Seminar Report

On

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE
AND PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE
Submitted by
SATYAM SAXENA
(Roll Number: 14PCE013)

Under the supervision of

PROF. RAMA DEBBARMA
(Associate Professor)

Department of Civil Engineering, (Structural Engineering)

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, AGARTALA
October, 2014

APPROVAL SHEET
This seminar report entitled Comparative Study of Fiber Reinforced Concrete and Plain
Cement Concrete prepared by Satyam Saxena (Roll No. 14PCE013) is hereby approved
for submission.
Prof. Rama Debbarma
(Supervisor)
Date: October 14, 2014
Place: Agartala

ii

CONTENTS
Approval Sheet.......................................................................................................................... ii
Contents .................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ vi
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 7
Chapter 2 LITERATURE SURVEY ...................................................................................... 9
Chapter 3 GENRES OF FIBERS ......................................................................................... 11
3.1 GLASS FIBERS .............................................................................................. 11
3.2 STEEL FIBERS .............................................................................................. 11
3.3 SYNTHETIC FIBERS .................................................................................... 12
3.3.1 Acrylic

13

3.3.2 Aramid

13

3.3.3 Carbon

14

3.3.4 Nylon

15

3.3.5 Polyester

15

3.3.6 Polyethylene

15

3.3.7 Polypropylene

16

3.4 FABRIC AND COMPOSITE FIBERS ........................................................... 16

3.5 NATURAL FIBERS ....................................................................................... 17
3.5.1 Unprocessed Natural Fibers

18

3.5.2 Processed Natural Fibers

18

3.6 NEW DEVELOPMENT IN FIBERS.............................................................. 19

Chapter 4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF FRC ......................................... 20
4.1 FIBER-MATRIX BOND ................................................................................ 23
Chapter 5 Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete ......................................................................... 25
5.1 Mix-Design for SFRC ..................................................................................... 27
5.2 Factors Controlling SFRC ............................................................................... 28
5.3 Mechanical Properties and Strength of SFRC ................................................. 28
iii

Chapter 6 Application of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete................................................ 31

6.1 Some Application of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete in India .............................. 32
Chapter 7 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 33
References................................................................................................................................ 35

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Crack Control Efficiency with Increasing Fiber Volume Fraction
from Top to Bottom .......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 4.2 Maximum Crack Width for Various Fibers (F1-F7) ............................................... 21
Figure 4.3 Fiber Reinforcement Before and After the Creation of a Macro-Crack (Left) and
Crack Bridging by Fibers (Right) ..................................................................................... 21
Figure 4.4 (Left) A CFRC Composite in Tension and (Right) Stress-Strain Curves Showing
Strain-Hardening at High Fiber Volume Fractions .......................................................... 22
Figure 4.5 Tensile Load versus Deformation for Plain and Fiber Reinforced Concrete .......... 23
Figure 4.6 Toughness Mechanism ............................................................................................ 23
Figure 4.7 Shear-Lag in a Bonded Fiber with Inelastic Mechanisms. ..................................... 24
Figure 5.1 Failure Mechanism and Effect of Fibers ................................................................. 25
Figure 5.2 Different Types Of Steel Fibers .............................................................................. 26

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Types of Fibers and Its Properties

13

Table 3.2 Different Types of Natural Fibers and Their Properties

17

vi

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) was invented by French gardener Joseph Monier in 1849
and patented in 1867. The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. This can be
proved by the following: Fibers have been used as reinforcement since ancient times.
Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in mud bricks. In the early 1900s,
asbestos fibers were used in concrete, and in the 1950s the concept of composite materials
came into being and fiber reinforced concrete was one of the topics of interest. There was a
need to find a replacement for the asbestos used in concrete and other building materials once
the health risks associated with the substance were discovered. By the 1960s, steel, glass
(GFRC), and synthetic fibers such as polypropylene fibers were used in concrete, and research
into new fiber reinforced concretes continues today.
Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of
cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibers.
Continuous meshes, woven fabrics and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete
fibers. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers.
Fiber is a small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristics properties. The
fiber is often described by a convenient parameter called aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of the
fiber is the ratio of its length to its diameter. Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to 150.
Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) may be defined as a composite materials made with Portland
cement, aggregate, and incorporating discrete discontinuous fibers. Now, why would we wish
to add such fibers to concrete? Plain, unreinforced concrete is a brittle material, with a low
tensile strength and a low strain capacity. The role of randomly distributes discontinuous
fibers is to bridge across the cracks that develop provides some post- cracking ductility. If
the fibers are sufficiently strong, sufficiently bonded to material, and permit the FRC to carry
significant stresses over a relatively large strain capacity in the post- cracking stage.
7

