Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle
Contents
1
Aristotle
1.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Aristotle's epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5
Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6
1.2.7
Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.8
Practical philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.9
Views on women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.3
13
1.4
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.4.1
14
1.4.2
14
1.4.3
15
1.4.4
15
1.4.5
Post-Enlightenment thinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.5
List of works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.6
Eponym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.8
16
1.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
20
22
2.1
22
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Platonic Academy
23
3.1
Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.2
Plato's Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.3
24
ii
CONTENTS
3.3.1
Old Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.3.2
Middle Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.3.3
New Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.4
25
3.5
Neoplatonic Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
3.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Prior Analytics
28
4.1
The syllogism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
4.1.1
29
4.2
29
4.3
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30
4.4
30
4.5
Table of syllogisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.6
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30
4.7
30
4.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Term logic
33
5.1
Aristotle's system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
5.2
Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
5.3
Term
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
5.4
Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
5.5
Singular terms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
5.6
Inuence on philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
5.7
35
5.8
Revival
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
5.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
5.11 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
37
Non-Aristotelian logic
38
6.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6.2
38
6.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.4
References
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39
6.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
CONTENTS
iii
41
Organon
7.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
7.2
Inuence
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
7.3
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
7.4
References
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42
7.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Physics (Aristotle)
44
8.1
Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
8.1.1
Book I (; 184a192b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
8.1.2
Book II (; 192b200b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
8.1.3
46
8.1.4
Book IV (; 208a223b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
8.1.5
46
8.1.6
47
8.1.7
47
8.2
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47
8.3
48
8.4
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48
Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
8.4.1
8.5
Bibliography
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50
8.6
References
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50
8.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
8.7.1
50
8.7.2
50
8.7.3
Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
Classical element
51
9.1
Ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
9.1.1
51
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
9.2.1
Medieval alchemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
9.3
Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
9.4
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
9.4.1
Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
9.4.2
Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
9.4.3
Seven chakras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
9.5
Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
9.6
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
9.7
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
9.8
55
9.9
Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
9.2
iv
CONTENTS
9.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
9.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
9.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
56
57
10.1 Potentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
10.2 Actuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
10.2.1 Energeia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
58
10.3 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
59
59
59
59
60
61
61
10.6.2 Neoplatonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
61
62
62
63
63
10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
10.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
11 Four causes
66
66
66
66
67
67
67
11.6.1 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
11.6.2 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
68
69
11.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
11.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
11.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
CONTENTS
12 Metaphysics (Aristotle)
71
12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
71
12.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
12.3.1 Books IVI: Alpha, little Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon
12.3.2 Books VII-IX: Zeta, Eta, and Theta
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72
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73
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73
12.4 Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
12.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
74
12.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
75
76
76
77
77
78
78
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78
79
79
14.7 Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
80
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81
81
14.11References
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81
14.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
14.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
15 Nicomachean Ethics
83
83
15.2 Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
15.3 Book I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
85
85
86
15.3.4 From dening happiness to discussion of virtue: introduction to the rest of the Ethics . . . .
87
87
87
vi
CONTENTS
15.4.2 Book III. Chapters 15: Moral virtue as conscious choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
89
91
15.4.5 Book V: Justice and Fairness: a moral virtue needing special discussion . . . . . . . . . . .
94
96
97
97
98
98
99
99
105
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114
CONTENTS
vii
118
124
131
viii
CONTENTS
20.2.2 Spartan women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.2.3 Equal weight to female and male happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.2.4 Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.3 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.3.1 Galen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.3.2 Church Fathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.3.3 Otto Weininger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
21 Aristotelian physics
21.1 Concepts
134
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
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143
146
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
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CONTENTS
ix
24 Corpus Aristotelicum
149
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152
155
157
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160
CONTENTS
28.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
28.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
28.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
29 Eudemian Ethics
162
163
164
167
168
169
CONTENTS
xi
172
173
174
175
176
177
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
178
179
180
181
182
xii
CONTENTS
46 On Plants
183
184
185
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
188
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
192
193
CONTENTS
xiii
194
196
197
198
200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
57 Problems (Aristotle)
202
203
xiv
CONTENTS
59 Protrepticus (Aristotle)
204
205
206
207
208
209
212
CONTENTS
xv
218
219
220
223
226
227
228
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72.6 Philosophical basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
72.7 Painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
72.8 Exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
72.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
72.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
72.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
73 George E. McCarthy
231
232
234
239
241
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245
249
251
253
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254
255
256
257
262
264
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xix
265
266
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
267
271
279
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92.2 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
92.2.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
92.2.2 Adulthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
92.2.3 Later life and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
92.3 Avicenna's philosophy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
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302
303
304
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
307
309
310
311
312
100.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
101Eustratius of Nicaea
313
101.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
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102Al-Farabi
314
102.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
102.1.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
102.1.2 Birthplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
102.1.3 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
102.1.4 Life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
102.2Works and contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
102.2.1 Alchemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
102.2.2 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
102.2.3 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
102.2.4 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
102.2.5 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
102.2.6 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
102.3Philosophical thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
102.3.1 Inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
102.3.2 Al Farabi, Aristotle, Maimonides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
102.4Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
102.4.1 Metaphysics and cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
102.4.2 Epistemology and eschatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
102.4.3 Psychology, the soul and prophetic knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
102.4.4 Practical philosophy (ethics and politics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
102.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
102.6Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
102.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
102.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
103Hans-Georg Gadamer
325
103.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
103.2Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
103.2.1 Truth and Method
103.2.2 Other works
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
330
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105Ammonius Hermiae
331
105.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
105.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
105.3English translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
105.4Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
105.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
105.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
106Mulla Muzaar Hussain Kashani
333
334
107.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
107.2Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
107.2.1 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
107.2.2 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
107.2.3 Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
107.2.4 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
107.2.5 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
107.2.6 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
107.2.7 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
107.2.8 Music theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
107.3Philosophical thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
107.3.1 Inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
107.3.2 Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
107.3.3 Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
107.3.4 The soul and the afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
107.3.5 The relationship between revelation and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
107.3.6 Critics and patrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
107.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
107.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
107.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
108Ignacio Lpez de Ayala
341
108.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
109Theodore Metochites
342
109.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
109.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
109.3See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
109.4References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
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110Michael of Ephesus
344
110.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
110.2Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
110.2.1 The commentaries: Greek texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
110.2.2 Latin translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
110.2.3 English translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
110.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
111Nicolaus of Damascus
346
111.1History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
111.2Life of Augustus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
111.3Autobiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
111.4Compendium on Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
111.5On plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
111.6Other works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
111.7The Embassy of an Indian King to Augustus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
111.8References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
111.9Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
111.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
112Olympiodorus the Younger
349
112.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
112.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
112.3Spurious works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
112.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
112.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
113Lorraine Smith Pangle
351
113.1Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
113.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
113.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
113.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
114John Philoponus
352
114.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
114.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
114.2.1 Philosophical commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
114.2.2 Theological treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
114.3Historiographical contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
114.4Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
114.4.1 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
114.4.2 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
114.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
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114.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
114.7Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
114.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
115Porphyry (philosopher)
357
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
363
116.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
116.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
116.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
116.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
116.5English translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
116.5.1 On Aristotle's Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
116.5.2 On Aristotle's On the Heavens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
116.5.3 On Aristotle's Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
116.5.4 On Aristotle's On the Soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
116.5.5 On Epictetus' Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
116.5.6 Other works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
116.6Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
116.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
117Sophonias (commentator)
368
117.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
117.2External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
118Stephen of Alexandria
369
118.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
118.2Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
118.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
118.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
119Syrianus
371
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119.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
119.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
119.3Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
119.4Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
119.5Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
119.6Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
119.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
120Themistius
373
120.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
120.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
120.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
120.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
120.5Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
120.5.1 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
120.5.2 Secondary literature and selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
121Gaetano da Thiene (philosopher)
376
121.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
122Diego Mateo Zapata
377
378
123.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
123.2Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
123.3Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
123.4English translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
123.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
123.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
123.7Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
124Albertus Magnus
381
124.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
124.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
124.3Alchemy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
124.4Astrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
124.5Matter and form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
