Oracle Material

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose

ORACLE

2.1 What is Oracle?

2.2 SQL is divided into the following

2.2.1

CREATE (DDL)

2.2.2

INSERT (DML)

2.2.3

Commit (TCL)

2.2.4

SELECT (DRL)

2.2.5

UPDATE (DML)

21

2.2.6

DELETE (DML)

21

2.2.7

TRUNCATE (DDL)

22

2.2.8

DROP (DDL)

22

2.2.9

USING DDL

23

2.2.10

USING TCL

24

2.2.11

USING DCL

26

2.3 Synonym

27

2.4 Dblink

28

2.5 How to take Backup table data?

28

2.6 Aliases

29

2.7 Functions

30

2.7.1

SINGLE

ROW

FUNCTIONS

2.7.2

GROUP BY AND HAVING

30
55

2.8 Set Operators

57

2.8.1

UNION

57

2.8.2

UNION ALL

58

2.8.3

INTERSECT

58

2.8.4

MINUS

58

2.9 Constraints

58

2.9.1

NOT NULL

59

2.9.2

CHECK

60

2.9.3

UNIQUE

60

2.9.4

PRIMARY KEY

61

2.9.5

FOREIGN KEY

62

Page 1 of 90

2.9.6
2.10

COMPOSITE KEYS

64

Joins

65

2.10.1

EQUI JOIN

67

2.10.2

NON-EQUI JOIN

68

2.10.3

SELF JOIN

69

2.10.4

NATURAL JOIN

69

2.10.5

CROSS JOIN

70

2.10.6

OUTER JOIN

71

2.10.7

INNER JOIN

73

2.11
Case OR Decode ()
2.11.1
CASE
2.11.2

74
74

Decode ()

75

2.12

Merge Statement

75

2.13

Sub Queries, Co-Related Queries and EXISTS clause

75

2.13.1

SUB QUERIES

75

2.13.2

CORRELATED SUBQUERIES

77

2.13.3

EXISTS

77

2.14

Views, Inline Views and Materialized Views

78

2.14.1

VIEWS

78

2.14.2

INLINE VIEW

79

2.14.3

MATERILIZED VIEW

79

2.15

Indexes

81

2.15.1

UNIQUE INDEX

81

2.15.2

NON-UNIQUE INDEX

81

2.15.3

BTREE INDEX or ASCENDING INDEX

82

2.15.4

BITMAP INDEX

82

2.15.5

COMPOSITE INDEX

82

2.16

Query Tuning approach

82

2.17

Differences

84

2.17.1

ROWID & ROW_NUM

84

2.17.2

WHERE & HAVING

85

2.17.3

SUB QUERY & CO_RELATED SUB QUERY

85

2.17.4

STORE PROCEDURE & FUNCTION

86

2.17.5

Trigger & Procedure

86

2.18

PL/SQL Basics

87

2.18.1

Store Procedure

87

2.18.2

Triggers:

88

2.19

IMPORTANT QUERIES

89

Detailed SQL DocumentAutomation of Candidate Extract and Load

Page 2 of 90

1
1.1

INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide the detailed information
about Oracle-SQL based on Real-Time for beginners.

2
2.1

ORACLE
What is Oracle?

Oracle is a Database which is developed by Oracle Corporation.

Organizations can store data on various media and in different formats,
such as a hard-copy document in a filing cabinet or data stored in
electronic spreadsheets or in databases.
A database is an organized collection of information.
To manage databases, you need database management systems (DBMS).
A DBMS is a program that stores, retrieves, and modifies data in the
database on request. There are four main types of databases:
hierarchical, network, relational, and more recently object relational
(ORDBMS).
Oracle divided into 2 parts
1. SQL (Structure Query Language)
2. PL/SQL (Procedure Language for SQL)

2.2

SQL is divided into the following

Data Definition Language (DDL)
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Retrieval Language (DRL)
Transaction Control Language (TCL)
Data Control Language (DCL)

DDL -- create, alter, drop, truncate, rename

Page 3 of 90

DML -- insert, update, delete

DRL -- select
TCL -- commit, rollback, save point
DCL -- grant, revoke
Oracle Data types:
Data types

Description

Max Size:
Oracle 11g

VARCHAR2(size)

Variable length character string

having maximum length size
bytes.
You must specify size. we can
use to store string values

4000 bytes
minimum is 1

NUMBER(p,s)

DATE

Number having precision p and

scale s. Which we can use to
store number values

The precision p can

range from 1 to 38.
The scale s can range
from -84 to 127.

Valid date range. We can use to

store date values

Database: Its collection of schemas or users

Schema/User: Its collection of Objects like tables, Views etc..
Table: Table is the basic element in a database or object in database to
store the data in the form of rows and columns.

Page 4 of 90

2.2.1 CREATE (DDL)

Create table <table_name> (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 coln
datatypen);
Ex:
SQL> create table student (no number (2), name varchar2 (10),
Address

varchar2 (50));

2.2.2 INSERT (DML)

This will be used to insert the records into table.
We have two methods to insert.
By value method
By address method
a) USING VALUE METHOD
Syntax:
Insert into <table_name> values (value1, value2, value3 .
Valuen);
Ex:
SQL> insert into student values (1, sham, hyd);
SQL> insert into student values (2, mohan,bang);
EMP
NO

NAME

DOJ

Page 5 of 90

SQL> Insert into EMP values (100, Sham, To_date (01-23-2010,MMDD-YYYY));

To insert a new record again you have to type entire insert
command, if there are lot of records this will be difficult.
This will be avoided by using address method.
b) USING ADDRESS METHOD
Syntax:
Insert into <table_name> values (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every insert you have to
use forward slash.
Ex:
SQL> insert into student values (&no, '&name', &address);
Enter value for no: 1
Enter value for name: Jagan
Enter value for address: mpl
SQL> /
Enter value for no: 2
Enter value for name: Naren
Enter value for address: Chennai
c) INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS USING VALUE
METHOD

Page 6 of 90

Syntax:
Insert into <table_name>(col1, col2, col3 Coln) values (value1,
value2, value3 . Valuen);
Ex:
SQL> insert into student (no, name) values (3, Ramesh);
SQL> insert into student (no, name) values (4, Madhu);
d) INSERTING NULL DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS
SQL> insert into student values (1, sham, NULL);
Here null is not a value you cant use it for comparison.
2.2.3 Commit (TCL)
To save transaction permanently in the database we need to issue
commit.
Every DML should follow TCL.
SQL> commit;
2.2.4 SELECT (DRL)
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name>; -- here * indicates all columns
Or
Select col1, col2 coln from <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student;
NO

NAME

address

Page 7 of 90

---

------

--------

sham

hyd

mohan

mpl

SQL> select no, name, address from student;

NO

NAME

--- ------

address
--------

sham

hyd

mohan

mpl

SQL> select no, name from student;

NO

NAME

--- ------1

Sham

mohan

CONDITIONAL SELECTIONS AND OPERATORS

We have two clauses used in this
Where
Order by
USING WHERE
We can retrieve or select specific data or rows with where clause.