There are, of course, other (and probably cheaper) ways of increasing the strength of concrete.
The real contribution of the fibers is to increase the toughness of the concrete (defined as
some function of the area under the load vs. deflection curve), under any type of loading. That
is, the fibers tend to increase the strain at peak load, and provide a great deal of energy
absorption in post-peak portion of the load vs. deflection curve.
When the fiber reinforcement is in the form of short discrete fibers, they act effectively as
rigid inclusions in the concrete matrix. Physically, they have thus the same order of
magnitude as aggregate inclusions; steel fiber reinforcement cannot therefore be regarded as a
direct replacement of longitudinal reinforcement in reinforced and prestressed structural
members. However, because of the inherent material properties of fiber concrete, the presence
of fibers in the body of the concrete or the provision of a tensile skin of fiber concrete can be
expected to improve the resistance of conventionally reinforced structural members to
cracking, deflection and other serviceability conditions.
The fiber reinforcement may be used in the form of three dimensionally randomly
distributed fibers throughout the structural member when the added advantages of the fiber to
shear resistance and crack control can be further utilised. On the other hand, the fiber concrete
may also be used as a tensile skin to cover the steel reinforcement when a more efficient two
dimensional orientation of the fibers could be obtained.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Presently, a number of laboratory experiments on mechanical properties of SFRC have been
done.
Rangan et. al(1999), in their investigations conducted uni-axial compression test on fiber
reinforced concrete specimens using steel fibers. The results showed the increase in strength
from 6% to 17% in compressive strength, 18% to 47% in split tensile strength, 22% to 63% in
flexural strength and 8% to 25% in modulus of elasticity respectively.
Nataraja et. al(1999) stated that the mechanical properties of fiber reinforced concrete
resulted in the increase of strength from 6% to 17% in compressive strength, 14% to 49% in
split tensile strength, 25% to 55% in flexural strength and 13% to 27% in modulus of
elasticity respectively.
Banthia et. al(1995) concluded in their investigations that the mechanical properties of fiber
reinforced concrete showed the increase in strength from 7% to 19% in compressive strength,
19% to 48% in split tensile strength, 25% to 65% in flexural strength and 7% to 25% in
modulus of elasticity respectively.
Shah et. al(1985) investigated the strength of steel fiber reinforced and plain concrete ground
slabs. The slabs were 2x2x0.12m, reinforced with hooked end steel fibers and mill cut steel
fibers. They concluded that there occured a major change in compressive strength of concrete
from 10 % to 30%.
Dwaraknath et. al(1999) predicted flexural strength of steel fiber concrete by these
parameters such as direct tensile strength, split cylinder strength and cube strength. It was
found that the inclusion of 1% by volume of hook-ended steel fibers could increase the shear
strength of the SFRC by about 144% to 210% relative to plain concrete depending on the
aspect ratio of the steel fibers.

Rossi et. al(2000), analyzed that the effects of steel fibers on the cracking at both local level
(behaviour of steel fibers) and global level (behaviour of the fiber/cement composite) were
dependent to each other.
Swami et. al(2000), had done an investigation on deformation and ultimate strength of
flexural in the reinforced concrete beams under 4 point loading with the usage of steel fibers,
where consists of 15 beams (dimensions of 130x203x2500mm) with same steel reinforcement
(2Y-10 top bar and 2Y-12 bottom bar) and variables of fibers volume fraction (0%, 0.5% and
1.0%). Fatigue resistance of the concrete was reported to be increased by up to 70%.
Gupta,A.P. et. al(2000) had done a similar crack behaviour investigation, which based on
combination of five full scale reinforced concrete beams (350x200x3600mm) with steel fibers
(volume fraction of 0.38% and 0.56%).In his investigation, the experimental results and
theoretical prediction on the crack width was compared.

10

Chapter 3
GENRES OF FIBERS
Below are the most commonly used fiber types are discussed, giving information on the
manufacturing of the fiber, its properties, fiber content in applications and the effects of the
fiber type on concrete and mortar.

3.1 GLASS FIBERS

In the form first used, glass fibers were found to be alkali reactive and products in which they
were used deteriorated rapidly. Alkali-resistant glass containing 16% zirconia was
successfully formulated in the 1960's and by 1971 was in commercial production in the UK.
Other sources of alkali-resistant glass were developed during the 1970's and 1980's in other
parts of the world, with higher zirconia contents. Alkali-resistant glass fiber is used in the
manufacture of glass-reinforced cement (GRC) products, which have a wide range of
applications.

3.2 STEEL FIBERS

Steel fibers have been used in concrete since the early 1900s.The early fibers were round and
smooth and the wire was cut or chopped to the required lengths. The use of straight, smooth
fibers has largely disappeared and modern fibers have either rough surfaces, hooked ends or
are crimped or undulated through their length. Modern commercially available steel fibers are
manufactured from drawn steel wire, from slit sheet steel or by the melt-extraction process
which produces fibers that have a crescent-shaped cross section.
Typically steel fibers have equivalent diameters (based on cross sectional area) of from 0.15
mm to 2 mm and lengths from 7 to75 mm. Aspect ratios generally range from 20 to 100.

