Lecture 3

Chapter 2
Wave Motion

Phase and phase velocity

The superposition principle
Complex representation
3D waves: plane waves

Example
Given expression: x, t ax bt c 2 , where a>0, b>0
Does it correspond to a traveling wave? What is its speed?
Solution:

1. Function must be twice differentiable

2ax bt c b
t
2
2

2b
t 2

2ax bt c a
x
2
2

2a
x 2
2. Speed:

2
1 2
2 2
2
x
v t

b
1 2
v
2 a 2 2b
a
v
Direction: negative x direction
2

Reminder Harmonic waves summary

Functional shape:

A sin k ( x vt )

Wave parameters:
- for wave moving right
+ for wave moving left

Alternative forms:
x t
A sin 2

A sin2 x t
A sinkx t

x
A sin 2 t
v

mostly
used

k - propagation number
- wavelength
- period
- frequency
- angular temporal frequency
- wave number

k 2

v
1

2 2

single frequency

These eq-ns describe an infinite monochromatic (monoenergetic) wave.

Real waves are not infinite and can be described by superposition of harmonic
waves. If frequencies of these waves cluster closely to a single frequency (form
narrow band) the wave is called quasimonochromatic

Harmonic wave: Initial phase

Consider wave x, t A sin kx t
phase: kx t
When written like that it implies that x, t tx00 0
With a single wave we can always chose x axis so that above is true
But in general case x, t x 0 0

t 0

This is equivalent to the shift of

coordinate x by some value a

x, t A sin k x a t
x, t A sin kx t ka
x, t A sin kx t
phase: kx t

- initial phase

Harmonic wave: Phase

A sin kx t

Can use cos():

x, t A sin kx t
x, t A coskx t 2

x
equivalent equations

Special case: = = 180o phase shift

x, t A sin kx t
x, t A sin t kx
x, t A cost kx / 2

Note: sin(kx-t) and sin(t-kx) both describe wave moving right,

but phase-shifted by 180 degrees ().

Harmonic wave: Phase derivatives

x, t A sin kx t
Phase: kx t
Partial derivatives:

t x

rate of change of phase with time is equal

to angular frequency (=2)

k
x t

rate of change of phase with distance is

equal to propagation number

Harmonic wave: Phase velocity

Phase: kx t
What is the speed of motion of a point with constant phase?
from the theory of partial derivatives

t x

x
v

x t
k
t

sign gives direction

phase velocity of a wave

In general case, for any wave we can find the phase velocity:
t x
v
x t
always >0
by definition

Add sign to give direction:

+ in positive x direction
- in negative x direction

Phase (red) vs. group (green) velocity

(to be discussed later)

The superposition principle

2
1 2
2 2
Consider differential wave equation:
2
v t
x

If 1 and 2 are both solutions to that equation, then their

superposition (1+2 ) is also a solution:
Proof:

2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2
2
v
x
t 2
=
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2

2
2
2
2
2
v t
v t 2
x
x
=

The superposition principle

Superposition principle: the resulting disturbance at each point in
the region of overlap of two or more waves is the algebraic sum of
the individual constituent waves at that location.

Note: once waves pass the intersecting region they will move
away unaffected by encounter
Superposition of traveling waves:
http://vnatsci.ltu.edu/s_schneider/physlets/main/waves_superposition.shtml

The superposition principle: example

Note: the resulting wave is still a harmonic wave (the same k)

The superposition principle: special cases

Two waves are in-phase:

1 A1 sin kx t
2 A2 sin kx t

A1 A2 sin kx t
Amplitude of the resulting wave
increases: constructive interference

Two waves are out-of-phase:

(=180o=)

1 A1 sin kx t
2 A2 sin kx t
2 A2 sin kx t

A1 A2 sin kx t
Amplitude of the resulting wave
decreases: destructive interference

The complex representation

Complex numbers: ~z x iy , where i 1
In polar coordinates: x r cos , y r sin
~
z r cos i sin
Euler formula: ei cos i sin
Any complex number: ~z rei