124.6Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
124.7Metaphysics of morals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
124.8Natural law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
124.9Friendship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
CONTENTS
xxvii
389
125.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
125.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
126Domingo Bez
390
126.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
126.1.1 Education and teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
126.1.2 Controversy over free will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
126.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
126.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
126.4External Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
127Bartholomaeus of Bruges
393
127.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
127.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
127.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
127.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
128Boethius
394
xxviii
CONTENTS
128.9Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
128.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
128.10.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
128.10.2On Boethius' life and works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
128.10.3On Boethius' logic and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
129Boetius of Dacia
402
404
405
131.1Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
131.2Impetus theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
131.3Apocryphal stories and anecdotes about personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
131.4Selected works in English translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
131.5See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
131.6Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
131.7Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
131.8External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
132Walter Burley
408
411
133.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
133.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
133.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
134John Case (Aristotelian writer)
413
134.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
134.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
CONTENTS
xxix
134.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
134.4Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
134.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
134.6Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
135Conimbricenses
415
417
136.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
136.1.1 Metaphysical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
136.1.2 Cremonini and Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
136.1.3 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
136.2Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
136.2.1 Concise bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
136.2.2 Extended bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
136.3Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
136.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
136.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
137Duns Scotus
422
137.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
137.2Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
137.3Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
137.3.1 Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
137.3.2 Univocity of being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
137.3.3 Individuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
137.3.4 Formal distinction
137.4Theology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
137.4.1 Voluntarism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
xxx
CONTENTS
137.8See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
137.9Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
137.10References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
431
138.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
138.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
138.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
139Pedro da Fonseca (philosopher)
432
139.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
139.2See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
139.3External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
140Sebastin Fox Morcillo
433
140.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
141Gilbert de la Porre
434
141.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
141.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
141.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
141.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
142Giles of Rome
436
439
143.1Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
143.2Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
143.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
144List of medieval Latin commentators on Aristotle
440
442
145.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
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447
146.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
146.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
147William of Ockham
448
147.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
147.2Faith and reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
147.3Philosophical thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
147.3.1 Nominalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
147.3.2 Ecient reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
147.3.3 Natural philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
147.3.4 Theory of knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
147.3.5 Political theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
147.3.6 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
147.4Literary Ockhamism/nominalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
147.5Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
147.5.1 Philosophical writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
147.5.2 Theological writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
147.5.3 Political writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
147.5.4 Doubtful writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
147.5.5 Spurious writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
147.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
147.7Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
147.8References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
147.9Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
147.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
xxxii
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455
148.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
148.2Black Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
148.3Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
148.4Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
148.5References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
149Peter of Auvergne
457
149.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
149.2Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
149.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
149.4Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
150Pietro Pomponazzi
459
150.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
150.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
150.3Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
150.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
151Francesco Robortello
461
463
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
465
153.1Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
153.2Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
153.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
154Guido Terrena
467
154.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
CONTENTS
xxxiii
154.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
154.3Burial place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
154.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
154.5Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
154.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
155Thomas Aquinas
469
155.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
155.1.1 Early life (12251244) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
155.1.2 Paris, Cologne, Albert Magnus, and rst Paris regency (12451259) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
155.1.3 Naples, Orvieto, Rome (12591268) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
155.1.4 Quarrelsome second Paris regency (12691272) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
155.1.5 Final days and straw(12721274) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
155.1.6 Claims of levitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
155.1.7 Condemnation of 1277 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
155.1.8 Canonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
155.2Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
155.2.1 Commentaries on Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
155.2.2 Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
155.2.3 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
155.2.4 Political order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
155.2.5 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
155.3Theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
155.3.1 Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
155.3.2 Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
155.3.3 Just war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
155.3.4 Nature of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
155.3.5 Nature of the Trinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
155.3.6 Prima causa rst cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
155.3.7 Nature of Jesus Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
155.3.8 Goal of human life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
155.3.9 Treatment of heretics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
155.3.10Afterlife and resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
155.4Modern inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
155.5Criticism of Aquinas as philosopher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
155.6See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
155.7Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
155.8References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
155.9Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
155.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
155.10.1Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
155.10.2On his thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
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155.10.3By Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
489
156.1Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
156.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
156.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
156.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
157Cuthbert Tunstall
490
492
158.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
158.2Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
158.3Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
158.4Editions and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
158.5Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
158.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
158.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
159Archestratus (music theorist)
494
496
160.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
160.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
160.3Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
161Aristobulus of Paneas
497
161.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
161.2Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
162Aristoxenus
498
162.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
162.2Overview of his works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
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502
163.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
164Chamaeleon (philosopher)
503
164.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
165Clearchus of Soli
504
165.1Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
165.2Travels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
165.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
166Critolaus
506
166.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
166.2Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
166.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
167Demetrius of Phalerum
508
167.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
167.2Works and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.2.1 Literary works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.2.2 Education and arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.3References to Demetrius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.3.1 Diogenes Lartius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.3.2 Hegel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
167.5Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
167.6Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
167.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
168Dicaearchus
511
168.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
168.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
168.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
168.4Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
168.5Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
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169Echecratides
514
169.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
170Erymneus
515
170.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
171Eudemus of Rhodes
516
171.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
171.2Historian of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
171.3Editor of Aristotle's work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
171.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
171.5External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
172Hermippus of Smyrna
518
172.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
172.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
173Hieronymus of Rhodes
519
173.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
173.2Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
173.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
173.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
173.5Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
174Lyco of Troas
520
174.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
174.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
174.3Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
174.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
174.5Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
174.6External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
175Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)
522
523
176.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
176.2Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
176.2.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
176.2.2 Natural history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
176.2.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
176.2.4 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
176.3Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
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176.4References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
177Praxiphanes
525
177.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
177.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
178Ptolemy-el-Garib
526
178.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
178.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
178.3Further readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
178.4External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
179Satyrus the Peripatetic
527
179.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
180Strato of Lampsacus
528
180.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
180.2Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
180.3Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
180.4Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
180.5Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
180.6References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
180.7External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
181Theophrastus
531
181.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
181.2Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
181.2.1 On Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
181.2.2 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
181.2.3 On Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
181.2.4 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
181.2.5 Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
181.2.6 On Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
181.3Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
181.3.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
181.3.2 Physics and metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
181.3.3 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
181.4The portraitof Theophrastus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
181.5In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
181.6Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
181.7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
181.8Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
181.9External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
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182Ammonius of Athens
541
182.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
183Aristo of Alexandria
542
183.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
183.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
184Aristocles of Messene
543
184.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
184.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
185Aristotle of Mytilene
544
185.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
186Athenaeus Mechanicus
545
186.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
186.2On Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
186.2.1 Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
186.3Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
186.4Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
187Gnaeus Claudius Severus
546
548
188.1Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
188.2Teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
188.3References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
188.4Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
189Diodorus of Tyre
549
189.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
189.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
190Herminus
550
190.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
191Olympiodorus the Elder
551
191.1References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
192Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus
552
192.1Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
193Sosigenes the Peripatetic
553
193.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
CONTENTS
xxxix
193.2References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
194Xenarchus of Seleucia
554
194.1Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
194.2Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
194.2.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
194.2.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
194.2.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Chapter 1
Aristotle
For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation).
Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought during the Middle Ages and continues to inuence Christian
theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the
*
Aristotle (/rsttl/; [1] Greek:
[aristotls], Aristotls; 384322 BCE)* [2] was a Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among meGreek philosopher and scientist born in the Macedonian dieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First
city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Teacher(Arabic: ) .
Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when His ethics, though always inuential, gained renewed inAristotle was a child, whereafter Proxenus of Atarneus terest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects
became his guardian.* [3] At eighteen, he joined Plato's of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of acAcademy in Athens and remained there until the age of tive academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many
thirty-seven (c. 347 BCE). His writings cover many sub- elegant treatises and dialogues Cicero described his litjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, erary style asa river of gold* [7] it is thought that only
logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, around a third of his original output has survived.* [8]
linguistics, politics and government and constitute
the rst comprehensive system of Western philosophy. The sum of his work's inuence often ranks him among
Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the world's top personalities of all time with the greathis teacher Plato, and his pupil
the request of Philip of Macedon, tutored Alexander est inuence, along with
*
*
Alexander
the
Great.
[9]
[10]
the Great starting from 343 BCE.* [4] According to
the Encyclopdia Britannica, Aristotle was the rst
genuine scientist in history ... [and] every scientist is in
his debt.* [5]
1.1 Life
Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established
a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production
of many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views
of Platonism, but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to empiricism.* [6] He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on
perception. Aristotle's views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works.
2
adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter,
whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias'
death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to
become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BCE.* [4]
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
for widespread publication; they are generally thought to
be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics,
Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics.
Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible
at the time, but made signicant contributions to most of
them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology,
physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics,
psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek
knowledge.
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became
estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and
Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected
Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there
is little evidence.* [17]
Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment
in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BCE, Eurymedon the
Hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods
in honor, prompting him to ee to his mother's family
estate in Chalcis, explaining: I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy* [18]* [19] a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates.
He died in Euboea of natural causes later that same year,
having named his student Antipater as his chief executor
and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to
his wife.* [20]
Charles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is located on the sacred way between Chalcis and Eretria and
to have contained two styluses, a pen, a signet-ring and
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy some terra-cottas as well as what is supposed to be the
of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only earthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skull
to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy fragments.* [21]
and Cassander.* [15] Aristotle encouraged Alexander to- In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not wellward eastern conquest and his attitude towards Persia was established. The biographies of Aristotle written in anunabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he cient times are often speculative and historians only agree
counsels Alexander to be a leader to the Greeks and on a few salient points.* [22]
a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with
beasts or plants.* [15]
An early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right) and Alexander the
Great.
By 335 BCE, Artistotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum.
Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next
twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died
and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira,
who bore him a son whom he named after his father,
Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an
eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.* [16]
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BCE, is
when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his
works.* [4] He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are
in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended
1.2 Thought
1.2.1 Logic
1.2. THOUGHT
3
he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work
is probably not in its original form, because it was most
likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical
works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about
the early 1st century CE:
1. Categories
2. On Interpretation
3. Prior Analytics
4. Posterior Analytics
5. Topics
6. On Sophistical Refutations
History
Aristotle says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had
nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".* [25] However, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, by
Prodicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct use
of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics;
the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts
like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but never
truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had
diculties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a deductive system, he could never actually
construct one, thus he relied instead on his dialectic.* [26]
Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from
premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises
so that the conclusion would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most benecial. He never succeeded
in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method.* [27]
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they
are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived
from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the
analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in
On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms,
namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the
Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The rst three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the
grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of
reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning
logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book
of Metaphysics.* [26]
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
trast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed
virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.
In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as science. Note, however, that his use of the
term science carries a dierent meaning than that covered by the term scientic method. For Aristotle,
all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical(Metaphysics 1025b25). By practical science, he
means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means
the study of poetry and the other ne arts; by theoretical
science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
If logic (or analytics) is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics;
(3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.
His writings provide an account of many scientic observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his History of Animals
he claimed that human males have more teeth than females.* [29] In a similar vein, John Philoponus, and later
Galileo, showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's
theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.* [30] On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made
up ofthose stars which are shaded by the earth from the
sun's rays,pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given
current astronomical demonstrationsthat the size of
the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance
of the stars from the earth many times greater than that
of the sun, then ... the sun shines on all the stars and the
earth screens none of them.* [31]
natural world by means of the scientic method. In con- In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of
1.2. THOUGHT
the Universe' from simple observation and over-stretched
reason. Today's scientic method assumes that such
thinking without sucient facts is ineective, and that
discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far
more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle
used to support his laws.
5
where they rise were once dry, and there is a
limit to their operations, but there is none to
time. So also of all other rivers; they spring
up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others
The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are
not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course
of time.'* [33]
1.2.3
Geology
Physics
Five elements
Main article: Classical element
Aristotle proposed a fth element, aether, in addition to
the four proposed earlier by Empedocles.
Earth, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the
modern idea of a solid.
Water, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the
modern idea of a liquid.
Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the
modern idea of a gas.
Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the
modern ideas of plasma and heat.
Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up
the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and
planets).
Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place.
All that is earthly tends toward the center of the Universe,
i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere
surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar
sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are
moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back
towards it. This is natural motionmotion requiring
no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and
ame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly,
fth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves
in the perfection of circles.
Motion
Main article: potentiality and actuality
6
Aristotle dened motion as the actuality of a potentiality as such.* [34] Aquinas suggested that the passage be
understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulllment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because actuality
and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other
commentators either suggest that the wording which has
come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the
as suchto the denition is critical to understanding
it.* [35]
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
nal cause or teleos is the purpose or function that
something is supposed to serve. This covers modern
ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need,
desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.
Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes tness
and vice versa, although not in the same way or function,
the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the
goal. (Thus Aristotle rst suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or inuence of cause upon eect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated
Causality, the four causes
that the same thing can be the cause of contrary eects;
its presence and absence may result in dierent outcomes.
Main article: Four causes
Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event.