Syntax:

Page 8 of 90

Select * from <table_name> where <condition>;

The following are the different types of operators used in where clause.
Arithmetic operators
Comparison operators
Logical operators
Arithmetic operators

-- highest precedence

+, -, *, /
Comparison operators
=, !=, >, <, >=, <=, <>
between, not between
in, not in
null, not null
like
Logical operators
And
Or

-- lowest precedence

Not
a) USING =, >, <, >=, <=, !=, <>
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where DOJ = To_date (01-232010,MM-DD-YYYY);
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Naren

400

Page 9 of 90

SQL> select * from student where no < 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

SQL> select * from student where no > 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

SQL> select * from student where no <= 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

SQL> select * from student where no >= 2;

Page 10 of 90

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

SQL> select * from student where no != 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

Ramesh

Madhu

SQL> select * from student where no <> 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

Ramesh
Page 11 of 90

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

b) USING AND
This will gives the output when all the conditions become true.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <condition1> and
<condition2> and...

<conditionn>;

Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no = 2 and marks >= 200;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

--------

Saketh

200

Naren

400

c) USING OR
This will gives the output when either of the conditions becomes true.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <condition1> or <condition2>
or...

<conditionn>;

Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no = 2 or marks >= 200;

Page 12 of 90

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

d) USING BETWEEN
This will gives the output based on the column and its lower bound,
upper bound.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> between <lower bound>
and <upper bound>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks between 200 and 400;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

e) USING NOT BETWEEN

This will gives the output based on the column which values are not in
its lower bound, upper bound.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> not between <lower
Page 13 of 90

bound> and <upper bound>;

Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks not between 200 and 400;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

f) USING IN
This will gives the output based on the column and its list of values
specified.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> in (value1, value2,
value3 valuen);
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no in (1, 2, 3);
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

Ramesh

Page 14 of 90

g) USING NOT IN
This will gives the output based on the column which values are not in
the list of values specified.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> not in (value1, value2,
value3 valuen);
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no not in (1, 2, 3);

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

h) USING NULL
This will gives the output based on the null values in the specified
column.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> is null;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks is null;
NO NAME

MARKS
Page 15 of 90

--- ------3

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

---------

i) USING NOT NULL

This will gives the output based on the not null values in the specified
column.
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> is not null;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks is not null;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

j) USING LIKE
This will be used to search through the rows of database column based
on the pattern you specify.

Page 16 of 90

Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> where <col> like <pattern>;
Ex:
i) This will give the rows whose marks are 100.
SQL> select * from student where marks like 100;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

ii) This will give the rows whose name start with S.
SQL> select * from student where name like 'S%';
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

iii) This will give the rows whose name ends with h.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%h';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Ramesh
Page 17 of 90

iV) This will give the rows whose names second letter start with a.
SQL> select * from student where name like '_a%';
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

--------

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Rattu

V) This will give the rows whose names third letter start with d.
SQL> select * from student where name like '__d%';
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

Madhu

100

Vi) This will give the rows whose names second letter start with t
from ending.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%_t%';
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Page 18 of 90

Saketh

Rattu

200

Viii) This will give the rows whose name cotains 2 as.
SQL> select * from student where name like '%a%a%';
NO NAME
--- ------1

Jagan

MARKS
---------300

* You have to specify the patterns in like using underscore ( _ ).

USING ORDER BY
This will be used to ordering the columns data (ascending or descending).
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> order by <col> desc;
By default oracle will use ascending order.
If you want output in descending order you have to use desc keyword
after the column.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student order by no;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

Page 19 of 90

Saketh

200

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

SQL> select * from student order by no desc;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

4 Madhu
3 Ramesh
2 Saketh

200

2 Naren

400

1 Sudha

100

1 Jagan

300

2.2.5 UPDATE (DML)

USING UPDATE
This can be used to modify the table data.
Syntax:
Update <table_name> set <col1> = value1, <col2> = value2 where
<condition>;
Ex:

Page 20 of 90

SQL> update student set marks = 500;

If you are not specifying any condition this will update entire table.
Update specific data in a table using Where clause
SQL> update student set marks = 500 where no = 2;
SQL> update student set marks = 500, name = 'Venu' where no = 1;
2.2.6 DELETE (DML)
This can be used to delete the table data temporarily.
Need to issue commit since Delete is DML
We can use Delete, to delete specific rows or data.
We can use where clause with delete statement.
Syntax:
Delete <table_name> where <condition>;
Ex:
SQL> delete student;
If you are not specifying any condition this will delete entire table.
SQL> Delete student where no = 2;

2.2.7 TRUNCATE (DDL)

This can be used to delete the entire table data permanently.
No need commit since truncate is DDL
We cant use truncate to delete specific rows or data.
We cant use where clause with truncate statement.

Page 21 of 90

Syntax:
Truncate table <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> Truncate table student;

2.2.8 DROP (DDL)

This will be used to drop the database objects;
Drop will delete data as well structure.
No need commit since drop is DDL
Syntax:
Drop table <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> Drop table student;

2.2.9 USING DDL

USING ALTER
This can be used to add or remove columns and to modify the precision of
the data type.
a) ADDING COLUMN
Syntax:
Alter table <table_name> add <col data type>;
Ex:

Page 22 of 90

SQL> Alter table student add sdob date;

b) REMOVING COLUMN
Syntax:
Alter table <table_name> drop column < col_name >;
Ex:
SQL> Alter table student drop column sdob;
c) INCREASING OR DECREASING PRECISION OF A COLUMN
Syntax:
Alter table <table_name> modify <col data type>;
Ex:
SQL> Alter table student modify marks number (5);
* To decrease precision the column should be empty.

e) RENAMING COLUMN
Syntax:
Alter table <table_name> rename column <old_col_name> to
<new_col_name>;
Ex:
SQL> Alter table student rename column marks to smarks;
USING RENAME
This will be used to rename the database object;

Page 23 of 90

Syntax:
Rename <old_table_name> to <new_table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> Rename student to stud;
2.2.10 USING TCL
USING COMMIT
This will be used to save the work.
Commit is of two types.
Implicit
Explicit

a) IMPLICIT
This will be issued by oracle internally
When any DDL operation is performed.
b) EXPLICIT
This will be issued by the user.
Syntax:
Commit or commit work;
* Whenever you committed then the transaction was completed.
USING ROLLBACK
This will undo the operation.
This will be applied in two methods.

Page 24 of 90

Up to previous commit

Up to previous rollback

Syntax:
Roll or roll work;
Or
Rollback or rollback work;
* While process is going on, if suddenly power goes then oracle will
rollback the transaction.
USING SAVEPOINT
You can use savepoints to rollback portions of your current set of
transactions.
Syntax:
Savepoint <savepoint_name>;
2.2.11 USING DCL
DCL commands are used to granting and revoking the permissions on
objects. To access tables from one schema to another schema.
USING GRANT
This is used to grant the privileges to other users.
Syntax:
Grant <privileges> on <object_name> to <user_name> [with grant
option];
Ex:
SQL> grant select on student to abc; -- you can give individual
privilege

Page 25 of 90

SQL> grant select, insert on student to abc; -- you can give set of
privileges
SQL> grant all on student to abc; -- you can give all privileges
The abc user has to use dot method to access the object.
SQL> select * from scott.student;
The abc user can not grant permission on student table to other users.
To get this type of option use the following.
SQL> grant all on student to abc with grant option;
Now abc user also grants permissions on student table.
USING REVOKE
This is used to revoke the privileges from the users to which you granted
the privileges.
Syntax:
Revoke <privileges> on <object_name> from <user_name>;
Ex:
SQL> revoke select on student form abc;

-- you can revoke

individual privilege
SQL> revoke select, insert on student from abc;

-- you can revoke

set of privileges
SQL> revoke all on student from abc; -- you can revoke all privileges
2.3

Synonym

A synonym is a similar named object, which is used as an alias for a table,

view or sequence.

