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Cyclicredundancycheck
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

(RedirectedfromCRC32)
Acyclicredundancycheck(CRC)isanerrordetectingcodecommonlyusedindigitalnetworksandstoragedevicestodetectaccidental
changestorawdata.Blocksofdataenteringthesesystemsgetashortcheckvalueattached,basedontheremainderofapolynomialdivisionof
theircontentsonretrievalthecalculationisrepeated,andcorrectiveactioncanbetakenagainstpresumeddatacorruptionifthecheckvalues
donotmatch.
CRCsaresocalledbecausethecheck(dataverification)valueisaredundancy(itexpandsthemessagewithoutaddinginformation)andthe
algorithmisbasedoncycliccodes.CRCsarepopularbecausetheyaresimpletoimplementinbinaryhardware,easytoanalyze
mathematically,andparticularlygoodatdetectingcommonerrorscausedbynoiseintransmissionchannels.Becausethecheckvaluehasa
fixedlength,thefunctionthatgeneratesitisoccasionallyusedasahashfunction.
TheCRCwasinventedbyW.WesleyPetersonin1961the32bitCRCfunctionofEthernetandmanyotherstandardsistheworkofseveral
researchersandwaspublishedin1975.

Contents
1Introduction
2Application
3Dataintegrity
4Computation
5Mathematics
5.1Designingpolynomials
6Specification
7Standardsandcommonuse
8Implementations
9Seealso
10References
11Externallinks

Introduction
CRCsarebasedonthetheoryofcyclicerrorcorrectingcodes.Theuseofsystematiccycliccodes,whichencodemessagesbyaddingafixed
lengthcheckvalue,forthepurposeoferrordetectionincommunicationnetworks,wasfirstproposedbyW.WesleyPetersonin1961.[1]Cyclic
codesarenotonlysimpletoimplementbuthavethebenefitofbeingparticularlywellsuitedforthedetectionofbursterrors,contiguous
sequencesoferroneousdatasymbolsinmessages.Thisisimportantbecausebursterrorsarecommontransmissionerrorsinmany
communicationchannels,includingmagneticandopticalstoragedevices.TypicallyannbitCRCappliedtoadatablockofarbitrarylength
willdetectanysingleerrorburstnotlongerthannbitsandwilldetectafraction12nofalllongererrorbursts.
SpecificationofaCRCcoderequiresdefinitionofasocalledgeneratorpolynomial.Thispolynomialbecomesthedivisorinapolynomiallong
division,whichtakesthemessageasthedividendandinwhichthequotientisdiscardedandtheremainderbecomestheresult.Theimportant
caveatisthatthepolynomialcoefficientsarecalculatedaccordingtothearithmeticofafinitefield,sotheadditionoperationcanalwaysbe
performedbitwiseparallel(thereisnocarrybetweendigits).Thelengthoftheremainderisalwayslessthanthelengthofthegenerator
polynomial,whichthereforedetermineshowlongtheresultcanbe.
Inpractice,allcommonlyusedCRCsemploytheGaloisfieldoftwoelements,GF(2).Thetwoelementsareusuallycalled0and1,
comfortablymatchingcomputerarchitecture.
ACRCiscalledannbitCRCwhenitscheckvalueisnbits.Foragivenn,multipleCRCsarepossible,eachwithadifferentpolynomial.Such
apolynomialhashighestdegreen,whichmeansithasn+1terms.Inotherwords,thepolynomialhasalengthofn+1itsencodingrequires
n+1bits.NotethatmostpolynomialspecificationseitherdroptheMSBorLSBbit,sincetheyarealways1.TheCRCandassociated
polynomialtypicallyhaveanameoftheformCRCnXXXasinthetablebelow.
Thesimplesterrordetectionsystem,theparitybit,isinfactatrivial1bitCRC:itusesthegeneratorpolynomialx+1(twoterms),andhasthe
nameCRC1.
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Application
ACRCenableddevicecalculatesashort,fixedlengthbinarysequence,knownasthecheckvalueorCRC,foreachblockofdatatobesentor
storedandappendsittothedata,formingacodeword.Whenacodewordisreceivedorread,thedeviceeithercomparesitscheckvaluewith
onefreshlycalculatedfromthedatablock,orequivalently,performsaCRConthewholecodewordandcomparestheresultingcheckvalue
withanexpectedresidueconstant.Ifthecheckvaluesdonotmatch,thentheblockcontainsadataerror.Thedevicemaytakecorrectiveaction,
suchasrereadingtheblockorrequestingthatitbesentagain.Otherwise,thedataisassumedtobeerrorfree(though,withsomesmall
probability,itmaycontainundetectederrorsthisisthefundamentalnatureoferrorchecking).[2]