11

(Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between fiber length and its equivalent diameter, which is
the diameter of a circle with an area equal to the cross-sectional area of the fiber).
Carbon steels are most commonly used to produce fibers but fibers made from corrosionresistant alloys are available. Stainless steel fibers have been used for high-temperature
applications. Some fibers are collated into bundles using water-soluble glue to facilitate
handling and mixing. Steel fibers have high tensile strength (0.5 2 GPa) and modulus of
elasticity (200 GPa), a ductile/plastic stress-strain characteristic and low creep. Steel fibers
have been used in conventional concrete mixes, shotcrete and slurry-infiltrated fiber concrete.
Typically, content of steel fiber ranges from 0.25% to 2.0% by volume. Fiber contents in
excess of 2% by volume generally result in poor workability and fiber distribution, but can be
used successfully where the paste content of the mix is increased and the size of coarse
aggregate is not larger than about 10 mm. Steel-fiber-reinforced concrete containing up to
1.5% fiber by volume has been pumped successfully using pipelines of 125 to 150 mm
diameter. Steel fiber contents up to 2% by volume.

3.3 SYNTHETIC FIBERS

Synthetic fibers are man-made fibers resulting from research and development in the
petrochemical and textile industries. There are two different physical fiber forms:
monofilament fibers, and fibers produced from fibrillated tape. Currently there are two
different synthetic fiber volumes used in application, namely low-volume percentage (0.1 to
0.3% by volume) and high-volume percentage (0.4 to 0.8% by volume). Most synthetic fiber
applications are at the 0.1% by volume level. At this level, the strength of the concrete is
considered unaffected and crack control characteristics are sought.
Fiber types that have been tried in cement concrete matrices include: acrylic, aramid, carbon,
nylon, polyester, polyethylene and polypropylene.

12

3.3.1 Acrylic

Acrylic fibers have been used to replace asbestos fiber in many fiber-reinforced concrete
products. In this process fibers are initially dispersed in dilute water and cement mixture. A
composite thickness is built up in layers using a pressure forming process and vacuum
dewatering. Acrylic fibers have also been added to conventional concrete at low volumes to
reduce the effects of plastic-shrinkage cracking.

3.3.2 Aramid

Aramid fibers are two and a half times as strong as glass fibers and five times as strong as
steel fibers, per unit mass. Due to the relatively high cost of these fibers, aramid-fiberreinforced concrete has been primarily used as an asbestos cement replacement in certain
high-strength applications.
Table 3.1Types of Fibers and Its Properties
Fiber Type

Equivalent
Diameter,
m

Relativ
e
Density

Tensile
Strengt
h
MPa

Elastic
Modulu
s
GPa

13-104

1.161.18

2701000

14-19

Aramid I
Aramid II

12
10

1.44
1.44

2900
2350

60
115

Carbon,PAN
HM

1.6-1.7

25003000

Carbon,PAN HT

1.6-1.7

10-13

Acrylic

Carbon,
GP**

Pitch

Nylon
Polypropylene

Ignition
Temperatur
e
C

Melt,
Oxidation or
Decompositio
n
Temperature
C

Wate
rAbso
rptio
n per
AST
MD
570,
% by
mass

220-235

1.02.5

4.4
2.5

high
high

480
480

4.3
1.2

380

0.5-0.7

high

400

nil

34504000

230

1.0-1.5

high

400

Nil

1.6-1.7

480-790

27-35

2.0-2.4

high

400

3-7

23

1.14

970

20

200-220

2.85.0

0.900.91

140-700

3.5-4.8

15

600

165

Nil

13

Ultimate
Elongatio
n
%

7.5-50.0

Notes
* Not all fiber types are currently used for commercial production of FRC
High modulus
Polyacrylonitrile based, high modulus
Polyacrylonitrile based, high tensile strength
** Isotropic pitch based, general purpose
Mesophase pitch based, high performance
Data listed is only for fibers commercially available for FRC

3.3.3 Carbon

Carbon fiber is substantially more expensive than other fiber types. For this reason its
commercial use has been limited. Carbon fibers are manufactured by carbonizing suitable
organic materials in fibrous forms at high temperatures and then aligning the resultant
graphite crystallites by hot-stretching. The fibers are manufactured as either Type I (high
modulus) or Type II (high strength) and are dependent upon material source and extent of hot
stretching for their physical properties. Carbon fibers are available in a variety of forms and
have a fibrillar structure similar to that of asbestos. Carbon fiber made from petroleum and
coal pitch is less expensive than the conventional carbon fiber made from fibrous materials.
The Type I and II carbon fibers produced by carbonizing suitable organic materials other than
petroleum-based materials are 20 to 40 times stronger and have a modulus of elasticity up to
100 times greater than the pitch-based carbon fiber. Carbon fiber is available as continuous
strands or as individual chopped fibers. Continuous strands are normally pre-placed and
aligned to provide the optimum fiber orientation during fabrication. Chopped fibers are
generally incorporated during the mixing process and are therefore orientated randomly
throughout the mix. A satisfactory mix of chopped carbon fiber, cement and water is difficult
to achieve because of the large surface area of the fiber. Research has shown that uniform
dispersion of discontinuous low-modulus carbon fiber has been achieved using an omnimixer
and admixture. Carbon fiber has high tensile strength and modulus of elasticity and a brittle
stress-strain characteristic. Additional research is needed to determine the feasibility of
carbon-fiber concrete on an economic basis. The fire-resistance properties of carbon-fiber
composites need to be evaluated, but ignoring economics, structural applications appear
promising.