Our two dominoes require someone or something to inAristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming
tentionally knock over the rst domino, because it cannot
about can be attributed to four dierent types of simulfall of its own accord.
taneously active causal factors:
Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior)
Material cause describes the material out of which causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes,
something is composed. Thus the material cause of proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as
a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is actual, particular or generic. The same language refers
rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not to the eects of causes, so that generic eects assigned
to generic causes, particular eects to particular causes,
mean one domino knocks over another domino.
operating causes to actual eects. Essentially, causality
The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause
of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any and the eect.
thing is determined by the denition, form, pattern,
essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces
the account of causes in terms of fundamental prin- Optics
ciples or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical
as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal concepts than other philosophers of his day. The second
cause is the idea existing in the rst place as exem- oldest written evidence of a camera obscura (after Mozi
plar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second c. 400 BC) can be found in Aristotle's documentation of
place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle's apthe matter. Formal cause could only refer to the es- paratus contained a dark chamber that had a single small
sential quality of causation. A simple example of the hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle
formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows used the device to make observations of the sun and noted
an artist, architect, or engineer to create his draw- that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still
be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern camings.
eras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle also
The ecient cause is the primary source, or made the observation that when the distance between the
that from which the change under consideration pro- aperture and the surface with the image increased, the
ceeds. It identies 'what makes of what is made and image was magnied.* [36]
what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as
the sources of change or movement or rest. Repre- Chance and spontaneity
senting the current understanding of causality as the
relation of cause and eect, this covers the modern According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes
denitions ofcauseas either the agent or agency of some things, distinguishable from other types of
or particular events or states of aairs. So, take the cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm
two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the rst of accidental things. It is from what is spontaneous
is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from
chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's con The nal cause is its purpose, or that for the sake of ception of chanceit might be better to think of cowhich a thing exists or is done, including both pur- incidence": Something takes place by chance if a person
poseful and instrumental actions and activities. The sets out with the intent of having one thing take place,
1.2. THOUGHT
but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking Substance, potentiality and actuality
place.
See also: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)
For example: A person seeks donations. That person may
nd another person willing to donate a substantial sum.
However, if the person seeking the donations met the per- Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence
son donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, (ousia) in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes
but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the col- that a particular substance is a combination of both matter
lecting of the donation by that particular donator a result and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of
of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by the substance as the substratum, or the stu of which it
chance. In other words, if something happens all or most is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the
bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the
of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.
potential house, while the form of the substance is the
There is also more specic kind of chance, which Aristoactual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels'
tle names luck, that can only apply to human beings,
or any other dierentia (see also predicables) that let us
because it is in the sphere of moral actions. According
dene something as a house. The formula that gives the
to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus delibercomponents is the account of the matter, and the formula
ation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and
that gives the dierentia is the account of the form.* [38]
choice. What is not capable of action cannot do anyWith regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as
thing by chance.* [37]
he denes in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
1.2.5
Metaphysics
8
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and
the form of the nal house are actualities, which is also a
nal cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes
that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time
and in substantiality.
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his
ideas on how the human body works have been almost
entirely superseded.
Empirical research program
With this denition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the
unity of the beings, for example,what is it that makes a
man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas:
animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the
actual one (form) are one and the same thing.* [40]
Universals and particulars
Main article: Aristotle's theory of universals
Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have
a universal form, which could be either a property, or a
relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for
example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form Octopus swimming
of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple
and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place
an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the
book and apple as being next to each other.
Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are
not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible
that there is no particular good in existence, butgoodis
still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a 20thcentury philosopher who agreed with Plato on the existence of uninstantiated universals.
Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that
all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there
are no universals that are unattached to existing things.
According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a
particular or a relation, then there must have been, must Torpedo fuscomaculata
be currently, or must be in the future, something on which
the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according
to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can
be predicated to an object that exists at some period of
time, then it does not exist.
In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the
forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on
which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aris- Leopard shark
totle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather
Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has
than in the world of the forms.
survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research
on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas
and neighbouring areas. The works that reect this re1.2.6 Biology and medicine
search, such as History of Animals, Generation of AniIn Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he mals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations
saw himself have stood the test of time better than his and interpretations, along with sundry myths and misretelling of the reports of others, which contain error and takes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life
1.2. THOUGHT
He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' fourchambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus
mustelus.* [42]
responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and
sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reection.* [47]
Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in
Classication of living things
the heart, rather than the brain.* [48] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mamwent against previous philosophers, with the exception of
mals and shes.* [43] His classication of living things
Alcmaeon.* [49]
contains some elements which still existed in the 19th
century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with
Successor: Theophrastus
blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that
complex invertebrates do make use of hemoglobin, but of
Main articles: Theophrastus and Historia Plantarum
a dierent kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood
(Theophrastus)
were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and eggbearing (birds and sh). Invertebrates ('animals without
blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote
cephalopods and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In a series of books on botany the History of Plants
some respects, this incomplete classication is better than which survived as the most important contribution of anthat of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together tiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of
Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as
into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).
carpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel.
For Charles Singer, Nothing is more remarkable than
[Aristotle's] eorts to [exhibit] the relationships of liv- Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did,
ing things as a scala naturae"* [41] Aristotle's History of Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawAnimals classied organisms in relation to a hierarchical ing analogies between natural and articial processes,
"Ladder of Life" (scala naturae or Great Chain of Be- and relying on Aristotle's concept of the ecient cause.
ing), placing them according to complexity of structure Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproand function so that higher organisms showed greater vi- duction of some higher plants, though this last discovery
was lost in later ages.* [50]
tality and ability to move.* [44]
Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., nal
causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological
view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as
an expression of formal design. Noting that no animal
has, at the same time, both tusks and horns,and a
single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen,
Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both
horns and tusks, was staving o vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary.
Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak
teeth, he supposed the rst was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.* [45]
10
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms
of other things and compare them.
For Aristotle, the soul (psyche) was a simpler concept
than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the
form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that
which endows them with what is specic to living beings,
e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of
plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).* [55]
Memory
According to Aristotle, memory is the ability to hold a
perceived experience in your mind and to have the ability to distinguish between the internalappearanceand
an occurrence in the past.* [56] In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) in which Aristotle denes in De Anima, as an appearance which is imprinted
on the part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle
believed an imprintbecomes impressed on a semiuid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when a stimuli
is too complex that the nervous system (semi-uid bodily
organ) cannot receive all the impressions at once. These
changes are the same as those involved in the operations
The frontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated of sensation, common sense, and thinking .* [57] The
edition of Historia Plantarum (ca. 1200), which was originally
mental picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the written around 300 BC.
nal product of the entire process of sense perception. It
does not matter if the experience was seen or heard, every
The rst medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of experience ends up as a mental image in memory * [58]
Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in Aristotle uses the word memoryfor two basic abilthe brain, and connected the nervous system to mo- ities. First, the actual retaining of the experience in the
tion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished be- mnemonic imprintthat can develop from sensation.
tween veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with theimthe former do not.* [52] Though a few ancient atomists printdue to being impressed at a particular time and prosuch as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of cessing specic contents. These abilities can be explained
Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise as memory is neither sensation nor thinking because is
of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to arises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory is
biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th cen- of the past, * [59] prediction is of the future, and sensaturies. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was nothing of tion is of the present. The retrieval of our imprints
any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is
until the Renaissance.* [53] Aristotle's ideas of natural needed and located in our past experiences, both for our
history and medicine survived, but they were generally previous experience and present experience.