Dataintegrity
CRCsarespecificallydesignedtoprotectagainstcommontypesoferrorsoncommunicationchannels,wheretheycanprovidequickand
reasonableassuranceoftheintegrityofmessagesdelivered.However,theyarenotsuitableforprotectingagainstintentionalalterationofdata.
Firstly,asthereisnoauthentication,anattackercaneditamessageandrecomputetheCRCwithoutthesubstitutionbeingdetected.When
storedalongsidethedata,CRCsandcryptographichashfunctionsbythemselvesdonotprotectagainstintentionalmodificationofdata.Any
applicationthatrequiresprotectionagainstsuchattacksmustusecryptographicauthenticationmechanisms,suchasmessageauthentication
codesordigitalsignatures(whicharecommonlybasedoncryptographichashfunctions).
Secondly,unlikecryptographichashfunctions,CRCisaneasilyreversiblefunction,whichmakesitunsuitableforuseindigitalsignatures.[3]
Thirdly,CRCisalinearfunctionwithapropertythat
asaresult,eveniftheCRCis
encryptedwithastreamcipherthatusesXORasitscombiningoperation(ormodeofblockcipherwhicheffectivelyturnsitintoastream
cipher,suchasOFBorCFB),boththemessageandtheassociatedCRCcanbemanipulatedwithoutknowledgeoftheencryptionkeythiswas
oneofthewellknowndesignflawsoftheWiredEquivalentPrivacy(WEP)protocol.[4]

Computation
TocomputeannbitbinaryCRC,linethebitsrepresentingtheinputinarow,andpositionthe(n+1)bitpatternrepresentingtheCRC'sdivisor
(calleda"polynomial")underneaththelefthandendoftherow.
Inthisexample,weshallencode14bitsofmessagewitha3bitCRC,withapolynomialx+x+1.Thepolynomialiswritteninbinaryasthe
coefficientsa3rdorderpolynomialhas4coefficients(1x+0x+1x+1).Inthiscase,thecoefficientsare1,0,1and1.Theresultofthe
calculationis3bitslong.
Startwiththemessagetobeencoded:
11010011101100

ThisisfirstpaddedwithzeroescorrespondingtothebitlengthnoftheCRC.Hereisthefirstcalculationforcomputinga3bitCRC:
11010011101100000<inputrightpaddedby3bits
1011<divisor(4bits)=x+x+1

01100011101100000<result

Thealgorithmactsonthebitsdirectlyabovethedivisorineachstep.TheresultforthatiterationisthebitwiseXORofthepolynomialdivisor
withthebitsaboveit.Thebitsnotabovethedivisoraresimplycopieddirectlybelowforthatstep.Thedivisoristhenshiftedonebittothe
right,andtheprocessisrepeateduntilthedivisorreachestherighthandendoftheinputrow.Hereistheentirecalculation:
11010011101100000<inputrightpaddedby3bits
1011<divisor
01100011101100000<result(notethefirstfourbitsaretheXORwiththedivisorbeneath,therestofthebitsareunchanged)
1011<divisor...
00111011101100000
1011
00010111101100000
1011
00000001101100000<notethatthedivisormovesovertoalignwiththenext1inthedividend(sincequotientforthatstepwaszero)
1011(inotherwords,itdoesn'tnecessarilymoveonebitperiteration)
00000000110100000
1011
00000000011000000
1011
00000000001110000
1011
00000000000101000

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1011

00000000000000100<remainder(3bits).Divisionalgorithmstopshereasquotientisequaltozero.