14

3.3.4 Nylon
Nylon is a generic name that identifies a family of polymers. Nylon fibers properties are
imparted by the base polymer type, addition of different levels of additive, manufacturing
conditions and fiber dimensions. Currently only two types of nylon fiber are marketed for
concrete. Nylon is heat stable, hydrophilic, relatively inert and resistant to a wide variety of
materials.
Nylon is particularly effective in imparting impact resistance and flexural toughness and
sustaining and increasing the load carrying capacity of concrete following first crack.

3.3.5 Polyester

Polyester fibers are available in monofilament form and belong to the thermoplastic polyester
group. They are temperature sensitive and above normal service temperatures their properties
may be altered. Polyester fibers are somewhat hydrophobic. Polyester fibers have been used at
low contents (0.1% by volume) to control plastic-shrinkage cracking in concrete.

3.3.6 Polyethylene

Polyethylene has been produced for concrete in monofilament form with wart-like surface
deformations. Polyethylene in pulp form may be an alternate to asbestos fibers. Concrete
reinforced with polyethylene fibers at contents between 2 and 4% by volume exhibits linear
flexural load deflection behaviour up to first crack, followed by an apparent transfer of load to
the fibers permitting an increase in load until the fibers break.

15

3.3.7 Polypropylene

Polypropylene fiber was first used to reinforce concrete in the 1960s. Polypropylene is a
synthetic hydrocarbon polymer, the fiber of which is made using extrusion processes by hotdrawing the material through a die. Polypropylene fibers are produced as continuous monofilaments, with circular cross section that can be chopped to required lengths, or fibrillated
films or tapes of rectangular cross section.
Polypropylene fibers are hydrophobic and therefore have the disadvantages of poor bond
characteristics with cement matrix, a low melting point, high combustibility and a relatively
low modulus of elasticity. Long polypropylene fibers can prove difficult to mix due to their
flexibility and tendency to wrap around the leading edges of mixer blades. Polypropylene
fibers are tough but have low tensile strength and modulus of elasticity; they have plastic
stress-strain characteristics. Monofilament polypropylene fibers have inherent weak bond
with the cement matrix because of their relatively small specific surface area. Fibrillated
polypropylene fibers are slit and expanded into an open network thus offering a larger specific
surface area with improved bond characteristics. Polypropylene fiber contents of up to 12%
by volume are claimed to have been used successfully with hand-packing fabrication
techniques, but volumes of 0.1% of 50-mm fiber in concrete have been reported to have
caused a slump loss of 75 mm. Polypropylene fibers have been reported to reduce
unrestrained plastic and drying shrinkage of concrete at fiber contents of 0.1 to 0.3% by
volume

3.4 FABRIC AND COMPOSITE FIBERS

South African manufacturer s have been extremely innovative in developing versions of fiber
for use with concrete. To overcome the bond and elastic modulus problem of polypropylene
fibers, one development has been that of a composite of a core fiber (which can be poly
propylene or a stiffer material such as acrylic, Kevlar, glass or carbon fibers) around which is
spun a fluffy coating of poly propylene or cellulose. The coating can be bonded to the core at
intervals to enhance the composite behaviour. These composite strands can be woven into a

16

textile, or cut into appropriate lengths for a range of applications, especially thin elements
such as permanent forms and decorative cladding units.

3.5 NATURAL FIBERS

Natural reinforcing materials can be obtained at low cost and low levels of energy using local
manpower and technology. Utilization of natural fibers as a form of concrete reinforcement is
of particular interest to less developed regions where conventional construction materials are
not readily available or are too expensive . Sisal-fiber reinforced concrete has been used for
making roof tiles, corrugated sheets, pipes, silos and tanks. Elephant-grass-reinforced mortar
has been used for low-cost housing projects. Wood-cellulose-fiber reinforced cement has
commercial applications in the manufacture of flat and corrugated sheet and non-pressure
pipes.
Natural fibers can be either unprocessed or processed:Table 3.2 Different Types of Natural Fibers and Their Properties
Fiber Type

Coconut

Sisal

Sugar
Cane
Bagasse

Bamboo

Jute

Flax

Elephant
Grass

Water
Reed

Plantain

Musamba

Wood
fiber
(Kraft
Pulp)