taken unquestioningly.* [54]
Aristotle proposed that slow-witted people have good
memory because the uids in their brain do not wash away
their memory organ used to imprint experiences and so
1.2.7 Psychology
the imprintcan easily continue. However, they canAristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul not be too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will
(peri psyche, often known by its Latin title De Anima), not receive newimprints. He believed the young and
posits three kinds of soul (psyches): the vegetative the old do not properly develop an imprint. Young
soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans people undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the
have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the elderly's organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new
same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul imprints. Likewise, people who are too quick-witted
it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can are similar to the young and the image cannot be xed beexperience sensations and move locally. The unique part cause of the rapid changes of their organ. Because intel-
1.2. THOUGHT
11
lectual functions are not involved in memory, memories clude thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do
belong to some animals too, but only those in which have not function as they do during wakefulness.* [66] Since a
perception of time.
person cannot sense during sleep they can also not have a
desire, which is the result of a sensation.* [66] However,
the senses are able to work during sleep,* [66] albeit difRecollection Because Aristotle believes people receive ferently than when a person is awake because during sleep
all kinds of sense perceptions and people perceive them as a person can still have sensory experiences.* [65] Also, all
images orimprints, people are continually weaving to- of the senses are not inactive during sleep, only the ones
gether newimprintsof things they experience. In order that are weary.* [66]
to search for theseimprints, people search the memory itself.* [60] Within the memory, if one experience is
oered instead of a specic memory, that person will reTheory of dreams Dreams do not involve actually
ject this experience until they nd what they are looking
sensing a stimulus because, as discussed, the senses do not
for. Recollection occurs when one experience naturally
work as they normally do during sleep.* [66] In dreams,
follows another. If the chain ofimagesis needed, one
sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner than
memory will stimulate the other. If the chain ofimages
when awake.* [66] Aristotle explains the phenomenon
is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulate
that occurs when a person stares at a moving stimulus
the other memory in most instances. When people recall
such as the waves in a body of water.* [65] When they look
experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences
away from that stimulus, the next thing they look at apuntil they have stimulated the one that was needed.* [61]
pears to be moving in a wave like motion. When a person
Recollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving the perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the foinformation stored in a memory imprintafter some cus of their attention, it leaves an impression.* [65] When
time has passed. Retrieval of stored information is de- the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly,
pendent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and
(human or animal) and the abilities the human or animal so the impressions left from previously perceived stimuli
possesses .* [62] Only humans will rememberimprints become irrelevant.* [66] However, during sleep the imof intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Ani- pressions stimuli made throughout the day become nomals that have perception of time will be able to retrieve ticed because there are not new sensory experiences to
memories of their past observations. Remembering in- distract from these impressions that were made.* [65] So,
volves only perception of the things remembered and of dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since imthe time passed. Recollection of animprintis when the pressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli,
present experiences a person remembers are similar with dreams will not resemble the actual experience that ocelements corresponding in character and arrangement of curred when awake.* [67]
past sensory experiences. When animprintis recalled,
During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind.* [65]
it may bring forth a large group of related imprints
Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who
.* [63]
is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus.* [65]
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in rec- For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with
ollection of certainimprints, was connected systemat- someone may begin to think they see that person evically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast, erywhere because they are so overtaken by their feeland contiguity. These three laws make up his Laws of ings.* [65] When a person is asleep, their senses are not
Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are acting as they do when they are awake and this results in
hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the them thinking like a person who is inuenced by strong
hidden material to bring up the actual experience. Ac- feelings.* [65] Since a person sleeping is in this suggestible
cording to Aristotle, association is the power innate in state, they become easily deceived by what appears in
a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed re- their dreams.* [65]
mains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and
When asleep, a person is unable to make judgments as
be recalled.* [64]
they do when they are awake * [65] Due to the senses not
functioning normally during sleep, they are unable to help
a person judge what is happening in their dream.* [65]
Dreams
This in turn leads the person to believe the dream is
*
Sleep Before understanding Aristotle
s take on dreams, real. [65] Dreams may be absurd in nature but the senses
*
rst his idea of sleep must be examined. Aristotle gives are not able to discern whether they are real or not. [65]
an account of his explanation of sleep in On Sleep and So, the dreamer is left to accept the dream because they
Wakefulness.* [65] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse lack the choice to judge it.
of the senses * [66] or of digestion,* [65] so it is vital to the One component of Aristotles theory of dreams introbody, including the senses, so it can be revitalized.* [66] duces ideas that are contradictory to previously held beWhile a person is asleep, the critical activities, which in- liefs.* [68] He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and
12
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
Aristotle also includes in his theory of dreams what constitutes a dream and what does not. He claimed that a
dream is rst established by the fact that the person is
asleep when they experience it.* [67] If a person had an
image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see
something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred.* [67] Secondly,
any sensory experience that actually occurs while a person is asleep and is perceived by the person while asleep
does not qualify as part of a dream.* [67] For example, if,
while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream
they hear a door is shut, Aristotle argues that this sensory
experience is not part of the dream.* [67] The actual sensory experience is perceived by the senses, the fact that
it occurred while the person was asleep does not make it
part of the dream.* [67] Lastly, the images of dreams must
be a result of lasting impressions of sensory experiences
had when awake.* [67]
1.2.8
Practical philosophy
Ethics
Main article: Aristotelian ethics
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than
theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and
doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He
wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably,
the Nicomachean Ethics.
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so
much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye
is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specic to humans, and that this function must be an
activity of the psuch (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identied such an
optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated ashappinessor sometimeswell being. To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires
a good character (thik aret), often translated as moral
(or ethical) virtue (or excellence).* [69]
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially
happy character requires a rst stage of having the fortune
to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously
chooses to do the best things. When the best people come
to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and
Politics
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled
Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in
importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual,for the whole must of necessity be prior to the
part.* [71] He also famously stated thatman is by nature a political animal. Aristotle conceived of politics
as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and
as a collection of parts none of which can exist without
the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic,
and he is considered one of the rst to conceive of the city
in this manner.* [72]
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite dierent from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which
functions as a political communityor partnership
(koinnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least
some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: The political partnership must be
regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions,
not for the sake of living together.This is distinguished
from modern approaches, beginning with social contract
theory, according to which individuals leave the state of
nature because offear of violent deathor itsinconveniences.* [73]
Rhetoric and poetics
Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle) and Poetics (Aristotle)
Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy,
dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.* [74]
For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm
and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone,
and poetry with language. The forms also dier in their
object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic
imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms
dier in their manner of imitation through narrative
or character, through change or no change, and through
drama or no drama.* [75] Aristotle believed that imitation
is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's
13
the Constitution of Athens, are regarded by most scholars
as products of Aristotle's school,perhaps compiled
under his direction or supervision. Others, such as On
Colors, may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still
others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in
doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by
Nicolaus of Damascus. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and astrological and magical
texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful
and self-promotional.* [84]
Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what
exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue
form. (Fragments of some of Aristotle's dialogues have
survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers when
he characterized Aristotle's writing style as a river of
gold";* [88] it is hard for many modern readers to accept
that one could seriously so admire the style of those works
currently available to us.* [86] However, some modern
scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain
that Cicero's praise was reserved specically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant
works.* [89]
14
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
15
such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part
I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian
philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and
the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern
scientic laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy
by having
at his beddes heed
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
1.4.3
1.4.4
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to
them is made according to the organization of Immanuel
16
Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis
Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831
1870), which in turn is based on ancient classications
of these works.
