Information Pack on

Proposed Firth of Clyde

Regulating Order

February 2015

Introduction
This document summarises a
proposal by the Sustainable
Inshore Fisheries Trust (SIFT)
for a Regulating Order (RO)
for the Firth of Clyde. The
document is for members of
the Firth of Clyde fishery and
other stakeholders. It details
the background, proposed
governance structure and
management measures. It comes
about in response to requests
about the proposals from a
variety of stakeholders.

In drafting its proposals, SIFT has consulted

with a wide range of stakeholders and experts.
However, the drafting of management
measures under the proposed RO must be an
inclusive process in which the fishing industry
and other stakeholders play a central role.
Accordingly:

Written comments on this document are

invited to be sent to [email protected]

The full Draft RO proposal will be

published in April 2015. Following

publication, a full round of consultations
will be held with the fishing industry
and other stakeholders.

What the Regulating Order aims to achieve

The RO aims to implement a new
management regime for the Firth
of Clyde to support a more diverse,
robust and sustainable fishery. More
specifically, the aims are:

To increase productivity and

resilience of the commercial
shellfish fisheries; and

To promote recovery of the finfish

stocks to commercially exploitable

levels.

Economic analysis of the proposed

measures predicts the following outcomes
over a 20 year period:

A positive Net Present Value is projected

for the existing commercial shellfishery.

The recovery of finfish stocks will

provide a positive economic benefit

by lowering shellfish dependency
and boosting the resilience of the
commercial fishery.

The recovery of the finfish stocks will

have wider benefits such as bringing

additional recreational sea angling jobs
to the Clyde region.

Page 2

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Why the Clyde?

For most of the 20th century, the Firth of Clyde
supported a profitable and resilient mixed
fishery which produced substantial landings of
finfish such as cod, whiting, haddock, herring
and saithe. The finfish fishery declined rapidly
in the decades following the mid-1970s (Heath
& Spiers, 2011). After the period of peak finfish
harvesting in the 1970s and 1980s, some of
the commercial finfish species remained. But
there were too few fish of a commercially
marketable size to support a fishery. This
situation remains: the Firths finfish stocks,
which are now mainly whiting, are mostly too
small to land (McIntyre et al., 2012).
Excl. 3nm

Incl. 3nm

12000

The cause of the decline

in the Clyde fishery

A wide range of reasons has been given for the

decline of the Firths commercial finfish stocks,
including seal predation, pollution and sea
temperature rise. There is some evidence that
a few of these reasons, such as seal predation,
can play a small role in the decline of finfish
stocks. However for the most part the evidence
is strong that overfishing has altered the mix
of species in the Clyde, leading to the decline
in fish landings (McIntyre et al, 2012). It is widely
acknowledged that the excessive use of heavy
fishing gear, particularly on complex areas
of the seabed has exacerbated this decline
(Bergmann et al, 2002).

The remaining fishery in

the Firth of Clyde

8000
Landings (tonnes)

In place of finfish, the Clyde fishery now has

to rely on shellfish. In 2013 over 99% of the
Firths landings were shellfish, 89% of which
were scallops and prawns (data sourced from Marine
Scotland). The wellbeing of the stocks of these
critically important species, are themselves
now subject to question.

4000

0
1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985
Year

1990

1995

2000

2005

2015

Figure 1| Firth of Clyde landings 1960 - 2010. Adapted

from Heath & Spiers (2011)

there are no obvious

signs of negative effects on
the food web of pollution,
nutrient enrichment of
any other man-made
source of contamination

In recent years the prawn stock has generally

been classified as exploited above Maximum
Sustainable Yield by the International Council
for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES), although
2013 advice stated that fishing pressure now
meets ICES suggested targets. However, ICES
advice for 2015 is that landings should be
limited to 3 776 tonnes for the Firth of Clyde
- which is 33% less than the level it advised
for 2014 (ICES Advice, 2014). No formal stock
assessments have been undertaken of the
Clydes king or queen scallop stocks. However,
analysis of the age structure of the king scallop
catch indicates it is heavily exploited (Howarth et
al, 2015).

