Technical Notes

Measuring Pressure
Units of Measure
Sub-atmospheric pressures are measured in several units, including: Torr
(also called millimeters of mercury, mmHg), milliTorr (mTorr but also called
micron, ), inches of mercury (" Hg), millibar (mbar), and pascal (Pa). In
the U.S., three units are in common use: micron as the unit for pressures
reached by backing pumps, Torr for high vacuum and UHV pumps, and
inches of mercury for coarse vacuum pumps. In Europe, millibar is the
common unit for all pressure measurements. Japan uses the pascal unit,
but often has Torr as a secondary unit. Most authors of scientific/technical
papers are urged to use the SI unit pascal, and some do.
The units are derived from:
Pascalthe force of 1 newton (1 kg accelerating at 1m/sec./sec.) acting on 1 m2
Millibar1,000 times the force of 1 dyne (1g accelerating at 1cm/sec./sec.)
acting on 1 cm2
Torr1/760 times the height of a mercury barometer under standard
atmospheric pressure

Pressure Measurement

MilliTorr or micron1,000th of 1 Torr

Inches of Hg (vacuum)1/29.92 times the height of a mercury barometer
under standard atmospheric pressure (taking atmospheric pressure as 0" Hg)
Inches of Hg (weather forecasts)1/29.92 times the height
of a mercury barometer under standard atmospheric pressure
(taking no pressure as 0" Hg)

Pressure Ranges
There is no universal gauge that can measure from atmosphere
to UHV pressures (a dynamic range of 1015). There are, essentially,
three mechanisms used in pressure measurement and the one chosen
depends on the pressure range and the residual gases in the vacuum.

The typical arrangement of two gauges covering the range of interest

between 10 and 1 x 10-9 Torr leaves a poorly covered band at pressures
widely used in sputtering, etching, CVD, etc. Fortunately, the precise
measurements needed between 10-1 and 10-3 Torr for reproducible
processing can be made by adding a third gaugethe capacitance
manometer.
When choosing a gauge, in addition to pressure range, other features
should be considered: the gauges pumping speed; how it is affected by
radiation, magnetism, temperature, vibration, and corrosive gases; and the
damage caused by switching it on at atmospheric pressure. These subjects
are discussed in comprehensive vacuum texts such as John F. OHanlons
A Users Guide to Vacuum Technology (see page 17-20 to order).

Vacuum Gauges
Mechanical Gauges
A gass pressure is the sum of all the individual forces caused by each
atom or molecule colliding with a surface at any instant. Mechanical
gauges register this total force by monitoring the surfaces movement
against the (restoring) force trying to keep the surface in its original
place. Because mechanical gauges respond to molecular momentum
only, they measure pressures of any gas or vapor. They can be very
accurate or inaccurate depending on how the movement is registered.

McLeod
This gauge, though seldom used, is employed mostly as a primary
calibration standard for other gauges. In effect, a large known volume
of gas at unknown pressure is captured in a glass bulb and compressed
by raising the mercury level until the gas is confined in a small, closed
capillary of known volume. Because the ratio between the original and
final volumes is known and the final pressure can be measured, the
original pressure is calculated by Boyles law (P1 x V1 = P2 x V2).
McLeod gauges are particularly useful in the 1 Torr to 10-4 Torr range
but, because of the compression, cannot be used to measure vapors.

Bourdon
When a closed-end, curved, oval cross-section, copper alloy tube is
connected to the vacuum, atmospheric pressure bends it to a greater or
lesser degree, depending on the internal pressure. The mechanical force
moves an indicator needle through a geared linkage. Bourdon gauges
are used primarily in high-pressure measurement (most commonly
attached to regulators on gas cylinders), but variations are built to
indicate pressures from 0" Hg to 30" Hg and are used for freeze drying,
house vacuum systems, vacuum impregnation, etc., where the major
concern is whether vacuum exists rather than its accurate measurement.