1.6 Eponym
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
[2] That these undisputed dates (the rst half of the Olympiad
year 384/383 BCE, and in 322 shortly before the death of
Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by August
Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion,
17
[22] See Shields, C.,Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writingsin The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle (Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 316. Dring, I., Aristotle in the
Ancient Biographical Tradition (Gteborg, 1957) is a collection of [an overview of?] ancient biographies of Aristotle.
[25] Bocheski, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
[56] Bloch, David (2007). Aristotle on Memory and Recollection. p. 12. ISBN 9004160469.
[57] Bloch 2007, p. 61.
[58] Carruthers, Mary (2007). The Book of Memory: A
Study of Memory in Medieval Culture. p. 16. ISBN
9780521429733.
[59] Bloch 2007, p. 25.
[60] Warren, Howard (1921). A History of the Association Psychology. p. 30.
[61] Warren 1921, p. 25.
[62] Carruthers 2007, p. 19.
18
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
[89] Barnes, Roman Aristotle, in Gregory Nagy, Greek [111] Georey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Prologue, lines
Literature, Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240.
295295
19
[112] vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra losoca
famiglia.
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
quivi vid'o Socrate e Platone
che 'nnanzi a li altri pi presso li stanno;
Dante, L'Inferno (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131135
[113] Durant, p. 86
[114] Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007,
passim.
[115] Aristotle Mountains.
Gazetteer.
Aristotle.
New York:
De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.
Frede, Michael. (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Ackrill, J. L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima, Volume 1: Books I &
II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York:
The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF.
20
CHAPTER 1. ARISTOTLE
Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology. Greek Biology and Medicine.
Archived from the original on 11 February 2006.
Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics and . Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.). (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII.3:
What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International
ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-930972-73-5
McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle
(2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Owen, G. E. L. (1965c).The Platonism of Aristotle. Proceedings of the British Academy 50: 125
150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schoeld, and R.
R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol
1. Science. London: Duckworth 1434.]
Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the
Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James
B, eds. The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Bualo:
Prometheus Books.
Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge:
Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Springeld: Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). London: Routledge. A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print
since 1923.
Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in
Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press.
Strauss, Leo (1964). On Aristotle's Politics", in
The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally.
Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private
in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press.
21
Chapter 2
2.1 Notes
[1] Suda, nu,399
[2] William Alexander Greenhill, MD.Nicomachus.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
William Smith, editor. p 1194. 1867.
22
Chapter 3
Platonic Academy
This article is about the academy founded by Plato.
For the 15th century school in Florence, see Platonic
Academy (Florence). For the Raphael painting, see The
School of Athens.
Coordinates: 375933N 234229E / 37.99250N
23.70806E
The Academy (Ancient Greek: ) was founded
by Plato (428/427 BC 348/347 BC) in ca. 387 BC in
Athens. Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) studied there for
twenty years (367 BC 347 BC) before founding his own
school, the Lyceum. The Academy persisted throughout
the Hellenistic period as a skeptical school, until coming
to an end after the death of Philo of Larissa in 83 BC.
Although philosophers continued to teach Plato's philosMap of Ancient Athens. The Academy is north of Athens.
ophy in Athens during the Roman era, it was not until
AD 410 that a revived Academy was re-established as a
center for Neoplatonism, persisting until 529 AD when it Athens.* [2] The archaic name for the site was Hekademia
was nally closed down by Justinian I.
(), which by classical times evolved into
Akademia and was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to an Athenian
hero, a legendary "Akademos".
3.1 Site
The site of the Academy was sacred to Athena and other
immortals; it had sheltered her religious cult since the
Bronze Age, a cult that was perhaps also associated with
the hero-gods the Dioscuri (Castor and Polydeuces), for
the hero Akademos associated with the site was credited
with revealing to the Divine Twins where Theseus had
hidden Helen. Out of respect for its long tradition and
the association with the Dioscuri, the Spartans would not
ravage these originalgroves of Academewhen they invaded Attica,* [3] a piety not shared by the Roman Sulla,
who axed the sacred olive trees of Athena in 86 BC to
build siege engines.
Among the religious observances that took place at the
Akademeia was a torchlit night race from altars within
the city to Prometheus' altar in the Akademeia. Funeral
games also took place in the area as well as a Dionysiac
Ancient road to the Academy.
procession from Athens to the Hekademeia and then back
*
Before the Akademia was a school, and even before to the polis. [4] The road to Akademeia was lined with
Cimon enclosed its precincts with a wall,* [1] it contained the gravestones of Athenians.
a sacred grove of olive trees dedicated to Athena, the The site of the Academy* [5] is located near Colonus, apgoddess of wisdom, outside the city walls of ancient proximately, 1.5 km north of Athens' Dipylon gates.* [6]
23
24
The site was rediscovered in the 20th century, in modern Akadimia Platonos neighbourhood; considerable excavation has been accomplished and visiting the site is
free.* [7]
3.3.1
25
Old Academy
3.3.2
Middle Academy
New Academy
26
3.7 Notes
[1] Plutarch Life of Cimon xiii:7
[2] Thucydides ii:34
[3] Plutarch, Life of Theseus xxxii
[4] Paus. i 29.2, 30.2; Plut. Vit. Sol. i 7
[5] A Beginner's History of Philosophy, Volume 1. By Herbert Ernest Cushma. Pg 219
[6] Mazarakis Ainian, A. - Alexandridou A,. The Sacred
House of the Academy Revisited.
[7] greeceathensaegeaninfo.com
Emperor Justinian I.
[9] pp. 1920, W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press 1975; p. 1, R.
Dancy, Academy, in D. Zeyl (ed.), Encyclopedia of
Classical Philosophy, Greenwood Press 1997. I. Mueller
gives a much broader time frame "...some time between
the early 380s and the middle 360s... perhaps reecting our real lack of evidence about the specic date (p.
170,Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth, in
R. Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge University Press 1992).
It has been speculated that the Academy did not alto- [10] D. Sedley, Academy, in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed.; p. 4, J. Barnes, Life and Work, in
gether disappear.* [34]* [36] After his exile, Simplicius
The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge Uni(and perhaps some others), may have travelled to Harran,
versity Press 1995; J. Barnes,Academy, E. Craig (Ed.),
near Edessa. From there, the students of an AcademyRoutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge 1998,
in-exile could have survived into the 9th century, long
accessed 13 Sept 2008, from http://www.rep.routledge.
enough to facilitate an Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist
com/article/A001.
commentary tradition in Baghdad,* [36] beginning with
the foundation of the House of Wisdom in 832; one of [11] p. 31, J. Barnes, Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press 2000.
the major centers of learning in the intervening period
(6th to 8th centuries) was the Academy of Gundishapur [12] p. 170, Mueller,Mathematical Method & Philosophical
in Sassanid Persia.
Truth"; p. 249, D. Nails, The People of Plato, Hackett
2002.
