ARTHROLOGY

THE ARTICULATIONS OR JOINTS

An articulation or joint is formed by the union of two or more bones or cartilages
by other tissue. Bone is the fundamental part of most joints; in some cases a
bone and a cartilage, or to cartilages, form a joint. The uniting medium is chiefly
fibrous tissue or cartilage, or a mixtur of these. Union of parts of the skeleton by
muscles(Synsarcosis), as in the attachement of the thoracic limb in the horse, will
not be considered in this sections.
Joints may be classified- (a) anatomically, according to their mode of
development, the nature of the uniting medium, and the form of the joint
surfaces; (b) physiologically, with regard to the amount and kind of movement or
the absence of mobility in them; (c) by a combination of the foregoing
considerations.
Three chief subdivisions of joints are usually recognized- synarthroses,
diarthroses, and amphiarthroses.

SYNARTHROSES
In this group the segments are united by fibrouse tissue or cartilage, or a mixture
of the two in such a manner as practically to preclude movement; hence they are
often termed fixed or immovable joints. There is no joint cavity. Most of these
joints are temporary, the uniting medium being invaded by the process of
ossification, with a resulting ankylosis or synostosis. The chief classes in this
group of joints are as follows:
Suture. This term (Sutura) is applied to those joints in the skull in which the
adjacent bones are closely united by fibrous tissue- the sutural ligament. In many
cases the edges of the bones have irregular interlocking margins, forming the,
sutura serrata e. g.,the frontal suture. In others the edges are beveled and
overlap, forming the sutura squamosa, e. g., the parieto-temporal suture. If the
edges are plane or slightly roughened, the term sutura harmonia is applied to the
joint, e. g., the nasal suture.
Syndesmosis. In these the uniting medium is white fibrous or elastic tissue or a
mixture. As examples are the union of the shafts of the metacarpal bones and the
attachements to each other of costal cartilages.
Synchondrosis. In these the two bones are united by cartilage, e. g., the joint
between the basilar part of the occipital bone and the sphenoid bone. Very few of
these joints are permanent.
Symphysus. This term is usually limited to a few median joints whitch connect
symmetrical parts of the skeleton, e. g., symphysis pelvis, symphysis
mandibulae. The uniting medium is cartilage and fibrous tissue. In some cases a
cleft-like rudimentary joint cavity occurs.

Gomphosis. This term is sometimes applied to the implantation of the teeth in the
alveoli. The gomphosisis not, properly considered, a joint at all, since the teeth
are not parts of the skeleton.

DIARTHROSES
These joints are characterized by the presence of a joint cavity a synovial
membrane in the joint capsule and by their mobility. They are often called
movable or true joints. A simple joint ( Articulatio simplex) is one formed by two
articular surfaces; a composite joint (Articulatio composita), one formed by
several articular surfaces. The following structures enter into their formation:
The articular surfaces ( Facies articulares) are in most cases smooth, and vary
much in form. They are formed of specially dense bone, which differs
histologically from ordinary compact substance. In certain cases (Vide Osteology)
the surface is interrupted by non-articular cavities known as synovial fossae.
The articular cartilages (Cartilagines articulares), usually hyaline in type, form a
covering over the articular surfaces of the bones. They vary in thickness in
different joints; they are thickest on those which are subject to the most pressure
and frietion. They usually tend to accentuae the curvature of the bone,i. E., on a
concave surface the peripheral part is the thickest, wile on a convex surface the
central part is the thickest. The articular cartilages are non-vascular, very
smooth, and have a bluish tinge in the fresh state. They diminish the effects of
concussion and greatly reduce friction.
The articular or joint capsule( Capsula articularis) is, in its simple form, a tube,
the ends of which are attached around the articulating surgaces. It consist of two
layers an external one, composed of fibrouse tissue, and an internal one, the
synovial layer or membrane. The fibrouse layer( Stratum fibrosum), sometimes
termed the capsular ligament, is attached either close to the margins of the
articular surfaces or at a variable distance from them. Its thickness varies greatly
in different situations: in certain places it is extremely thick, and sometimes
cartilage of bone develops in it; in other places it is practically absent, the
capsule then consisting only of th synovial membrane. Tendons which pass over a
joint may partially take the place of the fibrous layer; in these cases the deep
face of the tendon is covered by the synovial layer. Parts of the capsule may
undergo thickening and so form ligaments, which are not separable, except
artificially from the rest of the capsule. The synovial layer( Stratum synoviale)
lines the joint cavity except where this is nbounded by the articular cartilages; its
stops normally t the margin of the latter. It is a thin membrane, and is richly
supplied by close networks of vessels and nerves. It frequently forms folds(Plicae
synoviales) and villi(Villi synoviales, which project into the the cavity of the joint.
The folds commonly contain pads of fat, and there are in many places macesses
of fat outside of the capsule which fill up interstices and vary in form and position
in various phases of movement. The synovial membrane secretes a fluid, the
synovia, which lubricates the joint; it resembles white-o-egg, but has a yellowish

