of time services are provided, and, of course, scope of the project. When the
detailed scope and time frame of the study are known, acoustical studies are generally conducted on an hourly or per diem basis plus direct costs for travel, instrument use, and so on.
Long-term projects are individually priced based on a percentage of the cost of construction
or of the cost of the equipment that may be specified.
SKILLS
Unfortunately, people still consider acousticsespecially architectural acousticsto
be more art than science. Successful acoustical consultants generally are experienced practitioners who know how to apply acoustical science to real buildings and understand how people respond to various acoustic environments. Since acoustical success is based on both
objective measures and subjective impressions, guarantees cannot be made that all users will
come to the same conclusion regarding the acoustic quality of a particular design. However, just
as in judging the quality of architectural design, the risk of dissatisfaction is greatly minimized by
applying good acoustical analysis and design in collaboration with the entire project design team.
Individuals in the field of acoustics have backgrounds in science, math, and engineering. However, architectural acoustics is an interdisciplinary field involving many aspects
of both the arts and sciences. A broad background is needed, including understanding of
music, theater, architecture, building construction techniques, and other disciplines inherent
to the building design process. Noise and vibration control requires specialized knowledge
of mechanical equipment, how noise is generated, and how it is propagated in the air or
through a structure. Electronic sound reinforcement and enhancement design requires further background in electrical engineering or electronics.
Experience is a critical factor in determining the qualifications of acoustical consultants for a particular assignment. Also, architects seeking acoustical consulting services should
consider the ability of the consultant to effectively communicate technical informationorally,
in writing, graphically, or with physical or computer modelingto the architect or client.
Acoustical consultants are familiar with the use of both simple and complex sound-measuring instruments such as sound level meters. Some employ highly sophisticated equipment
such as real-time analyzers that measure, store, and analyze a sounds frequency, time length, and
intensity or level. Some instruments are hand-held, while others are the size of a small suitcase.
Occasionally the best architectural acoustics solution for a space is to supplement
the natural acoustical deficiency of a space with electroacoustical enhancement. The concept
of enhancing the sound quality of a space through electronic means has been well understood since the 1970s. However, not until recently has digital technology been able to provide cost-effective, electronically stable systems that musicians and audiences are willing to
accept. When this technology is needed, the architect should seek acoustical consultants
who are experienced in its application.
2000 AIA
PROCESS
Numerous project factors affect the scope of acoustical services, such as whether a
project is new construction or a renovation and whether it will include design only or comprehensive services from initial design through construction administration. To the extent
needed for a particular assignment, architects should seek out consultants or specialists in
acoustics to bring acoustical expertise to the project team.
An acoustical consultants staff is typically set up in the same way as an architects
and consists of a principal consultant in charge, a project manager, and various staff consultants working together as needed on each project. The principal in charge is usually responsible for establishing the acoustical criteria and initial acoustical design concepts. The project
manager is the day-to-day point of contact for the architect and client. The project manager
may also provide acoustical design in keeping with the principals concept. Project consultants provide assistance to the project manager and principal for specialized expertise and
for calculations, measurements, detail drawings, submittal reviews, and the like.
Consultant selection. Before engaging an acoustical consultant, the architect should
determine to the extent possible what services are warranted. Some questions to ask are:
Does the client understand the need for and desirability of having acoustical services?
Would having acoustical expertise on the project be beneficial or even essential
to the desired end result?
Does the client prefer to engage the acoustical services of a consultant located
in the same region as the project?
What level of architectural and/or acoustical quality is the client (and ultimately
the building tenant) looking for?
AIA Document C141,
Standard Form of Agreement
Between Architect and
Consultant, is suitable for use
when an architect contracts
with a consultant for acoustical
services.
Answers to these questions will determine if it is beneficial to have an acoustical consultant on the team and give guidance about what type of consultant would be suitable.
Often due to an insufficient budget for consultant services, acoustical expertise is
brought on board well after a project begins. It is preferable, however, to bring acoustical
expertise into a project as early as possible. It can be extremely difficult to undo decisions that
have been accepted by a client and architect. When brought in at a later point, a consultant
may have to critique or evaluate a design instead of participate in its creation. The introduction of a new team member late in the process may also produce a poor working relationship
among project team members. For performing arts projects, qualified theatrical consultants
should be considered for the team as well. A close working relationship between all consultants on a project is essential for proper coordination and the success of the overall design.
Architects may contact the National Council of Acoustical Consultants for a directory
of acoustical consultants by country, region, state, or discipline. Experience is best judged by
word of mouth; references, friends, and associates in the business may be helpful. When
contacting acoustical consultants, an architect should request the overall firm biography and
a list of pertinent completed project types. Resumes for individual consultants who may be
involved should also be requested.
Work plan. If the scope of work encompasses the entire design and construction
process, the first step is to establish acoustical criteria for each space within the facility. This
can be done in the programming phase with input from user groups or in a separate document, prepared by the acoustical consultant, based on an assessment of the architectural
program (especially if there are no users involved at this point). After the acoustical criteria
have been established for all spaces and the quality of the sound as it relates to the budget
has been determined, schematic design commences.
Programming. The acoustical criteria depend on the program uses for each space.
An example of this for a dedicated concert hall would be that the background sound level
must be very low noise criterion (NC-15) and the reverberation time relatively long (RT
about 1.8 seconds). If the space is to be used for Broadway musicals that have reinforced
sound systems, the criteria could be NC-25 with RT of 1.3 seconds. However, a concert hall
with a very low tolerance for extraneous sound and a sufficiently reverberant quality may be
far more costly to construct than a Broadway house, which could tolerate a higher level of
noise and have a less reverberant acoustical characteristic.