Page 26 of 90

To access a tables or views or sequence from one schema to another

schema without specifying table prefix schema name (scott.emp).
TYPES
Private
Public
Private synonym is available to the particular user who creates.
Public synonym is created by DBA which is available to all the users.
ADVANTAGES
Hide the name and owner of the object.
CREATE AND DROP
SQL> create synonym emp for scott.emp;
SQL> create public synonym emp for scott.emp;
Login to abc schema then try
SQL> select * from emp
SQL> drop synonym emp;
2.4

Dblink

To access a tables or views or sequence from one database to another

database.
Syntax:
CREATE DATABASE LINK CAASEDW CONNECT TO ITO_ASA
IDENTIFIED BY exact123 USING ' CAASEDW
SQL> select * from emp@ CAASEDW

2.5

How to take Backup table data?

CREATE WITH SELECT (Take Backup table data)

Page 27 of 90

We can create a table using existing table [along with data] Called it as
Back up tables.
Syntax:
Create table <new_table_name> [col1, col2, col3 ... coln] as select *
from

<old_table_name>;

Ex:
SQL> create table student1 as select * from student;
Creating table with your own column names.
SQL> create table student2 (sno, sname, smarks) as select * from
student;
Creating table with specified columns.
SQL> create table student3 as select no, name from student;
Creating table without table data.
SQL> create table student2 (sno, sname, smarks) as select * from
student where 1 = 2;
In the above where clause give any condition which does not satisfy.
INSERT WITH SELECT
Using this we can insert existing table data to another table in a single
trip. But the table structure should be same.
Syntax:
Insert into <table1> select * from <table2>;
Ex:

Page 28 of 90

SQL> insert into student1 select * from student;

Inserting data into specified columns
SQL> insert into student1 (no, name) select no, name from student;

2.6

Aliases

COLUMN ALIASES
Syntax:
Select <orginal_col> <alias_name> from <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> select no sno from student;
Or
SQL> select no as sno from student;
TABLE ALIASES
If you are using table aliases you can use dot method to the columns.
Syntax:
Select <alias_name>.<col1>, <alias_name>.<col2>
<alias_name>.<coln> from <table_name> <alias_name>;
Ex:
SQL> select s.no, s.name from student s;

2.7

Functions

SQL functions are built into Oracle Database and are available for use in
various appropriate SQL statements.
Functions can be categorized as follows.
Page 29 of 90

 Single row functions

Group functions

2.7.1 SINGLE

ROW

FUNCTIONS

Single row functions can be categorized into five. These will be applied for
each row and produces individual output for each row.
Numeric functions
String functions
Date functions
Miscellaneous functions
Conversion functions
2.7.1.1.1

Numeric Functions

Numeric functions accept numeric input and return numeric values

MOD:
This will give the remainder.
Syntax: mod (value, divisor)
Ex:
SQL> select mod(7,4), mod(1,5), mod(null, null), mod(0,0), mod(-7,4) from dual;
MOD(7,4)
-----------3

MOD(1,5) MOD(NULL,NULL)

MOD(0,0) MOD(-7,4)

---------- --------------------1

----------- ------------0

-3

DUAL is Dummy table it does not have data or structure.

NVL:
Page 30 of 90

This will substitutes the specified value in the place of null values.
Syntax: nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
Ex:
SQL> select * from student; -- here for 3rd row marks value is null
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

100
200

SQL> select no, name, nvl(marks,300) from student;

NO

NAME

NVL(MARKS,300)

---

-------

---------------------

100

200

300

ROUND:
This will rounds numbers to a given number of digits of precision.
Syntax: round (value, precision)
Ex:
SQL>

select round(123.2345), round(123.2345,2), round(123.2354,2) from dual;

ROUND(123.2345) ROUND(123.2345,0) ROUND(123.2345,2) ROUND(123.2354,2)

Page 31 of 90

--------------------123

------------------------ ----------------------- ----------------------123

123.23

123.24

GREATEST:
This will give the greatest number.
Syntax: greatest (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
Ex:
SQL> select greatest(1, 2, 3), greatest(-1, -2, -3) from dual;
GREATEST(1,2,3) GREATEST(-1,-2,-3)
-------------------- ----------------------3

-1

TRUNC (number) :
The TRUNC (number) function returns n truncated to m decimal places.
SELECT TRUNC(15.79,1) "Truncate" FROM DUAL;
Truncate
---------15.7

2.7.1.1.2 String Functions

Character functions that return character values return values of the same
datatype as the input argument.
Initcap
Upper
Lower
Length
Rpad
Lpad

Page 32 of 90

 Ltrim
Rtrim
Trim
Translate
Replace
Soundex
Concat ( || Concatenation operator)
Ascii
Chr
Substr
Instr
Decode
Greatest
Least
Coalesce
a) INITCAP
This will capitalize the initial letter of the string.
Syntax: initcap (string)
Ex:
SQL> select initcap('computer') from dual;
INITCAP
----------Computer
b) UPPER
This will convert the string into uppercase.

Page 33 of 90

Syntax: upper (string)

Ex:
SQL> select upper('computer') from dual;
UPPER
----------COMPUTER
c) LOWER
This will convert the string into lowercase.
Syntax: lower (string)
Ex:
SQL> select lower('COMPUTER') from dual;
LOWER
----------computer
d) LENGTH
This will give length of the string.
Syntax: length (string)
Ex:
SQL> select length('computer') from dual;
LENGTH
----------Page 34 of 90

8
e) RPAD
This will allows you to pad the right side of a column with any set of
characters.
Syntax: rpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex:
SQL> select rpad('computer',15,'*'), rpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;
RPAD('COMPUTER' RPAD('COMPUTER'
---------------------- ---------------------computer*******

computer*#*#*#*

-- Default padding character was blank space.

f) LPAD
This will allows you to pad the left side of a column with any set of
characters.
Syntax: lpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex:
SQL> select lpad('computer',15,'*'), lpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;
LPAD('COMPUTER' LPAD('COMPUTER'
---------------------

---------------------

*******computer

*#*#*#*computer

-- Default padding character was blank space.

g) LTRIM

Page 35 of 90

This will trim off unwanted characters from the left end of string.
Syntax: ltrim (string [,unwanted_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select ltrim('computer','co'), ltrim('computer','com') from dual;
LTRIM( LTRIM
-------- --------mputer

puter

SQL> select ltrim('computer','puter'), ltrim('computer','omputer') from dual;

LTRIM('C LTRIM('C
----------

----------

computer

computer

-- If you havent specify any unwanted characters it will display entire

string.
h) RTRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the right end of string.
Syntax: rtrim (string [, unwanted_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select rtrim('computer','er'), rtrim('computer','ter') from
dual;
RTRIM( RTRIM
-------- --------Page 36 of 90

comput

compu

SQL> select rtrim('computer','comput), rtrim('computer','compute')

from dual;
RTRIM('C RTRIM('C
----------

----------

computer

computer

-- If you havent specify any unwanted characters it will display

entire string.

i) TRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the both sides of string.
Syntax: trim (unwanted_chars from string)
Ex:
SQL> select trim( 'i' from 'indiani') from dual;
TRIM(
----ndian
SQL> select trim( leading'i' from 'indiani') from dual; -- this will
work as LTRIM
TRIM(L
-----ndiani
Page 37 of 90