tinge. In many places the membrane forms extra-articular, pouches, which

facilitate the play of muscles and tendons.
The articular or joint cavity (Cavum articulare) is enclosed by the synovial
membrane and the articular cartilages. Normally, it contains only a sufficient
amount of synovia to lubricate the joint.
The foregoing are constant and necessary features in all diarthroses. Other
structures which enter into the formation of these joints are ligaments, articular
discs or meniscs, and marginal cartilages.
Ligaments- These( Ligamenta) are strong bands or membranes, usually
composed of white fibrouse tissue, which bind the bones together. They are
pliable, but practically inelastic. In a few cases, however, e.g., the ligamentum
nuchae, they are composed of elastic tissue. They may be subdivided, according
to position, into periarticular and intraarticular. Periarticular ligaments are
frewuently blended with or form part of the fibrous capsule; in other cases they
are quite distinct. Those which are situated on the sides of a joint are termed
collateral ligaments( Ligamenta collateralia), Strictily speacking, intra-articular
ligaments, though within the fibrous capsule, are not in the joint cavity; the
synovial membrane is reflected over them. The term seems justifiable, however,
on practical grounds. Those which connect directly opposed surfaces of bones are
termed interosseous ligaments. In many places muscles, tendons, and
thickennings of the fascie function as ligaments and increase the security of the
joint. Atmospheric pressure and cohesion play a considerable part in keeping the
joint surfaces in apposition.
Articular discs or menisci( Disci s. Menisci articulares) are plates of fibrocartilage
or dense fibrouse tissue placed between the articular cartilages, and divide the
joint cavity partially or completely into two compartments. They render certain
surfaces congruent, allow greater range or variety of movement, and diminish
concussion.
A marginal cartilage( Labrum glenoidale) is a ring of fibro-cartilage which
encircles the rim of an articular cavity. It enlarges the cavity and tends to prevent
fracture of the margin.
Vessels and nerves-The arteries form anastomoses around the larger joints, and
give off branches to the extremities of the bones and to the joint capsule. The
synovial membrane has a close-meched network of capillaries; the latter form
loops around the margins of the articular cartilages, but do not usually enter
them. The veins form plexues. The synovial membrane is also well supplied with
lymphvessels. Nerve-fibres are especially numerous in and around the synovial
membrane and there are special nerve-endings, e.g., Pacinian bodies and the
articular end-bulbs described by Krause.
Movements- The movements of a joint are determined chiefly by the form and
extent of the joint surfaces and the arrangement of the ligaments. They are
usually classified as follws:

Gliding- This refers to the sliding of one practically plane surface on another, as in
the joints between the articular processes of the cervical vertebrae.
Angular Movements-In these cases there is movement around one lapplied to the
flexion asor more axes. Motion which diminishes the angle included by the
segments forming the joint is termed flexion, while that which tends to bring the
segments into line with each other is called extension. With reference to the
joints of the distal parts of the limbs, it seems advisable to employ the terms
dorsal and volar or plantar flexion, since these joint can be "overextended".
Similarly the terms dorsal and ventral flexion are applied to the corresponding
movements of the spinal column. The meaningof the term lateral flexion as
applied to the vertebral column is evident. These movements are all rotations
around axes which are approximately either transverse or vertical. Depression,
elevation, and transverse movement of the lower jaw fall in this category.
Circumduction-This designates movements in which the distal end of the limb
describes a circle or a segment of one. In man such movement is easily
performed, but in quadrupeds it is possible to a limited degree only, and is to be
regarded usually a an indication of disease.
Rotation-As a matter of convenience, this term is reserved to indicate rotation of
the segment aroung the longitudinal axis of the other segment forming the joint.
It is seen typically in the atlanto-axial joint.
Adduction and abduction designate respectively movement of a limb to ward and
away from the median plane, or of a digit toward and away from the axis of the
limb.
Classification-This is based on the form of the joint surfaces and the movements
which occur. The following chief classes may be recognized:
Arthrodia, or gliding joint. In these the surfaces are practically flat, admitting of
gliding mevement. Examples: carpo-metacarpal joints, joints between the
articular processes of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae.
Ginglymus, or hinge-joint. In this class the joint surfaces consist usually of two
condyles, or of a segment of a cylinder or cone, which are received by
coresponding cavities. In typical cases the movements are flexion and extension,
around a single transverse axis. Examples: atlanto-occipital and albow joints.
Trochoid, or pivot joint. In these the movement is limited to rotation of one
segment around the longitudinal axis of the other. Example: atlanto-axial joint.
Enarthrosis, or ball=and-socket joint. These are formed by a surface of
aproximately spherical curvature, received into a corresponding cavity. They are
multiaxial, and allow of the greatest variety of movement, flexion, extension,
rotation, abduction, adduction, circumduction. Examples: hip and shoulder joints.