Fiber Length,
mm

50-100

N/A

N/A

N/A

175300

500

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2.55.0

Fiber
Diameter,
mm

0.1-0.4

N/A

0.2-0.4

0.05-0.4

0.10.2

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

0.0250.075

Relative
Density

1.121.15

N/A

1.2-1.3

1.5

1.021.04

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

1.5

Modulus Of
Elasticity,
GPa

19-26

1326

15-19

33-40

2632

100

1.5

1.0

N/A

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength,
MPa
Elongation at
break,%
Water
Absorption,%

120-200

275570

180290

350-500

250350

1000

180

70

90

80

700

10-25

3-5

N/A

N/A

1.2

5.9

9.7

N/A

6070

70-75

40-45

1.82.2
N/A

3.6

130-180

1.51.9
N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

50-75

17

3.5.1 Unprocessed Natural Fibers

Products made with unprocessed natural fibers such as coconut coir, sisal, sugarcane bagasse,
bamboo, jute, wood and vegetable fibers have been tested in a number of countries. Problems
have been reported with the long-term durability of some of the products.
The properties of concrete made using unprocessed natural fibers depend on a number of
factors including the type and length of fiber as well as the volume fraction. To show some
improvement in mechanical properties, the minimum fiber content is of the order of 3% by
volume.

3.5.2 Processed Natural Fibers

Wood cellulose is the most frequently used natural fiber. It is most commonly obtained using
the Kraft process. This process involves cooking wood chips in a solution of sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium sulphide. Different grades of wood-cellulose fiber
containing more or less of the three main constituents, cellulose, hemi-cellulose and ligna can
be obtained by bleaching.
Wood-cellulose fiber has relatively good mechanical properties compared with many manmade fibers such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polyester and acrylic.
Delignified cellulose fiber can be produced with tensile strengths up to approximately 2,0
GPa from selected grades of wood, and using suitable pulping processes. Fiber tensile
strengths of 500 MPa can be routinely obtained using a chemical pulping process and the
more common, less expensive, grades of wood.
Using conventional mixing techniques, the amount of fiber that can be incorporated into the
cement matrix at low water contents is limited by the capacity of the fibers to be mixed
uniformly into the matrix. Fabrication techniques that involve mixing fiber with the matrix at
initially high water contents and then using dewatering procedures are therefore effective and
common.

18

Wood-cellulose fiber that has not been delignified can adversely affect the curing of the
cement matrix. This is because leaching of sugar and other organic impurities into the cement
matrix can retard or completely inhibit cement set. Results obtained from autoclaved woodcellulose cement composites indicate that such products can be sensitive to moisture content.
Published information on the performance of wood-cellulose fiber composites is conflicting.
However, Bentur and Mindess state: "Although the strength and other properties of the
cellulose-pulp fiber are inferior to those of many other fibers, such as asbestos, they are highly
cost effective. This, combined with their compatibility with processes for producing asbestos
cement, makes the cellulose-pulp fibers an attractive alternative to asbestos. As a result of
intensive research and development, cellulose-pulp fibers are now used in some places as
partial or full replacement for asbestos in cement composites."

3.6 NEW DEVELOPMENT IN FIBERS

A development of the last few decades has been significant research activity and increasing
application of high-performance fiber reinforced cement based composites (HPFRCC). This
has led to design recommendations being proposed for these materials recently in Japan.
Particular classes are ultra high performance (UHPFRC) and strain-hardening (SHCC) fiberreinforced cement-based composite s. These composite s are designed for particular
applications varying from the requirement of

high strength to that of high ductility. For

instance UHPFRC have been designed for and applied in thin bridge decks or bridge deck
overlays, with compressive strengths in the range 120 to 180 MPa and flexural strengths in
the range 20 to 40 MPa.
On the other hand, the requirement of energy dissipation in earthquake-resistant buildings has
led to the use of highly ductile SHCC in coupling beams of core s of high rise reinforced
concrete buildings in Japan. Other uses of SHCC include direct exploitation of its tensile
deform ability in bridge deck movement joint replacement, and protection of reinforced
concrete structure s by it s multiple, fine cracking nature, which significantly retards the
ingress of moisture, gas and chlorides. An example of this application is a thin SHCC overlay
of an existing dam face.

19

Chapter 4
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
FRC
Concrete carries flaws and micro-cracks both in the material and at the interfaces even before
an external load is applied. These defects and micro-cracks emanate from excess water,
bleeding, plastic settlement, thermal and shrinkage strains and stress concentrations imposed
by external restraints. Under an applied load, distributed micro-cracks propagate coalesce and
align themselves to produce macro-cracks. When loads are further increased, conditions of
critical crack growth are attained at the tips of the macro-cracks and unstable and catastrophic
failure is precipitated.
The micro and macro-fracturing processes described above, can be favourably modified by
adding short, randomly distribute d fibers of various suitable materials. Fibers not only
suppress the formation of cracks, but also abate their propagation and growth.