SQL> select trim( trailing'i' from 'indiani') from dual; -- this will
work as RTRIM
TRIM(T
-----Indian
j) TRANSLATE
This will replace the set of characters, character by character.
Syntax: translate (string, old_chars, new_chars)
Ex:
SQL> select translate('india','in','xy') from dual;
TRANS
-------xydxa
k) REPLACE
This will replace the set of characters, string by string.
Syntax: replace (string, old_chars [, new_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select replace('india','in','xy'), replace(india,in) from dual;
REPLACE

REPLACE

----------- ----------Xydia

dia

Page 38 of 90

m) CONCAT
This will be used to combine two strings only.
Syntax: concat (string1, string2)
Ex:
SQL> select concat('computer',' operator') As Name from dual;
Name
------------------------computer operator
If you want to combine more than two strings you have to use
concatenation
Operator(||).
SQL> select 'how' || ' are' || ' you' from dual;
'HOW'||'ARE
--------------how are you
n) ASCII
This will return the decimal representation in the database character
set of the first
character of the string.
Syntax: ascii (string)
Ex:

Page 39 of 90

SQL> select ascii('a'), ascii('apple') from dual;

ASCII('A') ASCII('APPLE')
------------ -----------------97

97

o) CHR
This will return the character having the binary equivalent to the string
in either the database character set or the national character set.
Syntax: chr (number)
Ex:
SQL> select chr(97) from dual;
CHR
----a
p) SUBSTR
This will be used to extract substrings.
Syntax: substr (string, start_chr_count [, no_of_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select substr('computer',2), substr('computer',2,5),
substr('computer',3,7) from dual;
SUBSTR( SUBST SUBSTR
---------- -------

--------

omputer omput

mputer

Page 40 of 90

q) INSTR
This will allows you for searching through a string for set of characters.
Syntax: instr (string, search_str [, start_chr_count [, occurrence] ])
Ex:
SQL> select instr('information','o',4,1), instr('information','o',4,2)
from dual;
INSTR('INFORMATION','O',4,1) INSTR('INFORMATION','O',4,2)
------------------------------------ ------------------------------------4

10

If you are not specifying start_chr_count and occurrence then it

will start
search from the beginning and finds first occurrence only.
If both parameters start_chr_count and occurrence are null, it will
display
nothing.
r) DECODE
Decode will act as value by value substitution.
For every value of field, it will checks for a match in a series of if/then
tests.
Syntax: decode (value, if1, then1, if2, then2, . else);
Ex:
SQL> select sal, decode(sal,500,'Low',5000,'High','Medium') from
emp;

Page 41 of 90

SAL
-----

DECODE
---------

500

Low

2500

Medium

2000

Medium

3500

Medium

SQL> select decode(1,1,3), decode(1,2,3,4,4,6) from dual;

DECODE(1,1,3) DECODE(1,2,3,4,4,6)
----------------- -----------------------3

If the number of parameters are odd and different then decode

will display
nothing.
If the number of parameters are even and different then decode
will display last
value.
If all the parameters are null then decode will display nothing.
If all the parameters are zeros then decode will display zero.
s) GREATEST
This will give the greatest string.
Syntax: greatest (strng1, string2, string3 stringn)
Ex:
SQL> select greatest('a', 'b', 'c'), greatest('satish','srinu','saketh')
Page 42 of 90

from dual;
GREAT GREAT
------- ------c

srinu

If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.
t) LEAST
This will give the least string.
Syntax: greatest (strng1, string2, string3 stringn)
Ex:
SQL> select least('a', 'b', 'c'), least('satish','srinu','saketh') from
dual;
LEAST LEAST
------- ------a

saketh

If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

2.7.1.1.3

DATE FUNCTIONS

Oracle default date format is DD-MON-YY.

Sysdate
Current_date
Current_timestamp
Page 43 of 90

 Systimestamp
Localtimestamp
Dbtimezone
Sessiontimezone
To_char
To_date
Add_months
Months_between
Next_day
Last_day
Extract
Greatest
Least
Round
Trunc
New_time
Coalesce
a) SYSDATE
This will give the current date and time.
Ex:
SQL> select sysdate from dual;
SYSDATE
----------24-DEC-06
b) CURRENT_DATE
This will returns the current date in the sessions timezone.
Page 44 of 90

Ex:
SQL> select current_date from dual;
CURRENT_DATE
-----------------24-DEC-06
c) CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
This will returns the current timestamp with the active time zone
information.
Ex:
SQL> select current_timestamp from dual;
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
--------------------------------------------------------------------------24-DEC-06 03.42.41.383369 AM +05:30

d) SYSTIMESTAMP
This will returns the system date, including fractional seconds and time
zone of the
database.
Ex:
SQL> select systimestamp from dual;
SYSTIMESTAMP
--------------------------------------------------------------------------24-DEC-06 03.49.31.830099 AM +05:30

Page 45 of 90

h) TO_CHAR
This will be used to extract various date formats.
The available date formats as follows.
Syntax: to_char (date, format)

DATE FORMATS
D

--

No of days in week

DD

--

No of days in month

DDD

--

No of days in year

MM

--

No of month

MON

--

Three letter abbreviation of month

MONTH

--

Fully spelled out month

RM

--

Roman numeral month

DY

--

Three letter abbreviated day

DAY

--

Fully spelled out day

--

Last one digit of the year

YY

--

Last two digits of the year

YYY

--

Last three digits of the year

YYYY

--

Full four digit year

SYYYY

--

Signed year

--

One digit year from ISO standard

Page 46 of 90

IY

--

Two digit year from ISO standard

IYY

--

Three digit year from ISO standard

IYYY

--

Four digit year from ISO standard

Y, YYY

--

Year with comma

YEAR

--

Fully spelled out year

CC

--

Century

--

No of quarters

--

No of weeks in month

WW

--

No of weeks in year

IW

--

No of weeks in year from ISO standard

HH

--

Hours

MI

--

Minutes

SS

--

Seconds

FF

--

Fractional seconds

AM or PM

--

Displays AM or PM depending upon time of day

A.M or P.M --

Displays A.M or P.M depending upon time of day

AD or BC

--

Displays AD or BC depending upon the date

A.D or B.C --

Displays AD or BC depending upon the date

FM

--

Prefix to month or day, suppresses padding of

--

Suffix to a number

month or day
TH

Page 47 of 90

SP

--

suffix to a number to be spelled out

SPTH

--

Suffix combination of TH and SP to be both spelled

THSP

--

same as SPTH

out

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month year') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDMONTHYEAR')
------------------------------------------------------24 december two thousand six
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd fmmonth year') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD FMMONTH YEAR')
------------------------------------------------------24 december two thousand six
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddth DDTH') from dual;
TO_CHAR(S
-----------24th 24TH
i) TO_DATE
This will be used to convert the string into date format.
Syntax: to_date (date)
Ex:
SQL> select to_char(to_date('24/dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'dd *

Page 48 of 90

month * day')

from dual;

TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('24/DEC/20
-------------------------24 * december * Sunday
-- If you are not using to_char oracle will display output in default
date format.
j) ADD_MONTHS
This will add the specified months to the given date.
Syntax: add_months (date, no_of_months)
Ex:
SQL> select add_months(to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), 5)
from dual;
ADD_MONTHS
---------------11-JUN-90
SQL> select add_months(to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), -5)
from dual;
ADD_MONTH
--------------11-AUG-89
If no_of_months is zero then it will display the same date.
If no_of_months is null then it will display nothing.