[13] pp. 170171, Mueller, Mathematical Method & Philosophical Truth"; p. 248, Nails, The People of Plato.
[14] Barnes, Academy.
Hellenistic philosophy
[15] http://www.hackettpublishing.com/philosophy/
women-in-the-academy
Platonism
3.8. REFERENCES
27
3.8 References
H. Cherniss, The Riddle of the Early Academy, CUP
(1945).
R. E. Wycherley, Peripatos: The Athenian Philosophical Scene. Greece & Rome, parts I (1961) and
II (1962).
J. Glucker, Antiochus and the Late Academy Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (1978).
R. M. Dancy Two Studies in the Early Academy
SUNY (1991).
J. Dillon, The Heirs of Plato. A Study of the Old
Academy (347274 BC) OUP (2003).
Chapter 4
Prior Analytics
(analutos solvable) and (analuo
to solve, literally to loose). However, in Aristotle's corpus, there are distinguishable dierences in the
meaning of and its cognates. There is also the
possibility that Aristotle may have borrowed his use of
the word analysisfrom his teacher Plato. On the
other hand, the meaning that best ts the Analytics is one
derived from the study of Geometry and this meaning
is very close to what Aristotle calls episteme,
knowing the reasoned facts. Therefore, Analysis is the
process of nding the reasoned facts.* [2]
Aristotle's Prior Analytics represents the rst time in history when Logic is scientically investigated. On those
grounds alone, Aristotle could be considered the Father
of Logic for as he himself says in Sophistical Refutations,
"... When it comes to this subject, it is not the case that
part had been worked out before in advance and part had
not; instead, nothing existed at all.* [3]
A problem in meaning arises in the study of Prior Analytics for the wordsyllogismas used by Aristotle in general
does not carry the same narrow connotation as it does at
present; Aristotle denes this term in a way that would
apply to a wide range of valid arguments. Some scholars
prefer to use the worddeductioninstead as the meaning
given by Aristotle to the Greek word sullogismos. At present,syllogismis used exclusively as the
method used to reach a conclusion which is really the narrow sense in which it is used in the Prior Analytics dealing
as it does with a much narrower class of arguments closely
resembling thesyllogismsof traditional logic texts: two
premises followed by a conclusion each of which is a categorial sentence containing all together three terms, two
extremes which appear in the conclusion and one middle
term which appears in both premises but not in the conclusion. In the Analytics then, Prior Analytics is the rst
theoretical part dealing with the science of deduction and
the Posterior Analytics is the second demonstratively practical part. Prior Analytics gives an account of deductions
in general narrowed down to three basic syllogisms while
Posterior Analytics deals with demonstration.* [4]
29
[17]
A - A belongs to every B
and BaC
E - A belongs to no B
then AaC.
I - A belongs to some B
30
AaB, BaC; therefore AaC* [20]
Simplifying:
[27]
If MaN
but MeX
then NeX.
In Aristotelian syllogistic (Prior Analytics, Bk I Caps 47), syllogisms are divided into three gures according to
then XeM
the position of the middle term in the two premises. The
but MaN
fourth gure, in which the middle term is the predicate in
the major premise and the subject in the minor, was added
therefore XeN.
by Aristotle's pupil Theophrastus and does not occur in
When the four syllogistic propositions, a, e, i, o are placed Aristotle's work, although there is evidence that Aristotle
in the second gure, Aristotle comes up with the follow- knew of fourth-gure syllogisms.* [28]
ing valid forms of deduction for the second gure:
For if MeX
4.8. NOTES
coran, Boole fully accepted and endorsed Aristotles
logic. Booles goals were to go under, over, and beyondAristotles logic by 1) providing it with mathematical foundations involving equations, 2) extending the
class of problems it could treatfrom assessing validity
to solving equations--, and 3) expanding the range of applications it could handlee.g. from propositions having
only two terms to those having arbitrarily many.
31
Nolt, John; Rohatyn, Dennis (1988). Logic: Schaum's outline of theory and problems. McGraw Hill. p. 1. ISBN
0-07-053628-7.
Robin Smith. Aristotle: Prior Analytics. p. XVII.
John Nolt/Dennis Rohatyn. Logic: Schaum's Outline of
Theory and Problems. pp. 274275.
Anagnostopoulos, Georgios (2009). A Companion to
Aristotle. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-40512223-8.
Patzig, Gnther (1969). Aristotle's theory of the syllogism.
Springer. p. 49. ISBN 978-90-277-0030-8.
4.8 Notes
[1]
[2] Patrick Hugh Byrne (1997). Analysis and Science in Aristotle. SUNY Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-7914-3321-8. ... while
decompose- the most prevalent connotation of analyzein the modern period is among Aristotle's meanings, it is neither the sole meaning nor the principal meaning nor the meaning which best characterizes the work,
Analytics.
[3] Jonathan Barnes, ed. (1995). The Cambridge Companion
to Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 0521-42294-9. History's rst logic has also been the most
inuential...
[4] Smith, Robin (1989). Aristotle: Prior Analytics. Hackett
Publishing Co. pp. XIIIXVI. ISBN 0-87220-064-7. ...
This leads him to what I would regard as the most original
and brilliant insight in the entire work.
[5] Lagerlund, Henrik (2000). Modal Syllogistics in the Middle Ages. BRILL. pp. 34. ISBN 978-90-04-11626-9.
In the Prior Analytics Aristotle presents the rst logical
system, i.e., the theory of the syllogisms.
32
[29] George Boole. 1854/2003. The Laws of Thought, facsimile of 1854 edition, with an introduction by J. Corcoran.
Bualo: Prometheus Books (2003). Reviewed by James
van Evra in Philosophy in Review.24 (2004) 167169.
[30] JOHN CORCORAN, Aristotle's Prior Analytics and
Boole's Laws of Thought, History and Philosophy of
Logic, vol. 24 (2003), pp. 261288.
Chapter 5
Term logic
In philosophy, term logic, also known as traditional
The syllogism is an inference in which one
proposition (theconclusion) follows of necessity
logic or Aristotelian logic, is a loose name for the way of
doing logic that began with Aristotle and that was domifrom two others (the premises).
nant until the advent of modern predicate logic in the late
nineteenth century. This entry is an introduction to the A proposition may be universal or particular, and it may
term logic needed to understand philosophy texts written be armative or negative. Traditionally, the four kinds
before predicate logic came to be seen as the only formal of propositions are:
logic of interest. Readers lacking a grasp of the basic
terminology and ideas of term logic can have diculty
A-type: Universal and armative (Evunderstanding such texts, because their authors typically
ery philosopher is mortal)
assumed an acquaintance with term logic.
I-type: Particular and armative Some
(
philosopher is mortal)
5.2 Basics
34
5.3 Term
A term (Greek horos) is the basic component of the
proposition. The original meaning of the horos (and also
of the Latin terminus) isextremeorboundary. The
two terms lie on the outside of the proposition, joined by
the act of armation or denial. For early modern logicians like Arnauld (whose Port-Royal Logic was the bestknown text of his day), it is a psychological entity like
an ideaor "concept". Mill considers it a word. To
assertall Greeks are menis not to say that the concept
of Greeks is the concept of men, or that word Greeks
is the word men. A proposition cannot be built from
real things or ideas, but it is not just meaningless words
either.