Piezo

Mechanical Gauges have liquid or solid diaphragms that change

position under the force of all the gas molecules bouncing off them.
These gauges measure absolute pressures unaffected by gas/vapor
properties. Unfortunately, this type of gauge is ineffective below 10-5 Torr.
Gas Property Gauges measure a bulk property, such as thermal
conductivity or viscosity. They are dependent on gas composition
and are effective over limited pressure ranges below approximately
100 Torr and above 10-4 Torr.
Ionization Gauges For high vacuum and UHV measurements, charge
collection is used. The residual gas molecules are ionized by electrons
and the resulting ion current measured. Although such gauges will
ionize vapors as well as permanent gases, their response depends
on parameters other than ionization potential, making accurate total
pressure measurement difficult in gas mixtures. Ionization gauges
cover the pressure range from 10-4 Torr to 10-10 Torr.

7-2

Piezo-resistive pressure sensors are typically comprised of a silicon

wafer that is machined on a surface that makes the crystal into a
suitable deflecting diaphragm when subjected to a normal stress
(pressure). The thickness of the silicon crystal at its minimum section
is the primary factor that determines the pressure range of the gauge
from 1,500 to 0.1 Torr. As the diaphragm deflects under pressure, the
resistances of the
piezo-resistive
elements change in
value, causing the
Wheatstone bridge
network to move out
of balance. Applying
a voltage to this
bridge produces an output
voltage that is proportional
to the applied pressure. If
the elements are of equal
resistance, there will be
a zero output voltage
with no pressure
differential across the
diaphragm.

Technical Notes
Capacitance Manometers
The deflection of a
thin metal diaphragm
separating a known
pressure from an
unknown pressure
is a measure of the
pressure difference
between the two
volumes. In the
capacitance manometer,
as the name suggests
the deflection is measured
using the electrical
capacitance between the
diaphragm and some fixed electrodes. Capacitance manometers are the
most accurate devices for measuring the differential or absolute pressure
of all gases (including vapors that do not condense at the gauges
operating temperature).
Gauge heads are specified by their maximum measured pressure
(25,000 Torr down to 1 x 10-1 Torr), with each head having a dynamic
range of approximately 104 below that. Accuracies of 0.25% gauge
reading are common, with 0.08% available from high-accuracy products.

Diaphragm Manometers
Like the capacitance manometer, these gauges use the deflection of
a thin metal (or silicon) diaphragm separating a known pressure from
an unknown pressure. However, in this type of gauge, the deflection
is sensed by a strain gauge attached to the diaphragm. While this limits
the minimum measurable pressure to 1 Torr, it does provide a stable,
repeatable, device reading pressures up to 1,200 Torr.

In a Pirani gauge, two filaments, often platinum, are used as two arms of
a Wheatstone bridge. The reference filament is immersed in a fixed-gas
pressure, while the measurement filament is exposed to the system gas.
Both filaments are heated by the current through the bridge but, unlike
most T/Cs, the Pirani gauge does not use constant voltage or power,
but constant filament temperature. Gas molecules hitting the immersed
element conduct energy away that is detected and replaced by the
feedback circuit to the power supply. This variation of mechanism
gives the Pirani gauge perhaps 100 times longer total pressure range
(although the same dynamic range for each sensor head) and a faster
response. The Pirani gauge is used in the same applications as the T/C
gauge. Although the dynamic range for any single gauge matches the
T/C, Pirani's cover a pressure range from about 10 Torr to 1 x 10-5 Torr.

Convection

Pressure Measurement

All types of pressure gauges are affected by ambient temperature

changes, but other error sources are so much larger that temperature
is ignored. The capacitance manometer, by contrast, is so accurate that
gauge-head temperature variation is a critical source of error. We strongly
suggest that capacitance manometers be purchased only from reputable
manufacturers who understand sources of error and demonstrate effective
ways of counteracting them.

Pirani

This gauges mechanism

differs from that used
in the T/C and Pirani
gauges only by using
a structure that enables
the natural convection
in (viscous flow) gases
to aid in removing heat
from the hot filament.
Convection gauges
measure pressures over
the range from about
10 Torr to atmosphere.

Gas Property Gauges

The thermal conductivity or viscosity value for each specific gas is different
and varies non-linearly with pressure. Gas property gauges, presented with
the typical vacuum chamber gases, are inaccurate. This, and numerous
other inherent error sources, suggest the gauge readings are acceptable
for noting repeating pressure events but of little use in measuring absolute
pressures.