Sincetheleftmostdivisorbitzeroedeveryinputbitittouched,whenthisprocessendstheonlybitsintheinputrowthatcanbenonzeroarethe
nbitsattherighthandendoftherow.Thesenbitsaretheremainderofthedivisionstep,andwillalsobethevalueoftheCRCfunction
(unlessthechosenCRCspecificationcallsforsomepostprocessing).
Thevalidityofareceivedmessagecaneasilybeverifiedbyperformingtheabovecalculationagain,thistimewiththecheckvalueadded
insteadofzeroes.Theremaindershouldequalzeroiftherearenodetectableerrors.
11010011101100100<inputwithcheckvalue
1011<divisor
01100011101100100<result
1011<divisor...
00111011101100100
......

00000000001110100
1011
00000000000101100
1011

0<remainder

Mathematics
Mathematicalanalysisofthisdivisionlikeprocessrevealshowtoselectadivisorthatguaranteesgooderrordetectionproperties.Inthis
analysis,thedigitsofthebitstringsaretakenasthecoefficientsofapolynomialinsomevariablexcoefficientsthatareelementsofthefinite
fieldGF(2),insteadofmorefamiliarnumbers.Thesetofbinarypolynomialsisamathematicalring.

Designingpolynomials
TheselectionofgeneratorpolynomialisthemostimportantpartofimplementingtheCRCalgorithm.Thepolynomialmustbechosento
maximizetheerrordetectingcapabilitieswhileminimizingoverallcollisionprobabilities.
Themostimportantattributeofthepolynomialisitslength(largestdegree(exponent)+1ofanyoneterminthepolynomial),becauseofits
directinfluenceonthelengthofthecomputedcheckvalue.
Themostcommonlyusedpolynomiallengthsare:
9bits(CRC8)
17bits(CRC16)
33bits(CRC32)
65bits(CRC64)
ACRCiscalledannbitCRCwhenitscheckvalueisnbits.Foragivenn,multipleCRC'sarepossible,eachwithadifferentpolynomial.Such
apolynomialhashighestdegreen,andhencen+1terms(thepolynomialhasalengthofn+1).Theremainderhaslengthn.TheCRChasa
nameoftheformCRCnXXX.
ThedesignoftheCRCpolynomialdependsonthemaximumtotallengthoftheblocktobeprotected(data+CRCbits),thedesirederror
protectionfeatures,andthetypeofresourcesforimplementingtheCRC,aswellasthedesiredperformance.Acommonmisconceptionisthat
the"best"CRCpolynomialsarederivedfromeitherirreduciblepolynomialsorirreduciblepolynomialstimesthefactor1+x,whichaddstothe
codetheabilitytodetectallerrorsaffectinganoddnumberofbits.[5]Inreality,allthefactorsdescribedaboveshouldenterintotheselectionof
thepolynomialandmayleadtoareduciblepolynomial.However,choosingareduciblepolynomialwillresultinacertainproportionofmissed
errors,duetothequotientringhavingzerodivisors.
TheadvantageofchoosingaprimitivepolynomialasthegeneratorforaCRCcodeisthattheresultingcodehasmaximaltotalblocklengthin
thesensethatall1biterrorswithinthatblocklengthhavedifferentremainders(alsocalledsyndromes)andtherefore,sincetheremainderisa
linearfunctionoftheblock,thecodecandetectall2biterrorswithinthatblocklength.Ifristhedegreeoftheprimitivegeneratorpolynomial,
thenthemaximaltotalblocklengthis
,andtheassociatedcodeisabletodetectanysinglebitordoublebiterrors.[6]Wecanimprove
thissituation.Ifweusethegeneratorpolynomial
,where
isaprimitivepolynomialofdegree
,thenthe
maximaltotalblocklengthis
,andthecodeisabletodetectsingle,double,tripleandanyoddnumberoferrors.

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Apolynomial
thatadmitsotherfactorizationsmaybechosenthensoastobalancethemaximaltotalblocklengthwithadesirederror
detectionpower.TheBCHcodesareapowerfulclassofsuchpolynomials.Theysubsumethetwoexamplesabove.Regardlessofthe
reducibilitypropertiesofageneratorpolynomialofdegreer,ifitincludesthe"+1"term,thecodewillbeabletodetecterrorpatternsthatare
confinedtoawindowofrcontiguousbits.Thesepatternsarecalled"errorbursts".