Argand diagram

Wave: x, t A sin kx t ' A coskx t

can use sin or cos to describe a wave

Convention - use cos: x, t ReAei kx t A coskx t

i kx t
Aei
Usually omit Re: x, t Ae

wave equation using complex numbers

The complex number math

ei cos i sin
e i cos i sin

ei e i
ei e i
cos
, sin
2
2i

Magnitude (modulus, absolute value): ~z x 2 y 2 r ~z ~z

i
~
Complex conjugate: z x iy x iy re re i

Math: ~z1 ~z2 x1 x2 i y1 y2

~
z~
z r r ei 1 2
1 2

1 2

~
z1 r1 i 1 2
e
~
z2 r2
1 ~ ~
~
Rez z z
2

1
Im z z z
2i

~
z1 ~
z2

~
z1 ~
z2

e e

~
z

e ex

e i 2 1
e i 1
e i / 2 i
e

~
z i 2

~
z

Phasor
Lets rotate the arrow in Argand
diagram at angular frequency :

t
This rotating arrow is
called phasor A
CCW rotation - wave
moves left
CW rotation - wave
moves right

moving left

x, t A sin kx t

Phasor: superposition
Adding two waves can be done using phasors

1 2 A1ei A2 ei
1

Aei
Complex numbers can be added as vectors

Phasor addition: http://vnatsci.ltu.edu/s_schneider/physlets/main/phasor1.shtml

Phasor: superposition
Adding two waves can be done using phasors

1 2 A1ei A2 ei
1

Aei
Complex numbers can be added as vectors
Example: out-of-phase waves

1 A1 A2 sin kx t

Amplitudes subtract
Phase does not change

3-D waves
Surfaces joining all points of equal phase are called wavefronts.

Example:
Wavefronts of 2-D circular
waves on water surface
(superposition where waves
overlap)

http://www.falstad.com/wavebox/

3-D waves: plane waves

(simplest 3-D waves)

All the surfaces of constant phase of disturbance form parallel

planes that are perpendicular to the propagation direction

3-D waves: plane waves

(simplest 3-D waves)

All the surfaces of constant phase of disturbance form parallel

planes that are perpendicular to the propagation direction
An equation of plane
that is
perpendicular to k k x i k y j k zk

k r const a

Unit vectors

All possible coordinates of

vector r are on a plane k

Can construct a set of planes over which

varies in space harmonically:

r Asin k r

or r A cos k r

ik r
or r Ae

Plane waves

r sin k r

The spatially repetitive nature

can be expressed as:

r r

In exponential form:

ik r
ik r k / k
ik r ik
r Ae Ae
Ae e
For that to be true: e

i 2

k 2
k

Vector k is called propagation vector

Plane waves: equation

ik r
r Ae

This is snap-shot in time, no time dependence

To make it move need to add time dependence the same way as for
one-dimensional wave:

i k r t
Plane wave equation
r , t Ae

Plane wave: propagation velocity

Can simplify to 1-D case assuming that wave propagates along x:

r
|| i

i k r t

r
, t Aei kx t
r , t Ae
We have shown that for 1-D wave phase velocity is:
v

That is true for any direction of k

k

+ propagate with k
- propagate opposite to k

More general case: see page 26

Example: two plane waves

Same wavelength: k1= k2=k=2/,
Write equations for both waves.
Solution:

i k r t
Ae
Same speed v:
1=2==kv
Dot product:

k r kx x k y y kz z

Wave 1: k1 r k1 z kz

1 A1e

direction
i k z t

1 A1 coskz t

Wave 2: k2 r k2 sin y k2 cos z

2 A2ei k

y sin z cos t

2 A2 cosk y sin z cos t

Note: in overlapping region = 1 + 2

Example
Given expression

x, t ax 2 bt

,where a>0, b>0:

Does it correspond to a traveling wave? What is its speed?

Solution:

1. Function must be twice differentiable

2 x 3
x

b
t
2
2

4
0
6ax
2
2
t
x
2. Wave equation:

2 2 2
1 2
2 2 2 2
2
y
z
x
v t

Is not solution of wave equation!

6ax 4 0
This is not a wave traveling at constant speed!