AMPHIARTHROSES

These joints, as the name indicates, share some characters with both of the
preceding groups. In them the segments are directly united by a plate of fibrouscartilage, and usually by ligaments also. The amount and kind of movement are
determinated by the shape of the joint surfaces and the amount and pliability of
the uniting medium. These joints are nearly all medial in position, and are best
illustrated by the joints between the bodies of the vertebrae. There is typically no
joint cavity, but in certain situations one exists.

THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE HORSE

JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAE

The movable vertebrae form sets of articulations, viz., those formed by the
bidies, and those formed by the articular processes of adjacent vertebrae; the
former are termed intercentral, and the latter interneural. Associated with these
are ligaments uniting the arches and processes; some of these are special, i. e.,
confined to a single joint, while others are common, i. e., extend along almost the
entire vertebral column or a considerable part of it. The joints between the atlas
and axis and between the skull require separate consideration.

INTERCENTRAL ARTICULATIONS
These are amphiarthroses, formed by the junction of the extremities of the bodies
of adjacent vertebrae. The articular surfaces in the cervical region consist of a
cavity on the posterior end of the body of the anterior vertebra, and a
corresponding convexity or head of the succeeding vertebra. In the other regions
the surfaces are much flattened. The uniting media are:
The intervertebral fibro-cartilages (Fibrocartilagines intervertebrales). Each of
these is a disc which occupies the space between the bodies of two adjacent
vertebrae, to which it is intimately attached. The discs are thinnest in the middle
of the thoracic region, thicker in the cervical and lumbar regions, and thickest in
the coccygeal regons. Each consists of a peripheral fibrous ring (Annulus fibrosus)
and a soft central pulpy nucleus (Nucleus pulposus).
The ventral longitudinal ligament (Lig. Longitudinale ventrale ) lies on the ventral
surface of the bodies of the vertebrae and the intervertebral fibro-cartilages, to
whitch it is firmly attached. It begins to be distinct a little behing the middle of
the thoracic region, and is at first a narrow, thin band. Further back it becomes
gradually thicker and wider, and terminates on the pelvie surface of the sacrum
by spreading out and bleanding with the periosteum. It is strongest in the lumbar
region, where the tendons of the crura of the disphragm fuse with it.
The dorsal longitudinal ligament (Lig. Longitudinale dorsale) lies on the floor of
the vertebral canal from the axis to the sacrum. It is narrow over the middles of

the vertebral bodies, sand widens over the intervertebral fibro-cartiages, to which
it is very firmly attached.

INTERNEURAL ARTICULATIONS
Each typical vertebra presents two pairs of articular processes, which form
diarthroses with the two adjacent vertebrae. The articular surfaces are extensive,
almost flat, and oval in the cervical region, small and flat in the thoracic region,
while in the lumbar region the anterior ones are concave and the posterior
convex. The joint capule is strong and ample in the cervical region, in conformity
with the large size and greater mobility of these joints in the neck. In the thoracic
and lumbar regions the capsule is small and close. These joints are arthrodia in
the neck and back, trochoid in the lumbar region.
Associated with these joints are the ligamenta flava, which connect the arches of
adjacent vertebrae. They are membranous and consist largely of elastic tissue.
The supraspinous ligament (Lig. Supraspinale) extends medially from the
occipital bone to the sacrum. Behind the withers it consistsof a strong cord of
white fibrous tissue, attached to the summits of the vertebra spines. In the neck
and withers it is remarkably modified to from the ligamentum nuchae, which
requires more extended notice.
The ligamentum nuchae is a powerful elastic apparatus, the principal function of
which is to assist the extensor muscles of the head and neck. It extends from the
occipital bone to the withers, where it is directly continuous with the lumbodorsal part of the supraspinous ligament. It consists of two parts-funicular and
lamellar. The funicular part (Part occipitalis) arises from the external occipital
protuberance and is inserted into the vertebra spines at the withers. At the
occipital attachment it is flattened laterally and is an inch or more (ca. 3 cm) in
height, but quickly changes to a rounded shape about half as high. Two bursae
are usually found under it in the adult. The atlantal bursa lies between the
ligament and the dorsal arch of the atlas. The supraspinous bursa is most
commonly over the second thoracic spine, where is a space between the
funicular and lamellar parts that is occupied otherwise by fat and loose
connective tussue. Other irregular bursae often occur over the highest spines.
Another bursa may be present at the spine of the axis; this is between the
funicular part and the large digitations attached to the axis. In the neck the
funicular part consists for the greater part of two bands closely applied and
attached to each other. Near and the withers it broadens greatly, forming an
expansion about five to six inches (ca. 12 to 15 cm.) in width, the lateral margins
of which are thin and turn down over the trapezius and rhomboideus muscles.
Behind the higher spines it becomes narrower and thinner, and is continued by
the white fibrous lumbodorsal part. A mass of fat and elastic tissue lies upon the
ligament as far back as the withers. It varies greatly in amount in different
subjects, and is most developed in stallions of draft breeds, in which it forms the
basis of the so-called ,,crest. The lamellar part (Pars cervicalis) consists of two