Specification
TheconceptoftheCRCasanerrordetectingcodegetscomplicatedwhenanimplementerorstandardscommitteeusesittodesignapractical
system.Herearesomeofthecomplications:
Sometimesanimplementationprefixesafixedbitpatterntothebitstreamtobechecked.Thisisusefulwhenclockingerrorsmight
insert0bitsinfrontofamessage,analterationthatwouldotherwiseleavethecheckvalueunchanged.
Usually,butnotalways,animplementationappendsn0bits(nbeingthesizeoftheCRC)tothebitstreamtobecheckedbeforethe
polynomialdivisionoccurs.SuchappendingisexplicitlydemonstratedintheComputationofCRCarticle.Thishastheconveniencethat
theremainderoftheoriginalbitstreamwiththecheckvalueappendedisexactlyzero,sotheCRCcanbecheckedsimplybyperforming
thepolynomialdivisiononthereceivedbitstreamandcomparingtheremainderwithzero.Duetotheassociativeandcommutative
propertiesoftheexclusiveoroperation,practicaltabledrivenimplementationscanobtainaresultnumericallyequivalenttozero
appendingwithoutexplicitlyappendinganyzeroes,byusinganequivalent,[5]fasteralgorithmthatcombinesthemessagebitstreamwith
thestreambeingshiftedoutoftheCRCregister.
SometimesanimplementationexclusiveORsafixedbitpatternintotheremainderofthepolynomialdivision.
Bitorder:Someschemesviewtheloworderbitofeachbyteas"first",whichthenduringpolynomialdivisionmeans"leftmost",which
iscontrarytoourcustomaryunderstandingof"loworder".ThisconventionmakessensewhenserialporttransmissionsareCRC
checkedinhardware,becausesomewidespreadserialporttransmissionconventionstransmitbytesleastsignificantbitfirst.
Byteorder:WithmultibyteCRCs,therecanbeconfusionoverwhetherthebytetransmittedfirst(orstoredinthelowestaddressedbyte
ofmemory)istheleastsignificantbyte(LSB)orthemostsignificantbyte(MSB).Forexample,some16bitCRCschemesswapthe
bytesofthecheckvalue.
Omissionofthehighorderbitofthedivisorpolynomial:Sincethehighorderbitisalways1,andsinceannbitCRCmustbedefined
byan(n+1)bitdivisorwhichoverflowsannbitregister,somewritersassumethatitisunnecessarytomentionthedivisor'shighorder
bit.
Omissionoftheloworderbitofthedivisorpolynomial:Sincetheloworderbitisalways1,authorssuchasPhilipKoopmanrepresent
polynomialswiththeirhighorderbitintact,butwithouttheloworderbit(the

or1term).Thisconventionencodesthepolynomial

completewithitsdegreeinoneinteger.
Thesecomplicationsmeanthattherearethreecommonwaystoexpressapolynomialasaninteger:thefirsttwo,whicharemirrorimagesin
binary,aretheconstantsfoundincodethethirdisthenumberfoundinKoopman'spapers.Ineachcase,onetermisomitted.Sothe
polynomial
maybetranscribedas:
0x3=0b0011,representing

(MSBfirstcode)

0xC=0b1100,representing

(LSBfirstcode)

0x9=0b1001,representing

(Koopmannotation)

Inthetablebelowtheyareshownas:
ExamplesofCRCRepresentations
Name Normal Reversed Reversedreciprocal
CRC4 0x3