2000 AIA
Schematic
Design
Establishing a
design direction
ROOM ACOUSTICS
SOUND ISOLATION
Determine amount of
adjustable acoustic
material
AUDIO SYSTEMS
ROOM ACOUSTICS
SOUND ISOLATION
AUDIO SYSTEMS
Determine adjustable
acoustic material and
locations
Provide acoustic door, win- Provide penetration details Refine audio systems
dow, floating floor, and
budget
ceiling details
Construction
Administration
Implementing the
design
Postconstruction
Tweaking the
design
ROOM ACOUSTICS
SOUND ISOLATION
AUDIO SYSTEMS
Provide guideline specifica- Provide guideline specifica- Perform acoustical calculations for acoustic materials tions for acoustic materials tions and provide recomand constructions
and constructions
mendations for acoustical
treatments
Review theater consulReview structural engiReview mechanical engitants documents
neers documents
neers documents
Review architects
Review architects
documents
documents
ROOM ACOUSTICS
AUDIO SYSTEMS
SOUND ISOLATION
Review bids
Prepare submittal review list Prepare submittal review list Prepare submittal review list Monitor audio contractors
progress
Review submittals and
Review submittals and
Review submittals and
shop drawings of acoustic shop drawings of acoustic shop drawings; perform
materials
materials and construction site inspections, and prepare punch lists
Perform site inspections
Perform site inspections
and prepare punch lists
and prepare punch lists
ROOM ACOUSTICS
SOUND ISOLATION
AUDIO SYSTEMS
2000 AIA
Similar criteria are established for determining how much sound can enter a space.
Again, the program use of the space dictates this. An outdoor rock-and-roll amphitheater
next to a residential complex would require an extreme amount of sound mitigation, while
an office building next to the same residential complex might not require any noise control
measures. Music practice studios may need to be isolated from each other, but in the corridor it might be quite acceptable, even pleasant, to hear some music emanating softly from
the rooms. For a multipurpose space, with varying programmatic needs that require different
acoustical qualities, an acoustical consultant may recommend using an adjustable acoustic
system to vary the reverberation time to suit the different programmatic requirements.
If a project is a renovation, an acoustical survey may be desirable to assess the quality
of the existing acoustics. This usually involves equipment for measuring and analyzing sound
as well as interviews with key user groups.
An assessment of facility audio system needs is also undertaken, through interviews
or a survey of existing equipment (if applicable). If the end user is not yet available, the
acoustical consultant develops an audio system description and budget based on experience
and requirements for each space.
Schematic design. In the schematic design phase, recommendations for achieving
the acoustical criteria are provided in broad terms. For example, information about the following may be specified: volumes of spaces; dimensions; location of spaces and their adjacencies; structural concerns; mechanical equipment locations and guidelines; and a brief
outline of major partition types, special floor or ceiling assemblies, area requirements for
variable acoustic elements, identification of need and budget for an orchestra enclosure, and
other items that may affect the budget in an extraordinary way. An experienced acoustical
consultant is highly valuable at this stage because he or she can identify items that will affect
the budget long before a concerted design effort has reached a detailed level.
Electroacoustical design services during schematic design usually include a schematic
audio systems description and an installed-systems cost estimate for various options.
It is useful for project team members to have a schematic design acoustical report
prepared at this point. This document can become the basis for further acoustical design
development. There is nothing more frustrating to an architect and client than to be surprised by new acoustical requirements late in a project. Although it is impossible to foresee
all potential problems in advance, an experienced acoustical consultant should be able to
identify and document most of the issues early in the process.
Design development. Deliverables include partition details, penetration details,
and sketches for acoustic doors, windows, and floating floors. Room finish options
are also developed. Mechanical duct and pipe sizing and distribution are discussed.
The acoustical consultant reviews
Preliminary location and sizes of speakers and adjustable acoustic systems and layconstruction drawings prepared by the
outs of orchestra enclosures or shells are shown on drawings.
architect and the architects consultants
Construction documentation. Construction document services usually
to ensure that recommended acoustical
include
many
reviews of drawings and specifications to ensure that the acoustical recmeasures are addressed. For more on
ommendations
have been incorporated correctly. The electroacoustical consultant
documentation services, see
prepares
a
set
of
plans and specifications to be bid. However, it is important to underConstruction Documentation
stand
that
the
architectural
acoustics consultant does not provide a set of drawings
Drawings
and specifications that go into the bid documents.
Instead, the consultant provides recommendations in the form of sketches, drawings,
reports, memorandums, letters, meetings, and so on for the architect and engineers to incorporate into the documents. Even when a consultant prepares CSI specifications, these should be
reviewed by the architect or engineer before they are incorporated in the
Materials associated with the acoustical
bid documents. Since most acoustical consultants are not licensed profescriteria and benchmarks recommended by the
sional engineers, the burden of professional responsibility lies on the archiacoustical consultant are defined in the specifitect and engineers whose documents bear their name and stamp.
cations. The development of these specifications
An exception to this is in electroacoustics, in which consultants
is coordinated with the development of project
do provide drawings and specifications to be bid by an audio contractor.
drawings as described in Construction
This is acceptable, since most audio systems are low-voltage and do not
DocumentationSpecifications
require the license of a professional electrical engineer. However, close
cooperation and coordination between the electroacoustical designer
and the electrical engineer is necessary to ensure that the full scope of the work (low and
line voltage) is properly documented.
2000 AIA
Illustrated is a ray tracing or sound reflection study of a ceiling shape proposed by an architect. Sound rays are traced
from a source on the stage along a surface and then, according to the formula stating that the angle of incidence equals
2000 AIA
2000 AIA
2000 AIA