laminae separated medially by a layer of loose connective tissue. Each lamina is

formed of digitations which arise from the second and third thoracic spines and
from the funicular part, are directed downward and forward, and end on the
spines of the cervical vertebrae, except the first and last. The digitation which is
attached to the spine of the axis is very thick and strong. Behind this they
diminish in size and strength; the last one, which is attached to the sixth cervical
vertebra, is quite thin and feeble, or may be absent.
The interspinous ligaments (Ligg. Interpinalia) extend between the spines of
contiguous vertebrae. In the cervical region they are narrow elastic bands, and in
the thoracic and lumbar regions they consist of white fibers directed obliquely
downward and backward except the first thoracic one, which is elastic and its
fibers run downward and forward.
The intertransverse ligaments (Ligg. Intertransversaria) are membranes which
connect adjacent transverse processes in the lumbar region.

INTERTRANSVERSE ARTICULATIONS
These joints (peculiar to equidae) are diarthroses formed by the transverse
processes of the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae and between the latter and the
alae of the sacrum. A similar joint between the fourth and fifth lumbar processes
is frequently present. The articular surfaces have an elongated oval form, the
anterior one being concave and the posterior one convex. The capsule is tight,
and is reinforced ventrally.

SACRAL AND COCCYGEAL ARTICULATIONS

In the foal the bodies of the five sacral vertebrae form joints which resemble
somewhat those in the posterior part of the lumbar region. These joints are
invaded by the process of ossification early, so that the consolidation of the
sacrum is usually complete, or nearly so, at three years.
The coccygeal vertebrae are united by reatively thinck intervertebral fibrocartilages, which have the form of biconcave discs. Special ligaments are not
present, but there is a continuous sheath of fibrous tissue. The movement in this
region is extensive and varied. In old horses the first coccygeal vertebra is often
fused with the sacrum.

MOVEMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The movements of the spine, exclusive of those at the atlanto-axial joint, are
dorsal, ventral, and lateral flexion, and rotation. The range of movement at a
single joint is small, but the sum of the movements is considerable. The

movements are freest in the cervical and coccygeal regions. Rotation is

extremely limited in the thoracic and lumbar regions .

ATLANTO-AXIAL ARTICULATION
This is a trochoid or pivot of a rather peculiar character. The articular surfaces
are:
On the lateral masses of the atlas, two somewhat saddle-shaped facets, which
are separated by a wide notch above and a narrow one below;
On the axis, reciprocal saddle-shaped surfaces whith extend upon the dens and
are confluent on its ventral aspect. It will be observed that the joint surfaces are
not at all accurately adapted to each other, so that only limited areas are in
contact at any time.
The joint capsule is attached around the margins of the articular surfaces. It is
loose and ample enough laterally to allow extensive movement.
The dorsal atlanto-axial ligament (Lig. Interarcuale) is membranous and
reinforces the capsule dorsally.
The interspinous ligament (Lig. Interspinale) consists of two elastic bands which
extend from the dorsal arch of the atlas to the spine of the axis .
The ventral atlanto-axial ligament (Lig. Dentis externum) arises from the ventral
tubercule of the atlas and is attached by two branches on the ventral spine of the
axis.
The ligament of the dens (Lig. Dentis internum) is short, very strong, and
somewhat fan-shaped. It extends from the rough concave dorsal surface of the
dens, widens in front, and is attached to the transverse rough area on the inner
surface of the ventral arch of the atlas.
Movements.-The atlas and the head rotate upon the axis; the axis of rotation
passes through the central of the body of the axis.