Figure 4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Crack Control Efficiency with Increasing Fiber Volume
Fraction from Top to Bottom

20

Figure 4.2 Maximum Crack Width for Various Fibers (F1-F7)

Soon after placement, evaporation of the mix water and the autogenously process of concrete
hydration create shrinkage strains in concrete . If restrained, this contraction can cause
stresses far in excess of those needed to cause cracking. In spite of every effort, plastic
shrinkage cracking remains a serious concern, particularly in large surface are a placements
like slabs on grade, thin surface repairs, patching and shotcrete linings. With large surface
areas, fibers engage water in the mix and reduce bleeding and segregation. The result is that
there is less water available for evaporation and less over all free shrinkage. When combined
with pos t-crack bridging capability of fibers, fibers reduce crack widths and cracks are as
when concrete is retrained.
In the hardened state, when fibers are properly bonded, they interact with the matrix at the
level of micro-cracks and effectively bridge these cracks thereby providing stress transfer
media that delays their coalescence and unstable growth.

Figure 4.3 Fiber Reinforcement Before and After the Creation of a Macro-Crack (Left)
and Crack Bridging by Fibers (Right)

21

If the fiber volume fraction is sufficiently high, this may result in an increase in the tensile
strength of the matrix. Indeed, for some high volume fraction fiber composite, a notable
increase in the tensile/flexural strength over and above the plain matrix has been reported.

Figure 4.4 (Left) A CFRC Composite in Tension and (Right) Stress-Strain Curves
Showing Strain-Hardening at High Fiber Volume Fractions
Once the tensile capacity of the composite is reached, and coalescence and conversion of
micro-cracks to macro-cracks has occurred, fibers, depending on their length and bonding
characteristics continue to restrain crack opening and crack growth by effectively bridging
across macro-cracks. This post-peak macro-crack bridging is the primary reinforcement
mechanism in the majority of commercial fiber reinforced concrete composites.
Based on the discussion above, it emerges that fiber-reinforced cementitious composites can
be classified into two broad categories: normal performance (or conventional) fiber-reinforced
cementitious composites and high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites. In
FRCs with low to medium volume fraction of fibers, fibers do not enhance the tensile/flexural
strength of the composite and benefits of fiber reinforcement are limited to energy absorption
or toughness enhancement in the post-cracking regime only. For high performance fiber
reinforced composites, on the other hand, with a high fiber dosage, benefits of fiber
reinforcement are noted in an increased tensile strength, strain-hardening response before
localization and enhanced toughness beyond crack localization.

22

Figure 4.5 Tensile Load versus Deformation for Plain and Fiber Reinforced Concrete

4.1 FIBER-MATRIX BOND

As in any fiber reinforced composite, fiber-matrix bond in FRC is of critical importance.
However, unlike fiber reinforced polymer s (FRPs) used in aerospace and automobile
industries where fibers are employed to enhance strength and elastic modulus, in FRCs ,
toughness or energy absorption capability is of primary interest. Therefore, inelastic bond
failure mechanisms such as interfacial crack growth, crack tortuousity and fiber slip are of
greater relevance. Fiber pull-out tests are often performed to assess fiber efficiency in FRC
and in such tests fiber bond and slip are monitored simultaneously. For a fiber embedded in a
cementitious matrix and subjected to a pull-out load , shear-lag will occur and interfacial
debonding will commence at the point of fiber entry which will slowly propagate towards the
free end of the fiber.

Figure 4.6 Toughness Mechanism

23

Figure 4.7 Shear-Lag in a Bonded Fiber with Inelastic Mechanisms.

24

Chapter 5
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is the most widely used structural material in the world with an annual production of
over seven billion tons. For a variety of reasons, much of this concrete is cracked. The reason
for concrete to suffer cracking may be attributed to structural, environmental or economic
factors, but most of the cracks are formed due to the inherent weakness of the material to
resist tensile forces. Again, concrete shrinks and will again crack, when it is restrained. It is
now well established that steel fiber reinforcement offers a solution to the problem of
cracking by making concrete tougher and more ductile. It has also been proved by extensive
research and field trials carried out over the past three decades, that addition of steel fibers to
conventional plain or reinforced and prestressed concrete members at the time of
mixing/production imparts improvements to several properties of concrete, particularly those
related to strength, performance and durability.
The weak matrix in concrete, when reinforced with steel fibers, uniformly distributed across
its entire mass, gets strengthened enormously, thereby rendering the matrix to behave as a
composite material with properties significantly different from conventional concrete.
The randomly-oriented steel fibers assist in controlling the propagation of micro-cracks
present in the matrix, first by improving the overall cracking resistance of matrix itself, and
later by bridging across even smaller cracks formed after the application of load on the
member, thereby preventing their widening into major cracks.