0xC

0x9

Standardsandcommonuse
Numerousvarietiesofcyclicredundancycheckshavebeenincorporatedintotechnicalstandards.Bynomeansdoesonealgorithm,oroneof
eachdegree,suiteverypurposeKoopmanandChakravartyrecommendselectingapolynomialaccordingtotheapplicationrequirementsand
theexpecteddistributionofmessagelengths.[7]ThenumberofdistinctCRCsinusehasconfuseddevelopers,asituationwhichauthorshave
soughttoaddress.[5]TherearethreepolynomialsreportedforCRC12,[7]sixteenconflictingdefinitionsofCRC16,andsixofCRC32.[8]
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Thepolynomialscommonlyappliedarenotthemostefficientonespossible.Between1993and2004,Koopman,Castagnoliandothers
surveyedthespaceofpolynomialsupto16bits,[7]andof24and32bits,[9][10]findingexamplesthathavemuchbetterperformance(intermsof
Hammingdistanceforagivenmessagesize)thanthepolynomialsofearlierprotocols,andpublishingthebestofthesewiththeaimof
improvingtheerrordetectioncapacityoffuturestandards.[10]Inparticular,iSCSIandSCTPhaveadoptedoneofthefindingsofthisresearch,
theCRC32C(Castagnoli)polynomial.
Thedesignofthe32bitpolynomialmostcommonlyusedbystandardsbodies,CRC32IEEE,wastheresultofajointeffortfortheRome
LaboratoryandtheAirForceElectronicSystemsDivisionbyJosephHammond,JamesBrownandShyanShiangLiuoftheGeorgiaInstitute
ofTechnologyandKennethBrayeroftheMITRECorporation.Theearliestknownappearancesofthe32bitpolynomialwereintheir1975
publications:TechnicalReport2956byBrayerforMITRE,publishedinJanuaryandreleasedforpublicdisseminationthroughDTICin
August,[11]andHammond,BrownandLiu'sreportfortheRomeLaboratory,publishedinMay.[12]Bothreportscontainedcontributionsfrom
theotherteam.DuringDecember1975,BrayerandHammondpresentedtheirworkinapaperattheIEEENationalTelecommunications
Conference:theIEEECRC32polynomialisthegeneratingpolynomialofaHammingcodeandwasselectedforitserrordetection
performance.[13]Evenso,theCastagnoliCRC32CpolynomialusediniSCSIorSCTPmatchesitsperformanceonmessagesfrom58bitsto
131kbits,andoutperformsitinseveralsizerangesincludingthetwomostcommonsizesofInternetpacket.[10]TheITUTG.hnstandardalso
usesCRC32Ctodetecterrorsinthepayload(althoughitusesCRC16CCITTforPHYheaders).
Thetablebelowlistsonlythepolynomialsofthevariousalgorithmsinuse.Variationsofaparticularprotocolcanimposepreinversion,post
inversionandreversedbitorderingasdescribedabove.Forexample,theCRC32usedinbothGzipandBzip2usethesamepolynomial,but
Bzip2employsreversedbitordering,whileGzipdoesnot.
CRCsinproprietaryprotocolsmightuseanontrivialinitialvalueandfinalXORforobfuscationbutthisdoesnotaddcryptographicstrength
tothealgorithm.AnunknownerrordetectingcodecanbecharacterizedasaCRC,andassuchfullyreverseengineered,fromitsoutput
codewords.[14]
SeePolynomialrepresentationsofcyclicredundancychecksforthealgebraicrepresentationsofthepolynomialsfortheCRCsbelow.
Name

Polynomialrepresentations

Uses

Normal

Reversed

Reversedreciprocal

CRC1

mosthardwarealsoknownasparitybit

0x1

0x1

0x1

CRC4ITU

G.704(http://www.itu.int/rec/TRECG.704
199810I/en)

0x3

0xC

0x9

CRC5EPC

Gen2RFID[15]

0x09

0x12

0x14

CRC5ITU

G.704(http://www.itu.int/rec/TRECG.704
199810I/en)

0x15

0x15

0x1A

CRC5USB

USBtokenpackets

0x05

0x14

0x12

CRC6
mobilenetworks[16]
CDMA2000A

0x27

0x39

0x33

CRC6
mobilenetworks[16]
CDMA2000B

0x07

0x38

0x23

CRC6ITU

G.704(http://www.itu.int/rec/TRECG.704
199810I/en)

0x03

0x30

0x21

CRC7

telecomsystems,G.707
(http://www.itu.int/rec/TRECG.707/en),G.832
0x09
(http://www.itu.int/rec/TRECG.832/en),
MMC,SD

0x48

0x44

CRC7MVB

TrainCommunicationNetwork,IEC60870
5[17]

0x65

0x53

0x72

CRC8

0xD5

0xAB

0xEA[7]

I.432.1(http://www.itu.int/rec/TRECI.432.1
CRC8CCITT 199902I/en)ATMHEC,ISDNHECandcell
delineation