THE ATLANTO-OCCIPITAL ARTICULATION

This joint may be classed as a ginglymus. The articular surfaces of this joint are:
On the atlas, two deep oval cavities;
The corresponding condyles of the occipital bone.
There are two roomy joint capsules, which sometimes communicate ventrally,
especially in old subject.

The dorsal atlanto-occipital membrane (Membrana atlanto-occipitalis dorsalis)

extends from the dorsal arch of the atlas to the dorsal margin of the foramen
magnum. It is blended with the capsules and contains many elastic fibers.
The ventral atlanto-occipital membrane (Membrana atlanto-occipitalis ventralis)
extends from the ventral arch of the atlas to the ventral margin of the foramen
magnum. It is narrower and thinner than the dorsal membrane, and also fuses
with the joint capsules.
The lateral atlantal ligaments (Ligg. Lateralia atlantis) are two short bands which
are partially blended with the capsules. Each is attached to the bordes of the
wing of the atlas near the intervertebral foramen, and to the lateral surface of the
paramastoid process of the occipital bone.
Movements.- These are chiefly flexion and extension. A small amount of lateral
oblique movement is also possible.

ARTICULATIONS OF THE THORAX

COSTO-VERTEBRAL ARTICULATIONS
Each typical rib forms two joints with the vertebral column, one by its head, and
one by its tubercle. They are termen respectively costo-central and costotransverse joints.
The costo-central articulation (Articulation capituli) is a trochoid or rotatory joint,
formed by the junction of the head of the rib with the bodies of two adjacent
vertebrae and the intervertebral fibro-cartilage. The two faced on the head of the
rib are separated by a non-articular groove, and correspond to the two concave
faced (Foveae costales) on the vertebral bodies. The joint capsule is rather tight,
and is covered by the accessory ligaments, which are as follows:
The radiate ligament (Lig. Capituli costae radiatum) extends ventrally from the
neck of the rib to spread out on the vertebral bodies and the intervertbral fibrocartilage.
The conjugal ligament (Lig. Conjugale) absent from the first joint is attached to
the groove on the head on the rib, passes transversely into the vertebral canal,
and divides under the dorsal longitudinal ligament into two branches: one of
these is attached to the body of the anterior vertebra; the other is continued
across to the head of the opposite rib, and is also attached to the intervertebral
fibro-cartilage. The joint cavity is divided into two compartments by the conjugal
ligament.
The ligament of the neck of the rib (Lig. Colli costae) is a strong band which
crosses the joint dorsally. It is attached on the vertebra above the costal faced
and on the neck of the rib.
The costo-transverse articulation (Articulation costo-transversaria). This is formed
by the facet on the tubercule of the rib and on the transverse process of the

vertebra. They are gliding joints. The capsule is reinforced by the dorsal costotransverse ligament (Lig. Costo-transversarium dorsale), a distinct strong band
which arises on the transvers process and ends on the non-articular part of the
tubercle. It is covered by the levator costae muscle, and begins to be quite
distinct at the fifth joint.
Movements- The chief movement is rotation around an axis which connects the
centers of the head and tubercle of the rib. The movement is very limited in
theanterior part of the series of joints, but very considerable in the posterior part.

COSTO-CHONDRAL ARTICULATIONS
The costo-chondral junctions are synarthoreses. The rib has a concave surface
which receives the convex end of the cartilage. They are united by the continuity
of the strong periosteum and perichondrium.

CHONDRO-STERNAL ARTICULATION
These joints (Articulationes sternocostales) are diarthroses formed by the
cartilages of the sternal ribs and the sternum. The articular ends of the cartilages
(except the first) are somewhat enlarged, and present surfaces of cylindrical
curvature. The aticular surfaces on the sternum for the first pair of cartilages are
placed close together on the dorsal border of the cariniform cartilage; the other
seven are placed laterally at the junctions of the segments. The capsules are
strong and tight; the first pair of joints has a common capsule, and the cartilages
articulate with each other medially. The ventral ends of the first pair of cartilages
articulate with the sternum and with each other; above this they are firmly
attached to each other by dense fibrous tissue, which is prolonged forward along
the upper margin of the cariniform cartilage and is continous behin with the
sternal ligament. Each of the other capsule is reinforced dorsally by the radiate
costo-sternal ligament (Ligamentum sterno-costale radiatum), composed of
radiating fibers which blend with the sternal ligament. Interarticular bands may
be present. The movement is rotation around a nearly vertical axis, except in the
case of
the first pair of joints.