The Clyde Ecosystem Review

(McIntyre et al, 2012)

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Page 3

Regulating Orders
The risks of over-dependence

SIFT has identified a Regulating Order as the

best legal mechanism for achieving these ends.
Relying heavily on only scallops and prawns
A Regulating Order is a piece of legislation
means that the fishery lacks resilience. If
granted by Scottish Ministers under the Sea
these fisheries decline there is no substantial
Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967. It aims to improve
alternative stock left to fish for. This is a
the management of shell-fisheries by granting
reasonable cause for concern: prawns in
rights to a Grantee to regulate the fishery
particular appear unusually prone to stock
collapse from disease, contamination and climate for one or more named shellfish species in a
designated area. A RO does not cover finfish
change (Worm et al, 2006). Studies have shown
fisheries at present no such legislation is
that the Hematodinium infection, which can
available.
make prawns unsellable, peaks in spring with
a background prevalence of 20-25% in trawl
caught Clyde prawns and with incidences of up
Why a RO is right for the Clyde
to 70% infection in some years (Beevers et al, 2012; Bell The Clyde fishery is currently a shellfish fishery,
et al, 2013). Another study showed that 83% of Clyde so the management needed to bring about
prawns had plastics in their stomachs (Murray &
change should fall under shellfish fishery
Cowie, 2011) the impacts of which are unknown.
legislation. Importantly, although a RO is for
managing shellfish fisheries, if well designed it
Changes in demand for Clyde prawns and
can also bring benefits to finfish fisheries.
scallops also pose a risk to the fishing fleet - be
it because of foreign competition or changes in
A RO would also provide the following key
consumer taste.
benefits to static and mobile gear fisheries:

What the Clyde could be

With more effective management, the Clyde

fishery could be more diverse and hence more
economically resilient. This does not require
closing the existing fisheries. It requires
managing the existing fishery in a different way.
In particular there are opportunities to:
Make better use of science to strengthen
the health and profitability of the shellfish
fisheries, thus ensuring its long term
sustainability;
Protect sensitive and complex seabed habitats
which are known to be nursery grounds for
finfish and therefore vital to the recovery of
an ecosystem that could once again support
a commercial finfish fishery; and
Reduce gear conflict and the associated
economic losses.
With the right management measures, the Clyde
should be able to achieve good ecological status
by 2020, as required by the EUs Marine Strategy
Framework Directive. The RO is being designed
to be compatible with other actions being
undertaken to achieve this status - such as the
Scottish Governments Clyde 2020 project.

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Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Local control. A Grantee which receives

management powers under a RO can be
a non-profit company made up of local
stakeholders, so it can put local interests at the
heart of its decisions. This should encourage
the best stewardship of the fishery, and a
wide representation of local stakeholders on
the board should ensure that management
decisions are made in the interests of local
communities.
Flexibility. A RO allows the Grantee to open
and close parts of the fishery and to set how
much stock may be removed. It can act quickly
in response to scientific and other advice; for
example when a storm impacts on shellfish
stocks or when mild spring weather causes
species to spat earlier than anticipated. This
gives greater flexibility than if management
decisions are made by central government.
Sustainability. A RO ensures all fishing for
the specified shellfish is carried out under a
management plan. This can reduce the impact
of the fishery on other parts of the ecosystem
- whilst keeping the management of the
designated shellfish species the priority.

The Clyde Regulating Order

The proposed RO would have the following features:
Area: The Regulating Order would cover the full extent
of the Firth of Clyde, as per the hatched area in Fig (2).
Species Included: The Clyde RO would only cover
prawns (Nephrops norvegicus), king scallop (Pecten
maximus) and queen scallop (Aequipecten opercularis).
Duration: The RO is initially sought for 10 years, with an
expectation of renewal for a further 10 year period.
Enforcement: Enforcement can be carried out either by
the Grantee or Marine Scotland (Compliance).
Funding: It is anticipated that three sources of funding
would contribute to the ROs operation: governmental especially EU sources, from the fishing industry itself
in the form of licences and levies, and philanthropic
grants. Crucially, costs to the fishing industry would
be set at a low level until its health has recovered. It is
anticipated that licence costs per vessel would be similar
to that under the Shetland RO some 250 per annum.
5400W