Page 49 of 90

k) MONTHS_BETWEEN
This will give difference of months between two dates.
Syntax: months_between (date1, date2)
Ex:
SQL> select months_between(to_date('11-aug-1990','dd-monyyyy'), to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-mon-yyyy')) from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE('11-AUG-1990','DD-MON-YYYY'),TO_DATE('11-JAN-1990','DD-MONYYYY'))
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7

SQL> select months_between(to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-monyyyy'), to_date('11-aug-1990','dd-mon-yyyy')) from dual;

MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE('11-JAN-1990','DD-MON-YYYY'),TO_DATE('11-AUG1990','DD-MON-YYYY'))
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7

l) NEXT_DAY
This will produce next day of the given day from the specified date.
Syntax: next_day (date, day)
Ex:
SQL> select next_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-mon-yyyy'),'sun')
from dual;
NEXT_DAY(
Page 50 of 90

------------31-DEC-06
-- If the day parameter is null then it will display nothing.
m) LAST_DAY
This will produce last day of the given date.
Syntax: last_day (date)
Ex:
SQL> select last_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-mon-yyyy'),'sun')
from dual;
LAST_DAY(
------------31-DEC-06
o) GREATEST
This will give the greatest date.
Syntax: greatest (date1, date2, date3 daten)
Ex:
SQL> select greatest(to_date('11-jan-90','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11mar-90','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11-apr-90','dd-mon-yy')) from dual;

GREATEST(
-------------

Page 51 of 90

11-APR-90
p) LEAST
This will give the least date.
Syntax: least (date1, date2, date3 daten)
Ex:
SQL> select least(to_date('11-jan-90','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11mar-90','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11-apr-90','dd-mon-yy')) from dual;
LEAST(
------------11-JAN-90
r) TRUNC
Trunc will chops off the date to which it was equal to or less than the
given date.
Syntax: trunc (date, (day | month | year))
If the second parameter was year then it always returns the first day
of the current year.
If the second parameter was month then it always returns the first
day of the current month.
If the second parameter was day then it always returns the previous
sunday.
If the second parameter was null then it returns nothing.
If the you are not specifying the second parameter then trunk will
resets the time to the begining of the current day.
Ex:

Page 52 of 90

SQL> select trunc(to_date('24-dec-04','dd-mon-yy'),'year'),

trunc(to_date('11-mar-06','dd-mon-yy'),'year') from dual;

TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- -------------01-JAN-04

01-JAN-06

SQL> select trunc(to_date('11-jan-04','dd-mon-yy'),'month'),

trunc(to_date('18-jan-04','dd-mon-yy'),'month') from dual;
TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- ------------01-JAN-04

2.7.1.2

01-JAN-04

MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS

a) RANK
This will give the non-sequential ranking.
Ex:
Select empno, ename, sal, r from (select empno, ename, sal, rank () over
(order by sal desc) r from EMP);
Empno

ename

sal

100

5000

200

5000

300

4000

Page 53 of 90

d) DENSE_RANK
This will give the sequential ranking.
The DENSE_RANK function works acts like the RANK function except
that it assigns consecutive ranks:
EX:
Select empno, ename, Sal, from (select empno, ename, sal, dense_rank
() over (order by sal desc) r from emp);

Empno

ename

sal

100

5000

200

5000

300

4000

2.7.2 GROUP BY AND HAVING

GROUP BY
Using group by, we can create groups of related information.
Columns used in select must be used with group by, otherwise it was not a
group by expression.
Ex:
SQL> select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;
DEPTNO

SUM(SAL)

---------- ---------10

8750

20

10875

Page 54 of 90

30

9400

SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno,job;

DEPTNO JOB

SUM(SAL)

---------- ---------

----------

10

CLERK

1300

10

MANAGER

10

PRESIDENT

5000

20

ANALYST

6000

20

CLERK

1900

20

MANAGER

30

CLERK

30

MANAGER

2850

30

SALESMAN

5600

2450

2975
950

HAVING
This will work as where clause which can

be used only with group by

because of absence of where clause in group by.

On top of the Group by if we want to filter the groups then we use having
clause.
Ex:
SQL> Select empno, name,address,count (*) from EMP group by
empno, name,address

having count (*)>1;

EMPNO

NAME

ADDRESS

COUNT

Page 55 of 90

---------- --------200
300

SHAM
MOHAN

---------HYD
BANG

-----3
2

SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group by deptno,job

having sum(sal) > 3000 order by job;

DEPTNO

JOB

---------- ---------

TSAL
----------

20

ANALYST

6000

10

PRESIDENT

5000

30

SALESMAN

5600

ORDER OF EXECUTION
Group the rows together based on group by clause.
Calculate the group functions for each group.
Choose and eliminate the groups based on the having clause.
Order the groups based on the specified column.

2.8

Set Operators

To Combine two queries we need set operators.

TYPES
Union
Union all
Intersect
Minus

Page 56 of 90

2.8.1 UNION
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1
Union
select * from student2;
2.8.2 UNION ALL
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure
but including duplicates.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 union all select * from student2;
2.8.3 INTERSECT
This will give the common records of multiple tables having the same
structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 intersect select * from student2;
2.8.4 MINUS
This will give the records of a table whose records are not in other tables
having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 minus select * from student2;
2.9

Constraints

Constraints required maintaining consistence data in a database.

Page 57 of 90

Constraints are categorized as follows.

Domain integrity constraints

Not null
Check
Entity integrity constraints
Unique
Primary key
Referential integrity constraints
Foreign key
Constraints are always attached to a column not a table.
We can add constraints in three ways.
Column level

-- along with the column definition

TABLE LEVEL
Alter level

-- after the table definition

-- using alter command

While adding constraints you need not specify the name but the type only,
oracle will internally name the constraint.
If you want to give a name to the constraint, you have to use the
constraint clause.
2.9.1 NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values.
We can add this constraint in column level only.
Ex:
SQL> create table student(no number(2) not null, name varchar(10),

Page 58 of 90

marks

number(3));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint nn not null, name

varchar(10), marks number(3));
2.9.2 CHECK
This is used to insert the values based on specified condition.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks
number(3) check

(marks > 300));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks

number(3)

constraint ch check(marks > 300));

TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks
number(3), check

(marks > 300));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks

number(3),

constraint ch check(marks > 300));

ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table student add check(marks>300);
SQL> alter table student add constraint ch check(marks>300);
2.9.3 UNIQUE
This is used to avoid duplicates but it allow nulls.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.

Page 59 of 90

Ex:

COLUMN LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) unique, name varchar(10),
marks number(3));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint un unique, name
varchar(10),

marks number(3));

TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10),
marks number(3),

unique(no));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks

number(3),

constraint un unique(no));

ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table student add unique(no);
SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no);
2.9.4 PRIMARY KEY
This is used to avoid duplicates and nulls. This will work as
combination of unique and not null.
Primary key always attached to the parent table.
Primary key will create Unique index by default.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) primary key, name

Page 60 of 90

varchar(10), marks

number(3));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint pk primary key,

name varchar(10),

marks number(3));

TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks
number(3),

primary key(no));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks

number(3),

constraint pk primary key(no));

ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table student add primary key(no);
SQL> alter table student add constraint pk primary key(no);
2.9.5 FOREIGN KEY
This is used to reference the parent table primary key column which
allows duplicates.
Foreign key always attached to the child table.
We can add this constraint in table and alter levels only.
Ex:
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno
number(2),