Figure 5.1 Failure Mechanism and Effect of Fibers

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Figure 5.2 Different Types Of Steel Fibers

In general, SFRC is very ductile and particularly well suited for structures which are required
to exhibit:
Resistance to impact, blast and shock loads and high fatigue
Shrinkage control of concrete (fissuration)
Very high flexural, shear and tensile strength
Resistance to splitting/spalling, erosion and abrasion

High thermal/ temperature resistance

Resistance to seismic hazards.
The degree of improvement gained in any specific property exhibited by SFRC is dependent
on a number of factors that include:

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 Concrete mix and its age

Steel fiber content
Fiber shape, its aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio) and bond characteristics.
The efficiency of steel fibers as concrete macro-reinforcement is in proportion to increasing
fiber content, fiber strength, aspect ratio and bonding efficiency of the fibers in the concrete
matrix. The efficiency is further improved by deforming the fibers and by resorting to
advanced production techniques. Any improvement in the mechanical bond ensures that the
failure of a SFRC specimen is due mainly to fibers reaching their ultimate strength, and not
due to their pull-out.

5.1 Mix-Design for SFRC

Just as different types of fibers have different characteristics, concrete made with steel fibers
will also have different properties. When developing an SFRC mix design, the fiber type and
the application of the concrete must be considered. There must be sufficient quantity of
mortar fraction in the concrete to adhere to the fibers and allow them to flow without tangling
together, a phenomenon called balling of fibers. Cement content is, therefore, usually higher
for SFRC than conventional mixes Aggregate shape and content is critical. Coarse aggregates
of sizes ranging from 10 mm to 20 mm are commonly used with SFRC. Larger aggregate
sizes usually require less volume of fibers per cubic meter. SFRC with 10 mm maximum size
aggregates typically uses 50 to 75 kg of fibers per cubic meter, while the one with 20 mm size
uses 40 to 60 kg. It has been demonstrated that the coarse aggregate shape has a significant
effect on workability and material properties. Crushed coarse aggregates result in higher
strength and tensile strain capacity. Fine aggregates in SFRC mixes typically constitute about
45 to 55 percent of the total aggregate content.
Typical mix proportions for SFRC will be: cement 325 to 560 kg; water-cement ratio 0.4-0.6;
ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate 0.5-1.0; maximum aggregate size 10mm; air content
6-9%; fiber content 0.5-2.5% by volume of concrete. An appropriate pozzolana may be used

27

as a replacement for a portion of the Portland cement to improve workability further, and
reduce heat of hydration and production cost.
The use of steel fibers in concrete generally reduces the slump by about 50 mm. To overcome
this and to improve workability, it is highly recommended that a super plasticizer be included
in the mix. This is especially true for SFRC used for high performance applications.
Generally, the ACI Committee Report No. ACI 554 Guide for Specifying, Mixing, Placing
and Finishing Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete is followed for the design of SFRC mixes
appropriate to specific applications.

5.2 Factors Controlling SFRC

Aspect ratio, l/d
Volume fraction, vf
Fiber reinforcing index, RI=l/d x vf
Critical length, lmin
Balling of fibers
Good mix design: more matrix, small aggregate, workable
Type of fibers-size, shape, strength, modulus

5.3 Mechanical Properties and Strength of SFRC

The various properties of SFRC and other FRCs can be seen in the following figures. Relative
strength and toughness of the fiber reinforced mortar and concrete can be seen in Fig. 5 As the
percentage of fibers increases, the strength and toughness of fiber concrete increases.

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The increase in toughness and the effect of aspect ratio can be seen in Fig. 6. The effect of
different types of fibers on the uniaxial tensile strength is presented in Fig. 7. The variation of
compressive strength and the strain is shown in Fig. 8. The strain of SFRC corresponding to
peak compressive strength increases as the volume fraction of fibers increases. As aspect ratio
increases, the compressive strength of SFRC also increases marginally.
The load v/s deflection of SFRC beam subjected to bending is presented in Fig5.9 . As the
load increases, the deflection also increases. However the area under the load deflection
curve also increases substantially depending the type and amount of fibers added.

Figure 5.3 Relative Strength v/s % Percentage of Aligned Fibers

Figure 5.4 Toughness And Strength In Relation To Plain Concrete

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Figure 5.5 Compressive Stress v/s Strain Diagram for SFRC

Figure 5.8 Schematic Load-Deflection Curve for Fiber Composites in Bending

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Chapter 6
Application of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
The applications of SFRC depend on the ingenuity of the designer and builder in taking
advantage of its much enhanced and superior static and dynamic tensile strength, ductility,
energy-absorbing characteristics, abrasion resistance and fatigue strength.
Growing experience and confidence by engineers, designers and contractors has led to many
new areas of use particularly in precast, cast in-situ, and shotcrete applications. Traditional
application where SFRC was initially used as pavements, has now gained wide acceptance in
the construction of a number of airport runways, heavy-duty and container yard floors in
several parts of the world due to savings in cost and superior performance during service.
The advantages of SFRC have now been recognised and utilised in precast application where
designers are looking for thinner sections and more complex shapes. Applications include
building panels, sea-defence walls and blocks, piles, blast-resistant storage cabins, coffins,
pipes, highway kerbs, prefabricated storage tanks, composite panels and ducts. Precast fiber
reinforced concrete manhole covers and frames are being widely used in India, Europe and
USA. Cast in-situ application includes bank vaults, bridges, nosing joints and water slides.
Sprayed-in ground swimming pools is a new and growing area of shotcrete application in
Australia. SFRC has become a standard building material in Scandinavia. Applications of
SFRC to bio-logical shielding in atomic reactors and also to waterfront marine structures
which have to resist deterioration at the air-water interface and impact loadings have also
been successfully made. The latter category includes jetty armor, floating pontoons, and
caissons. Easiness with which fiber concrete can be moulded to compound curves makes it
attractive for ship hull construction either alone or in conjunction with fibrocement.