Thermocouple (T/C)
The pressure range
between 10 Torr and 10-3
Torr is indicated by
measuring the voltage
of a thermocouple
spot-welded to
a heated filament
exposed to system
gas. The filament, fed
from a constant current
supply, reaches a temperature determined by the amount of energy
extracted by the gas. At higher pressures, more molecules hit the filament
and extract more energy than at low temperatures. The filament temperatures
induce thermocouple voltage changes. These gauges are used extensively
in foreline monitoring and to provide the signal to automatically switch the
main chamber from backing and high-vacuum pumps at the
crossover pressure.

Ionization Gauges
With relatively minor differences, all ionization gauges use the same
principle. Energetic electrons ionize the residual gasesthe positive
ions are collected at an electrode and the current is converted to a
pressure indication. Hot filament gauges (Bayard-Alpert, Schulz-Phelps)
use thermionic emission of electrons from a hot wire, while cold cathode
gauges (Penning, Inverted Magnetron) use electrons from a glow
discharge or plasma.
All ion-gauge measurements are seriously affected by gas composition.
For example, a report in J. Vac. Sci. Tech. indicates an ion gauges
relative sensitivity (relative to N2 = 1) is 5 for acetone vapor and
0.18 for He. That is, the same absolute pressure of these pure
(gaseous) materials will give a gauge indication differing by a factor
of almost 28. Ionization gauges do not give accurate absolute pressure
measurements unless recently calibrated with the exact gas mixture
that is to be measured.

Sensitivity
The term relative sensitivity used above should not be confused with
the parameter called the gauge sensitivity. The latter comes from
the equation relating the gauges positive ion current (ip) for a given
electron emission (ie) at given gas pressure (P):
ip = S x ie x P or P = 1/S x ip/ie
The constant of proportionality (S in units of reciprocal pressure) is
the gauge sensitivity. Practical (hot filament) ion gauges have gauge
sensitivities ranging from 0.6 Torr-1 to 20 Torr-1. This is important when
selecting an ion gauge controller because the gauges sensitivity must
be within the controllers available range.

7-3

Technical Notes
Hot Filament Gauges
The two common hot filament
ion gauges, Bayard/Alpert (B-A)
and Schulz-Phelps (S-P), differ
only in the physical size and
spacing of their electrodes. Both
have heated filaments biased to
give thermionic electrons of
70eV, energetic enough to ionize
any residual gas molecules with
which they collide. The positive
ions formed move to an ion
collector held at -150V. The current
varies with the gas number density
(the number of molecules in each cc), which is a direct measure of gas pressure.
Bayard-Alpert ion gauges have a reasonably linear response from 1 x 10-4
Torr to 1 x 10-9 Torr, with gauge sensitivities from 5 to 20 Torr-1. B-A gauges
are available with one or two filaments (the second acting as a spare) and with
two filament materials thoria-coated iridium, used in oxygen-rich applications
and for burn-out protection if accidentally vented and tungsten, used for
lower cost and in residual gases containing halogens.

Pressure Measurement

The standard B-A gauge measures down to 1 x 10-9 Torr. It does not go
lower because primary electrons generate soft X-rays when they hit the
grid. An X-ray hitting the ion collector electrode releases a photoelectron,
which is indistinguishable from positive ions arriving there. Below 1 x 10-9 Torr,
photoelectron emission is a large enough fraction of the ion current to
distort the pressure reading. Special B-A structures with ultra-thin ion
collectors will reach 10-10 Torr and perhaps even into the 10-11 Torr range.

Cold Cathode Gauges

In the CCGs the ionizing electrons are part of a self-sustaining discharge.
However, since the CCG has no (thermionic emission) filament, the
discharge is initiated by stray field emission or external events (cosmic rays
or radioactive decay). At low pressures, this can take minutes and CCGs are
usually switched on at high pressure. Once started, the gauges magnetic
field constrain the electrons in helical paths, giving them long path lengths
and a high probability of ionizing the residual gas. The ions are collected
and measured to determine the gas pressure.
Many electrode geometries have been usedcylinders, plates, rings, rods, in
various combinations with the magnetic field direction and strength chosen to
maximize the measured current. If the gauges central or end electrodes are
negative, the convention is to call this a magnetron. If the same electrodes are
positive, the gauge is called an inverted magnetron.
Magnetron: The initial Penning design (cylindrical anode and end plate
cathodes) was neither precise nor accurate and it was replaced by other
geometries. However, the name Penning is still used even for magnetrons with
central wire or ring cathodes. The operating voltage is limited (typically to ~2kV)
to avoid field emission effects that cause increases in the ion current unrelated
to pressure. While the newer magnetron designs are satisfactory, they are limited
to the top of the high vacuum range and attract little commercial attention.
Inverted Magnetron: Largely due to the development efforts of Redhead
and his colleagues, this design works into the UHV pressure range. Its axial central
anode enters the cylinder/end plates cathode through
voltage guard rings (to prevent field emission
affecting the ion current measurement). The
anode carries a much higher potential than
the normal magnetron (~6kV) and is
parallel to the gauges magnetic field.
Some commercially available inverted
magnetron designs have good
linearity and operating
characteristics down to 1 x 10-11
Torr. However, attempting to
start one at such low pressures
may take hours or days.