Primary

key(empno),

foreign

key(deptno)

references

dept(deptno));
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10),
deptno number(2),

constraint pk primary key(empno), constraint fk

foreign key(deptno) references

dept(deptno));
Page 61 of 90

ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references
dept(deptno);
SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno)
references dept(deptno);
Once the primary key and foreign key relationship has been created then
you can not remove any parent record if the dependent childs exists.
USING ON DELTE CASCADE
By using this clause you can remove the parent record even it childs
exists.
Because when ever you remove parent record oracle automatically
removes all its dependent records from child table, if this clause is present
while creating foreign key constraint.
Ex:
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno
number(2),

primary

dept(deptno) on delete

key(empno),

foreign

key(deptno)

references

cascade);

SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10),

deptno number(2),

constraint pk primary key(empno), constraint fk

foreign key(deptno) references

dept(deptno) on delete cascade);

Page 62 of 90

ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references
dept(deptno) on delete

cascade;

SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno)

references dept(deptno) on

delete cascade;

2.9.6 COMPOSITE KEYS

A composite key can be defined on a combination of columns.
Composite key can be defined in table and alter levels only.
Ex:
UNIQUE (TABLE LEVEL)
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10),
marks number(3),

unique(no,name));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks

number(3),

constraint un unique(no,name));

UNIQUE (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL> alter table student add unique(no,name);
SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no,name);
PRIMARY KEY (TABLE LEVEL)
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks
number(3),

primary key(no,name));

SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks

number(3),

constraint pk primary key(no,name));

Page 63 of 90

PRIMARY KEY (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL> alter table student add primary key(no,anme);
SQL> alter table student add constraint pk primary key(no,name);
FOREIGN KEY (TABLE LEVEL)
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno
number(2),

dname

varchar(10),

key(deptno,dname) references

primary

key(empno),

foreign

dept(deptno,dname));

SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10),

deptno number(2),

dname varchar(10), constraint pk primary

key(empno), constraint fk foreign

key(deptno,dname) references

dept(deptno,dname));
FOREIGN KEY (ALTER LEVEL)
SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno,dname) references
dept(deptno,dname);
SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno,dname)
references

dept(deptno,dname);

2.10 Joins

The purpose of a join is to combine the data across tables.

A join is actually performed by the where clause which combines the

specified rows of tables.

If a join involves in more than two tables then oracle joins first two
tables based on the joins condition and then compares the result with
the next table and so on.

TYPES
Page 64 of 90

 Equi join
Non-equi join
Self join
Natural join
Cross join
Outer join

Left outer

Right outer

Full outer

Inner join
Using clause
On clause

Assume that we have the following tables.

SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

------ ---------- ---------10

mkt

hyd

20

fin

bang

30

hr

bombay

SQL> select * from emp;

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

DEPTNO

Page 65 of 90

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

222

sudha

333
444

analyst

444

10

clerk

333

20

jagan

manager

111

10

madhu

engineer

222

40

2.10.1 EQUI JOIN

A join which contains an = operator in the joins condition.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where
e.deptno=d.deptno;
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

333

jagan

manager mkt

222

sudha

clerk

fin

hyd
hyd
bang

USING CLAUSE
SQL> select empno,ename,job ,dname,loc from emp e join dept d
using(deptno);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------Page 66 of 90

111

saketh

analyst

mkt

333

jagan

manager mkt

222

sudha

clerk

fin

hyd
hyd
bang

ON CLAUSE
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

333

jagan

manager mkt

222

sudha

clerk

fin

hyd
hyd
bang

2.10.2 NON-EQUI JOIN

A join which contains an operator other than = in the joins condition.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where
e.deptno >

d.deptno;
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------222

sudha

clerk

mkt

hyd

444

madhu

engineer

mkt

hyd

444

madhu

engineer

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer

hr

bombay
Page 67 of 90

2.10.3 SELF JOIN

Joining the table itself is called self join.
Ex:
SQL> select e1.empno,e2.ename,e1.job,e2.deptno from emp e1,emp
e2 where

e1.mgr=e2.empno;
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

jagan

analyst

10

222

madhu

clerk

40

333

sudha

manager

20

444

saketh

engineer

10

2.10.4 NATURAL JOIN

Natural join compares all the common columns.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp natural join dept;
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

2.10.5 CROSS JOIN

This will gives the cross product.
Page 68 of 90

Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp cross join dept;
EMPNO ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

444

madhu

engineer

mkt

hyd

111

saketh

analyst

fin

bang

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

333

jagan

manager

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer

fin

bang

111

saketh

analyst

hr

bombay

222

sudha

clerk

hr

bombay

333

jagan

manager

hr

bombay

444

madhu

engineer

hr

bombay

2.10.6 OUTER JOIN

Outer join gives the non-matching records along with matching records
from both the tables. Its divided into Left, Right and Full outer join
2.10.6.1

LEFT OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records from both the tables and also
Page 69 of 90

non matching records from opposite side outer join symbol table.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e left outer join
dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or

SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where

e.deptno=d.deptno(+);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------

2.10.6.2

111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the records which are in
right hand side table those that are not in left hand side table.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e right outer join
dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where
e.deptno(+) =

d.deptno;
Page 70 of 90

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

hr
2.10.6.3

bombay

FULL OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the non-matching records
from both tables.Union between Left and Right outer joins nothing but Full
Outer join.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e right outer join
dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno)
UNION

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno(+)

=

d.deptno;
OR
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e full outer join

dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------

Page 71 of 90

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer
hr

bombay

2.10.7 INNER JOIN

This will display all the records that have matched.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp inner join dept
using(deptno);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

2.11 Case OR Decode ()

2.11.1 CASE
Case is similar to decode but easier to understand while going through
coding
Ex:
SQL> Select sal,
Case sal
When 500 then low

Page 72 of 90

When 5000 then high

Else medium
End case

From emp;

SAL

CASE

-----

--------

500

low

2500

medium

2000

medium

3500

medium

3000

medium

5000

high

4000

medium

2.11.2 Decode ()

SQL> Select sal,

Decode( sal ,500 , low,
5000, high,
medium) as sal
From emp;

SQL>Select NAME, NO, Decode( address ,HYD , Hyderabad

BANG,Bangulure,address) as
Address

From emp;

Page 73 of 90

2.12 Merge Statement

You can use merge command to perform insert and update in a single
command.
Ex: Merge into student1 s1
Using (select * from student2) s2
On (s1.no=s2.no)
When matched then
Update set marks = s2.marks
When not matched then
Insert (s1.no, s1.name, s1.marks)
s2.marks);

Values (s2.no, s2.name,

2.13 Sub Queries, Co-Related Queries and EXISTS clause

2.13.1 SUB QUERIES
If we write select statement in where clause that we called it as sub
queries or inner queries.
TYPES
Single row subqueries
Multi row subqueries
Correlated subqueries

2.13.1.1

SINGLE ROW SUBQUERIES

In single row subquery, it will return one value.

Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp where

Page 74 of 90

empno = 7566);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

HIREDATE

SAL

COMM

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------ ------- ---------- ----------

2.13.1.2

7788

SCOTT

ANALYST

7566

7839

KING

PRESIDENT

7902

FORD

ANALYST

19-APR-87

3000

20

17-NOV-81 5000
7566

03-DEC-81

3000

10
20

MULTI ROW SUBQUERIES

In multi row subquery, it will return more than one value. In such cases
we should include operators like any, all, in or not in between the
comparision operator and the subquery.
Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > any (select sal from emp where
sal between 2500 and 4000);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

HIREDATE

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- -----------

SAL

COMM

DEPTNO

-------- ---------- ----------

7566

JONES

MANAGER

7839 02-APR-81

2975

20

7788

SCOTT

ANALYST

7566 19-APR-87

3000

20

7839

KING

PRESIDENT

7902

FORD

ANALYST

17-NOV-81
7566 03-DEC-81

5000

10

3000

20

2.13.2 CORRELATED SUBQUERIES

Page 75 of 90

A subquery is evaluated once for the entire parent statement where as a

correlated subquery is evaluated once for every row processed by the
parent statement.
Ex:

Find all employees who earn more than the average salary in their

department.
SQL> SELECT last-named, salary, department_id FROM employees A
WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG (salary) FROM employees B WHERE
B.department_id =A.department_id
Group by B.department_id)
2.13.3 EXISTS

The EXISTS operator tests for existence of rows in the results set of the
subquery.
SQL> Select dname from dept where exists
(select 1 from EMP
where dept.deptno= emp.deptno);

2.14

Views, Inline Views and Materialized Views

2.14.1 VIEWS

A view is a database object that is a logical representation of a table. It is

delivered from a table but has no storage of its own. View will fetch the
date from base table.It will run the Base query.
A view takes the output of the query and treats it as a table

Page 76 of 90

TYPES
Simple view
Complex view
Simple view can be created from one table where as complex view can be
created from multiple tables.
We can do DML on Simple view but not on Complex views.
WHY VIEWS?
Provides additional level of security by restricting access to a
predetermined set of rows and/or columns of a table.
Ex:
SQL> Create view dept_v as select *from dept;
SQL> Create view dept_v as select deptno, sum(sal) t_sal from emp
group by deptno;
SQL> Select * from dept_v ;
DROPPING VIEWS
SQL> drop view dept_v;
2.14.2 INLINE VIEW
If we write a select statement in from clause that is nothing but inline
view.
Ex: Get dept wise max sal along with empname and emp no.
SQL> Select a.empname, a.empno, b.sal, b.deptno
From EMP a, (Select max (sal) sal, deptno from EMP group by
deptno) b

Page 77 of 90

Where

a.sal=b.sal and

a.deptno=b.deptno

SQL> Select ename, sal, rownum rank from (select *from emp order by
sal);
ENAME

SAL

RANK

---------- ---------- ---------SMITH

800

JAMES

950

ADAMS

1100

WARD

1250

2.14.3 MATERILIZED VIEW

In DWH materialized views are very essential because in reporting side if
we do aggregate calculations as per the business requirement report
performance would be de graded. So to improve report performance
rather than doing report calculations and joins at reporting side if we put
same logic in the MV then we can directly select the data from MV without
any joins and aggregations. We can also schedule MV (Materialize View).

Syntax:
CREATE MATERIALIZED HWMD_MTH_ALL_METRICS_CURR_MV
REFRESH COMPLETE
START WITH sysdate
NEXT TRUNC(SYSDATE+1)+ 4/24
WITH PRIMARY KEY
AS
Select * from HWMD_MTH_ALL_METRICS_CURR_VW;
Another Method to refresh MV:
DBMS_MVIEW.REFRESH('MV_COMPLEX', 'C');
Or
we can use Informatica mapping to refresh Materialized views.
Page 78 of 90

What is the difference between view and materialized view?

View

Materialized view

A view has a logical existence. It

does not contain data.

A materialized view has a physical

existence.

We cannot perform DML operation

on complex view.

We can perform DML operation on

materialized view.

When we do select * from view it

will fetch the data from base table.

When we do select * from

materialized view it will fetch the
data from materialized view.

In view we cannot schedule to

refresh.

In materialized view we can

schedule to refresh.
We can keep aggregated data into
materialized view. Materialized
view mostly used for reporting
purpose.

2.15 Indexes
We can create indexes explicitly to speed up SQL statement execution on
a table. The index points directly to the location of the rows containing the
value.
WHY INDEXES?
Indexes are most useful on larger tables, on columns that are likely to
appear in where clauses as simple equality.
TYPES
Unique index
Non-unique index
Btree index
Bitmap index

Page 79 of 90

 Composite index
Function-based index
Cluster index
2.15.1 UNIQUE INDEX
Unique indexes guarantee that no two rows of a table have duplicate
values in the columns that define the index. Unique index is automatically
created when primary key or unique constraint is created.
Ex:
SQL> create unique index stud_ind on student(sno);
2.15.2 NON-UNIQUE INDEX
Non-Unique indexes do not impose the above restriction on the column
values.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno);
2.15.3 BTREE INDEX or ASCENDING INDEX
The default type of index used in an oracle database is the btree index. A
btree index is designed to provide both rapid access to individual rows and
quick access to groups of rows within a range. The btree index does this
by performing a succession of value comparisons. Each comparison
eliminates many of the rows.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno);
2.15.4 BITMAP INDEX
This can be used for low cardinality columns: that is columns in which the
number of distinct values is snall when compared to the number of the
rows in the table.
Page 80 of 90

Ex:
SQL> create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sex);
2.15.5 COMPOSITE INDEX
A composite index also called a concatenated index is an index created on
multiple columns of a table. Columns in a composite index can appear in
any order and need not be adjacent columns of the table.
Ex:
SQL> create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sno, sname);
2.16 Query Tuning approach
What is your tuning approach if SQL query taking long time? Or how do u
tune SQL query?
If query taking long time then we need to run the query in Explain Plan it
will give us execution plan of the query like whether the query is using the
relevant indexes on the joining columns or not .
If joining columns doesnt have index then it will do the full table scan if it
is full table scan the cost will be more then we have to create the indexes
on the joining columns and will run the query it should give better
performance .
And also needs to analyze the tables if analyzation happened long back. It
may causes performance.
The ANALYZE statement can be used to gather statistics for a specific
table, index or cluster using
ANALYZE TABLE employees COMPUTE STATISTICS;
If still has performance issue then will use HINTS, hint is nothing but a
clue. We can use hints in select statement like
Use Hint to force using index
SELECT /*+INDEX (TABLE_NAME INDEX_NAME) */ COL1,COL2 FROM
TABLE_NAME

Page 81 of 90

ALL_ROWS
One of the hints that 'invokes' the Cost based optimizer
ALL_ROWS is usually used for batch processing or data warehousing
systems.

Select /*+ ALL_ROWS */

FIRST_ROWS
One of the hints that 'invokes' the Cost based optimizer
FIRST_ROWS is usually used for OLTP systems.

(/*+ FIRST_ROWS */)

CHOOSE
One of the hints that 'invokes' the Cost based optimizer
This hint lets the server choose (between ALL_ROWS and
FIRST_ROWS, based on statistics gathered.

HASH
Hashes one table (full scan) and creates a hash index for that table.
Then hashes other table and uses hash index to find corresponding
records. Therefore not suitable for < or > join conditions.

/*+ use_hash */
Select ( /*+ hash */ ) empno from

Hints are most useful to optimize the query performance.

Why Hints Required?
It is a perfect valid question to ask why hints should be used. Oracle
comes with an optimizer that promises to optimize a query's execution
plan. When this optimizer is really doing a good job, no hints should be
required at all.
Sometimes, however, the characteristics of the data in the database are
changing rapidly, so that the optimizer (or more accuratly, its statistics)
are out of date. In this case, a hint could help.
You should first get the explain plan of your SQL and determine what
changes can be done to make the code operate without using hints if
possible.
2.17 Differences

Page 82 of 90

2.17.1 ROWID & ROW_NUM

Rowid

Row-num

Rowid is an oracle internal id that

is allocated every time a new
record is inserted in a table. This
ID is unique and cannot be
changed by the user.