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6.1 Some Application of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete in India

Fiber reinforced concrete is in use since many years in India, but the structural applications
are very much limited. However, its application is picking up in the recent days. Following
are some of the major projects where large quantities of steel fibers are used.
1. More than 400 tons of Shaktiman Steel Fibers have been used recently in the
construction of a road overlay for a project at Mathura (UP).
2. They have also been successfully used at the end anchorage zones of prestressed
concrete girders for resisting bursting and spalling forces in bridge projects in
Bangalore and Ahmadabad executed by one of the reputed construction companies.
3. The fibers have also been used for heavy-duty industrial floors.
4. Other projects include Samsonity Factory-Nasik, BIPL Plant-Pune, KRCLMSRDC
tunnels, Natha Jakri Hydro Electric Plant, Kol HEP, Baglihar HEP, Chamera HEP,
Sala HEP, Ranganadi HEP, Sirsisilam project, Tehri Dam project, Uri Dam Project,
etc.
5. Used in many tunnelling projects and for slope stabilisation in India.

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Chapter 7
CONCLUSION
Following conclusions are drawn based on the published literature on SFRC and new
generation high performance fiber reinforced concrete:
1. The growth of the amount of research and applications of steel fiber reinforced
concrete (SFRC) and high performance concrete has been phenomenal in the past
seven or eight years. High performance concrete has become widely accepted
practically on all continents.
2. A generalized definition of high performance concrete seems to have been
accepted by the engineering community. Such a definition is based on
achievement of certain performance requirements or characteristics of concrete for
a given application that otherwise cannot be obtained from normal concrete as a
commodity product. In many applications use of fiber is mandatory.
3. Much of the application of HP-SFRC remains in the areas of long-span bridges
and high-rise buildings. It is used more for bridges than buildings in Europe and
Japan, while more buildings than bridges used HPC in the U. S. However, the
situation is changing. Use of HPC in buildings is increasing these days.
4. Increasing emphasis is being placed on concrete durability than its strength. In
many applications, high strength concrete is used only because of its high
durability quality rather than the need for its strength.
5. Much research continues to be focused on the mechanical properties of high- and
very-high-strength concretes with and without fibers and their structural
applications. The results of this research are being incorporated into various
national codes of practice. However, more information is needed on the behaviour
of the concrete at its early age and its relationship to the long-term performance.

33

6. The Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON) and the delivery system for nonmetallic fibers developed are two significant recent developments in the area of
high performance fiber reinforced concrete.
7. There has been significant interest and development in the use of continuous fiber
reinforcement for improving the behaviour of concrete. Fiber Reinforced
Polymers (FRP) or sometime also referred to as Fiber Reinforced Plastic are
increasingly being accepted as an alternative for uncoated and epoxy-coated steel
reinforcement for prestressed and non-prestressed concrete applications.
8. Compact Reinforced Concrete and Reactive Powder Concrete (Ductal) have
gained popularity in western countries.
9. Finally the use of this high performance new generation fiber concretes in India is
only in laboratories and in research centres. It will take many years to see in
practice.
10. The total energy absorbed in fiber as measured by the area under the loaddeflection curve is at least 10 to 40 times higher for fiber-reinforced concrete than
that of plain concrete. Addition of fiber to conventionally reinforced beams
increased the fatigue life and decreased the crack

width under fatigue loading.

11. At elevated temperature SFRC have more strength both in compression and
tension.
12. Cost savings of 10% - 30% over conventional concrete flooring systems.

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REFERENCES
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Characterization: Some Concerns and a Proposition, Concrete Int.: Design &
Construction, American Concrete Institute, Materials Journal, 92(1), 48-57.
2. Rangan, M. and Dwarkanath, P. (1999). Stress-strain Curves for Steel Fiber
Reinforced Concrete in Compression, Cement and Concrete Composites, UK, Vol.
21, No. 5/6, pp. 383-390.
3. Nataraja, M. C., Dhang, N and Gupta, A. P (1999)., Statistical Variations in Impact
Resistance of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Subjected to Drop Weight
Test,Cement and Concrete Research,Pergoman press, USA, Vol. 29, No. 7, 1999,
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4. Nataraja, M. C., Dhang, N and Gupta, A. P (2000)., A Study on the Behaviour of
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