0x07

0xE0

0x83

CRC8
Dallas/Maxim

1Wirebus

0x31

0x8C

0x98

CRC8SAE
J1850

AES3

0x1D

0xB8

0x8E

CRC8
WCDMA

mobilenetworks[16][18]

0x9B

0xD9

0xCD[7]

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CRC10

ATMI.610(http://www.itu.int/rec/TREC
I.610/en)

0x233

0x331

0x319

CRC10
CDMA2000

mobilenetworks[16]

0x3D9

0x26F

0x3EC

CRC11

FlexRay[19]

0x385

0x50E

0x5C2

CRC12

telecomsystems[20][21]

0x80F

0xF01

0xC07[7]

CRC12
CDMA2000

mobilenetworks[16]

0xF13

0xC8F

0xF89

CRC13BBC

Timesignal,Radioteleswitch[22]

0x1CF5

0x15E7

0x1E7A

0x4599

0x4CD1

0x62CC

CRC15CAN
CRC15
MPT1327

[23]

0x6815

0x540B

0x740A

Chakravarty

optimalforpayloads64bits[17]

0x2F15

0xA8F4

0x978A

CRC16
ARINC

ACARSapplications[24]

0xA02B

0xD405

0xD015

X.25,V.41,HDLCFCS,XMODEM,Bluetooth,
CRC16CCITT PACTOR,SD,manyothersknownasCRC
0x1021
CCITT

0x8408

0x8810[7]

CRC16
CDMA2000

0xC867

0xE613

0xE433

CRC16DECT cordlesstelephones[25]

0x0589

0x91A0

0x82C4

CRC16T10
DIF

SCSIDIF

0x8BB7[26]

0xEDD1

0xC5DB

CRC16DNP

DNP,IEC870,MBus

0x3D65

0xA6BC

0x9EB2

CRC16IBM

Bisync,Modbus,USB,ANSIX3.28
(http://www.incits.org/press/1997/pr97020.htm),
0x8005
SIADC07,manyothersalsoknownasCRC
16andCRC16ANSI

0xA001

0xC002

Fletcher

UsedinAdler32A&BChecksums

CRC17CAN

CANFD[27]

0x1685B

0x1B42D

0x1B42D

CRC21CAN

CANFD[27]

0x102899

0x132281

0x18144C

CRC24

FlexRay[19]

0x5D6DCB

0xD3B6BA

0xAEB6E5

CRC24Radix
OpenPGP,RTCM104v3
64

0x864CFB

0xDF3261

0xC3267D

CRC30

CDMA

0x2030B9C7

0x38E74301

0x30185CE3

Adler32

Zlib

CRC32

HDLC,ANSIX3.66,ITUTV.42,Ethernet,
SerialATA,MPEG2,PKZIP,Gzip,Bzip2,
PNG,[28]manyothers

0x04C11DB7

0xEDB88320

0x82608EDB[10]

CRC32C
(Castagnoli)

iSCSI,SCTP,G.hnpayload,SSE4.2,Btrfs,ext4 0x1EDC6F41

0x82F63B78

0x8F6E37A0[10]

0x741B8CD7

0xEB31D82E

0xBA0DC66B[10]

mobilenetworks[16]

CRC32K
(Koopman)

NotaCRCseeFletcher'schecksum

NotaCRCseeAdler32

CRC32Q

aviationAIXM[29]

0x814141AB

0xD5828281

0xC0A0A0D5

CRC40GSM

GSMcontrolchannel[30][31]

0x0004820009

0x9000412000

0x8002410004

ECMA182(http://www.ecma
CRC64ECMA international.org/publications/standards/Ecma
182.htm),XZUtils
CRC64ISO

HDLC,SwissProt/TrEMBLconsideredweak
forhashing[32]

0x42F0E1EBA9EA3693 0xC96C5795D7870F42 0xA17870F5D4F51B49

0xD800000000000000 0x800000000000000D

Implementations
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ImplementationofCRC32inGnuradio
(http://gnuradio.org/redmine/projects/gnuradio/repository/revisions/1cb52da49230c64c3719b4ab944ba1cf5a9abb92/entry/gr
digital/lib/digital_crc32.cc)
CclasscodeforCRCchecksumcalculationwithmanydifferentCRCstochoosefrom
(http://sourceforge.net/projects/crccalculator/files/CRC/)