5200W

500W

4400W

4200W

56200N

56200N

5600N

5600N

Greenock
Tarbert

55400N

55400N

Troon
Ayr

Campbeltown

Firth of Clyde

55200N

A Regulating Order covering

oysters, mussels, cockles, clams,
lobsters, scallop, queens, crabs,
whelks and razorshells has been
in place in the water around the
Shetland Islands since 1999. It is
managed by the Shetland Shellfish
Management Organisation (SSMO)
and is widely held to be a success.
Management measures for the
scallop fishery include;
A limited entry fishery
(vessels must have a licence
issued by the SSMO)
Curfew with no scallop or
queen scallop fishing before
0600 hours or after 2100
hours
A king scallop minimum
landing size of 110mm
(queen scallop 40mm)
Limit of two tow-bars with a
combined maximum overall
length, or a single tow bar
with a maximum overall
length of 8.80 meters and a
maximum limit of 10 scallop
dredges
Areas closed to scallop
dredging

Largs

Carradale

Box 1: Case StudyShetland Islands Regulating

Order

55200N

Girvan

5500N

Ban on use of French dredge

These and other management
arrangements under the RO,
including a log book scheme,
have enabled the SSMO to gain
Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
certification for the king scallop
fishery.

5500N

Stranraer
Area of proposed RO
5400W

5200W

500W

4400W

4200W

Figure 2: Area covered by proposed Regulating Oder

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Page 5

Management Bodies
A key feature of the RO is that it will adopt a co-management
approach to decision making. The fishing industry will be
strongly represented. They will be supported by scientific
and policy experts from academia and government, and
representatives of other local community interests.

Clyde Shellfish Management

Organisation

A newly formed not-for-profit company called

The Clyde Shellfish Management Organisation
(CSMO) would be the Grantee. SIFT would not
be the Grantee. The CSMO would comprise
of a board made up of local stakeholders with
a mix of fishing and non-fishing interests,
and an executive team. 50% of the CSMO
board would be from the fishing industry.
The remainder of the board would be
representatives from other stakeholder groups
with local interests in the Clyde fishery to
reflect the fact that the fishery is a public asset.

Clyde Scientific
Trust (CST)

The CSMO would be advised on scientific

issues by a new, independent scientific body;
the Clyde Scientific Trust (CST). It is proposed
that the CST would apply for status as a
Scottish Charitable Incorporated Organisation.
The CST would undertake or oversee Clydespecific scientific research on a wide range
of issues and would employ an experienced
fisheries scientist who would be managed by
a board of senior scientists. With regard to the
RO, the CST would inform the CSMO on:
Identification of ecosystem baselines;

Table 1| Proposed structure of the CSMO board

SECTOR

BOARD
REPRESENTATIVES

Spatial management plans for the Firth of

Clyde;

Independent Chair

Mobile gear fishermen

Static gear fishermen

Local Authority
representatives

Monitoring of fisheries performance.

Clyde Scientific Trust

representative

Scottish Environment
LINK representative

SIFT

A key function of the CST would be to foster

collaboration between the fishing industry
and fisheries scientists, with the aim of
increasing research into topics prioritised by
the fishing industry.

The CSMOs executive team would comprise

of an Executive Director who would report
to the board and is responsible for delivering
strategy set by the board. The Executive Officer
would be supported by an Administrative
Officer and a small group of Fisheries Officers,
headed by a Senior Fisheries Officer.

Page 6

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Other management measures, if

appropriate; and

Proposed Management Measures

under the Regulating Order
The proposed Management Measures
summarised below have been informed by
best practice from around the world and after
extensive consultation with fisheries scientists,
fishing industry representatives, policy makers
and a range of Clyde stakeholders.
Management measures would be the
responsibility of the CSMO. However, in order
to establish a shellfish fishery management
regime which can also promote the sustainable
recovery of a mixed finfish fishery, it is
necessary that some core management
measures are hard wired into a Strategic
Management Plan. A draft Strategic
Management Plan will be submitted as part
of the RO application to government and will
cover the first five years of operation of the
CSMO.
The CSMO would be tasked with annual
management planning for the duration of the
RO. It would produce Annual Management
Plans that respond to the health of the
fishery. In order to assist with the first year
of operation of the fishery, the first draft
Annual Management Plan is currently
being developed. The measures it contains
will be open to change by the CSMO (which
will in turn be answerable to the Scottish
Government).
The key management measures promoted in
the RO application will include:
1) Spatial management
2) Gear restrictions & effort controls
3) Licencing arrangements