Row-num is a row number

returned by a select statement.

Rowid is permanent.

Row-num is temporary.

Rowid is a globally unique

identifier for a row in a database.
It is created at the time the row
is inserted into the table, and
destroyed when it is removed
from a table.

The row-num pseudocoloumn

returns a number indicating the
order in which oracle selects the
row from a table or set of joined
rows.

2.17.2 WHERE & HAVING

Where clause

Having clause

Both where and having clause can be used to filter the data.
Where as in where clause it is not
mandatory.

But having clause we need to use

it with the group by.

Where clause applies to the

individual rows.

Where as having clause is used to

test some condition on the group
rather than on individual rows.

Where clause is used to restrict

rows.

But having clause is used to

restrict groups.

Restrict normal query by where

Restrict group by function by

having

In where clause every record is

filtered based on where.

In having clause it is with

aggregate records (group by
functions).

Page 83 of 90

2.17.3 SUB QUERY & CO_RELATED SUB QUERY

Sub-query

Co-related sub-query

A sub-query is executed once for

the parent Query

Where as co-related sub-query is

executed once for each row of the
parent query.

Example:

Example:

Select * from emp where deptno

in (select deptno from dept);

Select a.* from emp e where sal

>= (select avg(sal) from emp a
where a.deptno=e.deptno group
by a.deptno);

2.17.4 STORE PROCEDURE & FUNCTION

Stored Procedure

Functions

Stored procedure may or may not

return values.

Function should return at least one

output parameter. Can return more
than one parameter using OUT
argument.

Stored procedure can be used to

solve the business logic.

Function can be used to calculations

Stored procedure is a pre-compiled

statement.

But function is not a pre-compiled

statement.

Stored procedure accepts more

than one argument.

Whereas function does not accept

arguments.

Stored procedures are mainly used

to process the tasks.

Functions are mainly used to

compute values

Cannot be invoked from SQL

statements. E.g. SELECT

Can be invoked form SQL

statements e.g. SELECT

Can affect the state of database

using commit.

Cannot affect the state of database.

Stored as a pseudo-code in

Parsed and compiled at runtime.

Page 84 of 90

database i.e. compiled form.

2.17.5 Trigger & Procedure

Triggers

Stored Procedures

In trigger no need to execute

manually. Triggers will be fired
automatically.

Where as in procedure we need to

execute manually.

Triggers that run implicitly when an

INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement is issued against the
associated table.

2.18 PL/SQL Basics

2.18.1 Store Procedure
A stored procedure is a set of Structured Query Language (SQL)
statements with an assigned name that's stored in the database in
compiled form so that it can be shared by a number of programs.
Pprerequisites:
Before creating a procedure, the user SYS must run a SQL script commonly
called DBMSSTDX.SQL. The exact name and location of this script depend
on your operating system.
To create a procedure in your own schema, you must have the CREATE
PROCEDURE system privilege. To create a procedure in another user's
schema, you must have the CREATE ANY PROCEDURE system privilege. To
replace a procedure in another schema, you must have the ALTER ANY
PROCEDURE system privilege.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE delete_emp(empid_in IN
NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = empid_in;
Commit;
END;

Page 85 of 90

SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE add_sp(a In NUMBER,

b In Number,
c Out Number) IS
BEGIN
c=a+b;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(c);
END;

Packages:
Packages provide a method of encapsulating related procedures,
functions, and associated cursors and variables together as a unit in the
database.
package that contains several procedures and functions that process
related to same transactions.
A package is a group of related procedures and functions, together with
the cursors and variables they use,
Packages provide a method of encapsulating related procedures,
functions, and associated cursors and variables together as a unit in the
database.

2.18.2 Triggers:
Oracle lets you define procedures called triggers that run implicitly when
an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement is issued against the
associated table
Triggers are similar to stored procedures. A trigger stored in the
database can include SQL and PL/SQL
Types of Triggers
This section describes the different types of triggers:

Page 86 of 90

Row Triggers and Statement Triggers

BEFORE and AFTER Triggers

INSTEAD OF Triggers

Triggers on System Events and User Events

Row Triggers
A row trigger is fired each time the table is affected by the triggering
statement. For example, if an UPDATE statement updates multiple rows of
a table, a row trigger is fired once for each row affected by the UPDATE
statement. If a triggering statement affects no rows, a row trigger is not
run.
A statement trigger is fired once on behalf of the triggering statement,
regardless of the number of rows in the table that the triggering statement
affects, even if no rows are affected. For example, if a DELETE statement
deletes several rows from a table, a statement-level DELETE trigger is fired
only once.
BEFORE and AFTER Triggers
When defining a trigger, you can specify the trigger timing--whether the
trigger action is to be run before or after the triggering statement.
BEFORE and AFTER apply to both statement and row triggers.
BEFORE and AFTER triggers fired by DML statements can be defined only
on tables, not on views.
CREATE

OR

REPLACE

AFTER INSERT

TRIGGER

EMP_AUR

ON EMP

DECLARE
BEGIN
Delete from X;
Commit;
END;
2.19 IMPORTANT QUERIES
1. Get duplicate rows from the table:
Select empno, count (*) from EMP group by empno having count (*)>1;

Page 87 of 90

2. Remove duplicates in the table:

Delete from EMP where rowid not in (select max (rowid) from EMP group
by empno);
3. Below query transpose columns into rows.
Name

No

Add1

Add2

Abc

100

Hyd

bang

Xyz

200

Mysore

pune

Select name, no, add1 from A

UNION
Select name, no, add2 from A;
4. Below query transpose rows into columns.
select
emp_id,
max(decode(row_id,0,address))as address1,
max(decode(row_id,1,address)) as address2,
max(decode(row_id,2,address)) as address3
from (select emp_id,address,mod(rownum,3) row_id from temp order by
emp_id )
group by emp_id
Other query:
select
emp_id,
max(decode(rank_id,1,address)) as add1,
max(decode(rank_id,2,address)) as add2,
max(decode(rank_id,3,address))as add3
from
Page 88 of 90

(select emp_id,address,rank() over (partition by emp_id order by

emp_id,address )rank_id from temp )
group by
emp_id
5. Rank query:
Select empno, ename, sal, r from (select empno, ename, sal, rank () over
(order by sal desc) r from EMP);
6. Dense rank query:
The DENSE_RANK function works acts like the RANK function except that
it assigns consecutive ranks:
Select empno, ename, Sal, from (select empno, ename, sal, dense_rank
() over (order by sal desc) r from emp);
7. Top 5 salaries by using rank:
Select empno, ename, sal,r from (select empno,ename,sal,dense_rank()
over (order by sal desc) r from emp) where r<=5;
Or
Select * from (select * from EMP order by sal desc) where
rownum<=5;
8. 2 nd highest Sal:
Select empno, ename, sal, r from (select empno, ename, sal, dense_rank
() over (order by sal desc) r from EMP) where r=2;
9. Top sal:
Select * from EMP where sal= (select max (sal) from EMP);
10.

How to display alternative rows in a table?

SQL> select *from emp where (rowid, 0) in (select

rowid,mod(rownum,2) from emp);
11.

Hierarchical queries

Starting at the root, walk from the top down, and eliminate employee
Higgins in the result, but
process the child rows.

Page 89 of 90

SELECT department_id, employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE last_name! = Higgins
START WITH manager_id IS NULL
CONNECT BY PRIOR employee_id = menagerie;

You Have Successfully Completed Basic Oracle Training.

****** Best Of Luck******

Page 90 of 90