7-4

Residual Gas Analyzers

Special mass spectrometers designed to analyze gases remaining in a
vacuum chamber are called residual gas analyzers or RGAs. The wealth
of information about experimental or process conditions offered by an
RGA makes a permanently attached unit a convenient, often necessary,
diagnostic device.
Quadrupole RGAs, named for the four rods used in the mass filter
section, are powered by mixed RF/DC voltages. Full operating details
are beyond this text but are dealt with adequately in many books, such
as Dawsons Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry And Its Applications and
the AVSs monograph by Drinkwine, et al, Partial Pressure Analyzers and
Analysis. The quadrupole analyzer (or sensor head) bolts to the vacuum
system. It consists of an ionizer (ion source) connected to the mass filter,
which in turn is attached to an ion detector, all mounted on a UHV
flange (often a 23/4" O.D. CF) carrying the feedthroughs for power
and signals. The combined RF/DC voltage is generated close to the
sensor head. From here, only main power voltage and returning signal
information connect to the control chassis and display or desktop PC. In
the ionizer, neutral gas atoms and molecules are bombarded with 70eV
electrons from a hot filament. The ionized species are extracted into the
quadrupole, where only those ions with the appropriate mass-to-charge
(m/e) ratio for the applied RF/DC voltages are transmitted. By varying the
RF/DC voltage with time, the m/e ratios are scanned and the ion current
at each mass is recorded as a spectrum.
Diagnosing vacuum problems with an RGA requires only a collection
of fragmentation patterns from which the following may be quickly
determined: the presence of air and water leaks; unacceptable levels
of active gases such as O2, H2, and H2O, pump oil backstreaming, the
presence of Fl or Cl compounds; the regeneration requirements of
a cryopump, and the purity of backfill gases. Because an RGA operates at
or below 10-4 Torr, high-pressure processes are analyzed with the RGA
installed in an auxiliary vacuum system, often a mobile cart moved to
various vacuum stations.

Leak Detectors
Leak detectors are mass spectrometers that detect only helium ions
at m/e = 4. Because they are specific, they detect extremely small
concentrations of helium in the presence of large quantities of other
gases. As the name implies, these devices determine the presence
of leaks and help locate them. Excellent leak detection instructions
are available in Harris book, Modern Vacuum Practice or available
as part of our Lesker University curriculum (see page 16-12 for
available training courses).
The chamber under test and the leak detector are connected via
a vacuum-tight tube and the chamber is evacuated using the leak
detectors own vacuum system. Helium is sprayed from a fine nozzle
at the chambers surface where it displaces the air diffusing through
the leak only while the probe is directed at the leaks position. It is
a common misconception that the pressure in the chamber must be
low before leak testing can start. In fact, chamber pressures lower than
10-2 Torr are rarely needed. Once the leak detector inlet valve is fully
open, further efforts to reduce pressure in the chamber only waste time.
During one operators 11-year leak-checking experience, for example,
most leaks were detected while the leak detectors inlet valve was only
partially cracked. Leaks larger than 1 x 10-5 atm cc/sec. are the most
commonsome leaks were in the 1 x 10-6 atm cc/sec. range, six leaks
were in the 1 x 10-7 atm cc/sec. range, two in the 1 x 10-8 atm cc/sec.
range, and only one in the 1 x 10-9 atm cc/sec range. Because most leak
detectors have a minimum detectable leak rate of 1 x 10-10 atm cc/sec.,
detection sensitivity is rarely a problem for locating real leaks.