Spatial Management

The key element of the Strategic Management

Plan will be spatial management. Spatial
management involves limiting the use of
specific fishing gear types by area.
It already plays a key role in fishery
management internationally, where it has
enabled stock-recovery (by allowing seabed
ecosystems to recover from the impact of
heavy gear) and minimised interaction
between gear types, as shown in Box 2.
At present there are some small spatial
closures in the Firth. However one of the most
significant management measures is temporal
closure. In particular, the Firth is closed to all
mobile gear at weekends. So on 2 out of every
7 days the Clyde mobile gear fleet cannot fish
the Clyde. This represents 28% of their time.
It is proposed that under the RO the weekend
ban is lifted. But in its place spatial restrictions
on mobile gear would be imposed over specific
complex substrate areas of the seabed.
Box 2: CASE STUDY,

Spatial Management in the New

England sea scallop fishery

The New England Sea scallop fishery

demonstrates the benefits of spatial
management measures. Although the
measures were implemented to bring
about ground-fish recovery, wider benefits
were accrued particularly to the scallop
fishery and it is now one of the most
valuable in the USA.
Biomass of scallops in the protected areas
increased more than 10 fold within 6 years
and have remained above that level since
(Hart et al 2013). In addition, the rotational
reopening of portions of the protected
areas have contributed to the high scallop
landings over the past decade (Hart et al, 2013).

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Page 7

Spatial Management
Scenarios
SIFT has developed three
spatial management scenarios
for the Clyde. The scenarios
were developed after
consultation with a number of
stakeholders and fishery spatial
modelling experts.
The scenarios are based on
a wide range of parameters
including seabed substrates,
slope morphology, and crucially recent fishing
patterns (obtained from Vessel
Monitoring Systems and
ScotMap - a Marine Scotland
project which provides spatial
information on the fishing
activity of Scottish registered
commercial fishing vessels
under 15m in overall length.).
The management planning
processes currently underway
for the three Clyde based
Marine Protected Areas (MPA)
have also been taken into
account. All the scenarios are
based on the premise that the
key requirements are to protect
complex habitats in order
to boost shellfish and finfish
stocks, and to leave the more
robust seabed areas (the muds
and sands which are more
capable of withstanding the
impact of mobile gears) open
to the existing fishery. The
scenarios each involve slightly
different compromises between
the Firths many users.
We set out Scenario 1 in this
summary document. Scenarios
2 & 3 will be set out in the full
Draft RO proposal document.

Page 8

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Scenario 1
The scenario designates four categories of spatial
management area, and is set out in Figure 3. The categories
are:
1. Trawl Only: exclusively for prawn trawling;
2. Creel & Dive Only: exclusively for creeling, scallop
diving and other lower impact fishing;
3. Restoration: closed to all fishing;
4. Multi-Use: open to all RO licence holders.
The spatial management proposals in Scenario 1 are
designed to:
Ensure that the majority of the Firths existing shellfish
grounds remain open;
Create a balanced network of closed areas that will
enable spill over benefits around the Firth;
Protect the most important complex seabed areas
which will assist the recovery of finfish; and
Reduce incidences of gear conflict;
The scenario ensures that 51% of the Firths complex
habitats and 20% of its muddy sands and sandy muds are
protected. External advice supports this level of protection
as reasonable to meet the objectives of the proposal. The
table below expresses the area covered by each spatial
management category.
Table 2| Percentage of the Firth of Clyde area covered by each
management category
ZONE

IMPACT

COVERAGE OF
RO AREA (%)

RATIONALE

Trawl Only
Area

Closed to
static gears

Reduce gear conflict

Creel & Dive

Only Area

Closed to
mobile
gears

17

Reduce gear conflict

Promote lower impact
fishing over complex
habitats

Restoration
Area

Closed to all
fisheries

10

Enable revival of
complex habitats to
restore fish stocks

Multi-Use
Area

Open to all
mobile and
static gear

71

Continuation of
existing fisheries

Figure 3| Scenario 1 Proposed spatial management

The effect of the proposals is to ensure that

73% of the Firth remains open to prawn
trawling, 71% of the Firth remains open
to scallop dredging and 88% of the Clyde
remains open to static gear.