Seealso
Mathematicsofcyclicredundancychecks
Computationofcyclicredundancychecks
Polynomialrepresentationsofcyclicredundancychecks
Errordetectionandcorrection
Listofhashfunctions
Informationsecurity
Simplefileverification
cksum
HeaderErrorCorrection

References
1. ^Peterson,W.W.andBrown,D.T.(January1961)."CyclicCodesforErrorDetection".ProceedingsoftheIRE49(1):228235.
doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1961.287814(http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FJRPROC.1961.287814).
2. ^Ritter,Terry(February1986)."TheGreatCRCMystery"(http://www.ciphersbyritter.com/ARTS/CRCMYST.HTM).Dr.Dobb'sJournal11(2):26
34,7683.Retrieved21May2009.
3. ^Stigge,MartinPltz,HenrykMller,WolfRedlich,JensPeter(May2006)."ReversingCRCTheoryandPractice"(http://sar.informatik.hu
berlin.de/research/publications/SARPR200605/SARPR200605_.pdf).Berlin:HumboldtUniversityBerlin.p.17.Retrieved4February2011."The
presentedmethodsofferaveryeasyandefficientwaytomodifyyourdatasothatitwillcomputetoaCRCyouwantoratleastknowinadvance."
4. ^CamWinget,NancyHousley,RussWagner,DavidWalker,Jesse(May2003)."SecurityFlawsin802.11DataLinkProtocols".Communicationsof
theACM46(5):3539.doi:10.1145/769800.769823(http://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F769800.769823).
5. ^abcWilliams,RossN.(24September1996)."APainlessGuidetoCRCErrorDetectionAlgorithmsV3.00"
(http://www.repairfaq.org/filipg/LINK/F_crc_v3.html).Retrieved5June2010.
6. ^Press,WHTeukolsky,SAVetterling,WTFlannery,BP(2007)."Section22.4CyclicRedundancyandOtherChecksums"
(http://apps.nrbook.com/empanel/index.html#pg=1168).NumericalRecipes:TheArtofScientificComputing(3rded.).NewYork:CambridgeUniversity
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7. ^abcdefgKoopman,PhilipChakravarty,Tridib(June2004)."CyclicRedundancyCode(CRC)PolynomialSelectionForEmbeddedNetworks"
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Externallinks
MathPagesCyclicRedundancyChecks(http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath458.htm):overviewwithanexplanationoferror
detectionofdifferentpolynomials.
TheCRCPitstop(http://www.ross.net/crc/)homeofAPainlessGuidetoCRCErrorDetectionAlgorithms
(http://www.ross.net/crc/crcpaper.html)
Black,R.(February1994)."FastCRC32inSoftware"(http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/Research/SRG/bluebook/21/crc/crc.html).TheBlue
Book.SystemsResearchGroup,ComputerLaboratory,UniversityofCambridge.algorithm4isusedinLinuxandinfozip'szipand
unzip.
Kounavis,M.Berry,F.(2005)."ASystematicApproachtoBuildingHighPerformance,Softwarebased,CRCgenerators"
(http://www.intel.com/technology/comms/perfnet/download/CRC_generators.pdf).Intel.,Slicingby4andslicingby8algorithms
CRCAnalysiswithBitfilters(http://einstein.informatik.unioldenburg.de/papers/CRCBitfilterEng.pdf)
CyclicRedundancyCheck(http://www.hackersdelight.org/crc.pdf):theory,practice,hardware,andsoftwarewithemphasisonCRC32.
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AsamplechapterfromHenryS.Warren,Jr.Hacker'sDelight.
ReverseEngineeringaCRCAlgorithm(http://www.cosc.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/essays/CRCReverseEngineering.html)
CatalogueofparametrisedCRCalgorithms(http://reveng.sourceforge.net/crccatalogue/all.htm)
Koopman,Phil."Blog:ChecksumandCRCCentral"(http://checksumcrc.blogspot.com/).includeslinkstoPDFsgiving16and32bit
CRCHammingdistances
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclic_redundancy_check&oldid=630867205"
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