In comparison, the reintroduction of a 1

nautical mile limit would result in 66% of the
Clyde being open to mobile fishing gear and the
reintroduction of the 3 nautical mile limit
would result in only 45% of the Clyde being
open to mobile fishing gear.

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Page 9

Gear Restrictions and Effort Controls

In addition to the spatial management

measures outlined above, the RO provides
powers to implement a range of gear restriction
measures and/or effort controls. These would
fall under both the Strategic Management Plan
and the Annual Management Plans.
The International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea (ICES) will continue to advise European
Ministers on fishing limits for the Clyde as part
of its advice for Nephrops in the Firth of Clyde
and Sound of Jura (West of Scotland, Functional
Unit 13). There is no intention to set additional
limits within the RO area.

Strategic Management Plan

Proposed measures to be included under the

Strategic Management Plan include:
Prawn Trawling:
Single Net Rule (No twin-rigging)
Prawn Creeling
Creel Limits - based on vessel length within
the Creel & Dive Only and Multi-Use Areas

Gear marking / creel tagging regulations

Return berried females
Scallop Dredging
Minimum landing Size (MLS) increase.
Year 1 to 105mm, year 2 to 110mm

Carriage restriction in line with MLS

staged increase

Annual Management Plans

Proposals for measures under the Annual

Management Plans (other than those proposed
for the first year of operation) will not form
part of the RO Application process; such
decisions will be the responsibility of the CSMO
as the RO Grantee. However the management
measures which may be considered by the
CSMO during the RO include:

Further spatial management measures

depending upon stock survey outcomes

including

Rotational spatial closures;

Seasonal spatial closures.
Vessel restrictions such as vessel length or
engine size;

Additional gear restrictions;

Total Allowable Catch limits.

Licencing Arrangements

All commercial fishers who wish to fish in the

area of the RO for the three species managed
under the RO will need to hold a licence from
the CSMO. In the event of oversubscription,
licences will be allocated following a
prioritisation process based on track record.
Separate criteria will be set for each licence
type.

Bar length will be restricted to only allow

Separate licences will be issued for each

species covered by the RO; although an
individual vessel may hold licences for all of
the species licenced under the RO.

Night-time curfew (daylight hours or 6am

Allocation of licences will be undertaken by

a Licensing Sub-Committee which will be
comprised of non-fishing-interest members of
the CSMO.

a maximum of 6 standard (75cm wide)

Newhaven scallop dredges on each side of
the vessel
until 9pm)

Scallop Diving
MLS, carriage and night-time curfew
restrictions in line with Scallop dredge
proposals.

Page 10

Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Application process & timescale Frequently Asked Questions

The process of applying for a Regulating
Order involves consideration by the Scottish
Government, consultation with stakeholders
and a possible public inquiry and a
determination by Ministers. This process can
take over 1 year to complete. An overview of
the stages involved are set out below.
The Regulating Order application will be
submitted to the Scottish Government by
the end of March 2015. On receipt of the
application, the Scottish Government will
assess whether all information necessary has
been provided and if so will subsequently
carry out any preliminary consultations
deemed appropriate with users of the seabed.
On the basis of an initial assessment of the
merits of the application, and taking into
account the comments from consultees, the
Scottish Ministers will decide whether to
prepare a draft Order for publication and
consultation. If it is decided that the application
should proceed, a draft Order will be prepared
by the Scottish Government, following which a
consultation period will commence.
Any objections and representations must
be made in writing to Scottish Government
within one month of publication of the draft
Order. Following Ministerial consideration,
Scottish Ministers may appoint an inspector
to undertake an inquiry into the application
for the Order. Twenty-eight days notice of the
holding of an inquiry will be given.
The Scottish Ministers will then review
all the information available in relation
to the application, taking full account of
comments and objections made. They will
also take account of the conclusions and
recommendations of the inspector.
The Scottish Ministers will notify the applicant
of their decision. If the application is to be
refused, reasons for refusal will be given. If it
is to be granted, either in the form applied for,
or in an amended form, and whether with or
without conditions, a copy of the Order will be
laid before the Scottish Parliament.

A range of additional questions have been

posed regarding specific aspects of the
proposal. We have amalgamated these
questions and provide answers below.

Quota & Licences

Q: How would an RO affect my Nephrops

quota? Will there be a separate quota for
the Clyde?
A: The International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea (ICES) will continue to
advise European Ministers on fishing limits
for the Clyde as part of its advice for Nephrops
in the Firth of Clyde and Sound of Jura (west
of Scotland, Functional Unit 13). There is no
intention to set additional limits within the RO
area.
Q: Isnt a change in UK or European Law
needed to effect any impacts on UK fishing
licences?
A: No, an RO is a piece of legislation granted
exclusively by Scottish Ministers under the Sea
Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967 (the Act).
Q: But this RO is the first in Scotland that
would include a pressure stock species?
A: Yes, this would be the first time an RO was
granted for an EU quota species (in this case
Nephrops). However, the Act allows for an RO
to be granted for any shellfish species.

Horse power

Q: Fishermen buy kilowatts (kWs) for

their fishing licences. How can it be fair
to restrict kWs and so confer a cost on the
licence holder? If such a restriction is to
be imposed, what compensation will be
provided?
A: There is no intention to propose any
restrictions on engine size in the RO
application, however the RO grantee (the
CSMO) will retain the right (with Ministerial
agreement) to impose restrictions of this sort
at a later date.
Proposed Firth of Clyde Regulating Order

Page 11

References
Beevers, N, D., Kilbride, E., Atkinson, R, J, A. &
Neil, D,M. (2012). Hematodinium seasonality
in the Firth of Clyde (Scotland) Nephrops
norvegicus population: a re-evaluation.
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 100: 95104
Bell, M., Tuck, I. & Dobby, H. (2013). Nephrops
Species in Lobsters: Biology, Management,
Aquaculture and Fisheries. Second Edition.
Bergmann, M., Wieczorek, S, K., Moore, P, G. &
Atkinson, R, J, A (2002). Discard composition
of the Nephrops fishery in the Clyde Sea area,
Scotland. Fisheries Research 57: 169-183
Hart, D, R., Jacobson, L, D. & Tang, J. (2013). To
split or not to split: Assessment of Georges Bank
sea scallops in the presence of marine protected
areas. Fisheries Research, 144: 74-83
Heath, M.R. and D.C. Speirs (2011). Changes in
species diversity and size composition in the
Firth of Clyde demersal fish community (19272009). Proceedings of the Royal Society, B
Howarth, L, M., Roberts, C, M., Hawkins, J, P.,
Steadman, D, J. & Beukers-Stewart, B, D. (2015).
Effects of ecosystem protection on scallop
populations within a community-led temperate
marine reserve. Mar Biol (DOI 10.1007/s00227015-2627-7)

The Sustainable Inshore Fisheries Trust

(SIFT) is a Scottish charity that aims to
promote the sustainable management of
Scotlands inshore waters so they bring
the maximum sustainable social and
economic benefits to all of Scotlands
coastal communities.

5 Rose Street Edinburgh EH2 2PR

www.sift-uk.org
Sustainable Inshore Fisheries Trust is a Registered Scottish
Charity No. SC042334, Scottish Charitable Company Limited
by Guarantee, Registered No. SC399582.
Cover Image Credit: Jim McDougall flickr.com/jimmcd

ICES. 2014 Nephrops in Division VIa (ICES

Advice 2014 Section 5.3.20). See (http://www.
nwwac.org/_fileupload/Opinions%20and%20
Advice/Year%2010/Neph-VIa_WoS.pdf).
(accessed 12th December 2014)
McIntyre, F, Fernandes,P.G and Turrell, W.R
(2012) Clyde Ecosystem Review. Scottish
Marine and Freshwater Science. 3: 1-119
Murray, F. & Cowie, P, R. (2011) Plastic
contamination in the decapod crustacean
Nephrops norvegicus (Linnaeus, 1758). Marine
Pollution Bulletin. 3: 1- 11
Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N. et al
(2006), Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean
ecosystem services. Science 314, 787-790.