35
5.4 Proposition
36
[4] They are mentioned briey in the De Interpretatione. Afterwards, in the chapters of the Prior Analytics where Aristotle methodically sets out his theory of the syllogism, they
are entirely ignored.
5.8 Revival
5.11 References
Bocheski, I. M., 1951. Ancient Formal Logic.
North-Holland.
Louis Couturat, 1961 (1901). La Logique de Leibniz. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung.
5.10 Notes
Arthur Prior
1962: Formal Logic, 2nd ed. Oxford
Univ. Press. While primarily devoted to
modern formal logic, contains much on
term and medieval logic.
1976: The Doctrine of Propositions and
Terms. Peter Geach and A. J. P. Kenny,
eds. London: Duckworth.
Willard Quine, 1986. Philosophy of Logic 2nd ed.
Harvard Univ. Press.
37
Chapter 6
Non-Aristotelian logic
The term non-Aristotelian logic, sometimes shortened De Interpretatione, Chapter 9. He wrote here that when it
to null-A, means any non-classical system of logic which comes to statements about the future,it is not necessary
rejects one of Aristotle's premises (see term logic).
that of every armation and opposite negation one should
be true and the other false.(Revised Oxford translation)
Lot Zadeh developed a system of "fuzzy logic" using
a range of truth values from 0 to 1, but distinguished it
sharply from probability theory.
6.1 History
Nicolai A. Vasiliev since 1910 and Jan ukasiewicz called
their own work non-Aristotelian logic. Alfred Korzybski carried the term into his system of General Semantics
in 1933 (citing ukasiewicz), and science ction writer
A. E. van Vogt later helped popularize it. Korzybski focused on the use of three or more truth values in the
new systems of logic, although he connected this to his
own rejection of Aristotle's principle of identity. Following ukasiewicz's early work, Korzybski and later proponents of General Semantics associate these truth values with probabilities and the use of scientic induction.
ukasiewicz later seemed more cautious about this connection.
Nicolai A. Vasiliev in 1910 rejected the law of contradiction as well as law of the excluded middle and proposed a
logic he called imaginary which is tolerant to contradiction.
Hans Reichenbach described a system of logic that he explicitly linked with probability theory. He called his probability logic a generalization of two-valued logic. Reichenbach also suggested applying a three-valued logic to
quantum mechanics. His probability logic does not re- Van Vogt highlights the aspect of general semantics in
ceive much attention from modern logicians.
his science ction (SF) stories, that portrays the general
Aristotle allowed for the possibility of all these logics in semantics as a speech evaluation tool. It occurs where
38
39
Dune* [10] also evidences the continuing inuence on American SF of Alfred Korzybski
s
engineering of subjectivity. Herbert, who was
ghostwriting a newspaper column on the general semantics whilst completing Dune, details
the Bene Gesseritmental training method
which includes hyper-acute sensitivity, powers
of projecting mental will onto others, and even
eugenic control of reproduction ideas not far
away from the claims of L Ron Hubbards
Dianetics. This places Dune, in direct lineal
descent from Campbellian SF.
6.4 References
[1] J. ukasiewicz, Interpretacja liczbowa teorii zda" (A
numerical interpretation of the theory of propositions),
Ruch Filozoczny 7 (1922/23), pp. 92-93; Eng. tr. in
J. ukasiewicz, Selected Works, North-Holland, Amsterdam 1970, pp. 129-130 (tr. by O. Wojtasiewicz).
[2] Korzybski, Alfred: Science and Sanity An Introduction
to Non-Aristotelian Systems and general semantics, Institute of General Semantics 5th edition, 1995
[3] Klein, JeremyGS/SFETC.: A Review of General Semantics, Fall, 2002 Retrieved on 20100817
[4] The Institute of General SemanticsRetrieved on 2010
0817
40
[5] Stockdale Steve: Heinlein and Ellis: converging competencies, ETC.: A Review of General Semantics, Oct,
2007 Retrieved on 20100817.
[6] Alexei and Cory Panshin: The World Beyond the Hill
, page 605. ElectricStory.com, Inc, 1989 ISBN 978-160450-443-9
[7] Alexei and Cory Panshin: The World Beyond the Hill
, Page 1024 ElectricStory.com, Inc, 1989.
[8] Roger Luckhurst: Science Fiction, Page 161, Polity
Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-7456-2892-9
[9] http://www.polity.co.uk/literature/#culture
[10] Herbert, Frank: DuneChilton Books, 1965. ISBN
978-0-450-01184-9
Chapter 7
Organon
This article is about Aristotle's works on logic. For other
uses, see Organon (disambiguation). For a discussion of
Aristotelian logic as a system, see term logic.
knowledge.
The Topics (Latin: Topica) treats issues in constructing valid arguments, and inference that is probable,
rather than certain. It is in this treatise that Aristotle mentions the Predicables, later discussed by
Porphyry and the scholastic logicians.
7.2 Inuence
42
CHAPTER 7. ORGANON
7.3 Notes
[1] Hammond, p. 64, Andronicus Rhodus
[2] The Teaching Company Birth of the Modern Mind
[3] Rutherford, Donald (2006). The Cambridge Companion
to Early Modern Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
p. 170. ISBN 9780521822428.
7.4 References
Edghill, E. M. (translator) (2007), Categories, The
University of Adelaide: eBooks @ Adelaide.
Veatch, Henry B., 1969. Two Logics: The Conict between Classical and Neo-Analytic Philosophy.
Evanston: Northwestern Univ. Press.
43
Chapter 8
Physics (Aristotle)
This article is about the book. For a comparison with
modern mathematical physics, see Aristotelian physics.
The Physics (Greek: Phusike akroa-
8.1 Books
The Physics is composed of eight books, which are further divided into chapters. In this article, books are ref44
8.1. BOOKS
45
erenced with Roman numerals, chapters with Arabic numerals. Additionally, the Bekker numbers give the page
and line numbers used in the Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of Aristotle's works.
46
changeand, consequently, time and placeare not divisible into indivisible parts; they are not mathematically
discrete but continuous, that is, innitely divisible (in
other words, that you cannot build up a continuum out of
discrete or indivisible points or moments). Among other
things, this implies that there can be no denite (indivisible) moment when a motion begins. This discussion, together with that of speed and the dierent behavior of the
four dierent species of motion, eventually helps Aristotle answer the famous paradoxes of Zeno, which purport
to show the absurdity of motion's existence.
8.1.6
8.1.7
47
William Charlton, Physics: Books I and II (Oxford
University Press, 1984).
Edward Hussey, Physics: Books III and IV (Oxford
University Press, 1983).
Richard Hope, Aristotle's Physics : with an Analytical Index of Technical Terms (Lincoln: University
of Nebraska Press, 1961).
Charles Glenn Wallis, Lectures on the Science of
Natures, Books I-IV (Annapolis: The St. John's
Bookstore, 1940). OCLC 37790727 (Also includes
On Coming-To-Be and Ceasing-To-Be I.4-5; On The
Generation Of Animals I.22).
Hippocrates G. Apostle, Physics (Oxford, 1936)
(Grinnell, Iowa: The Peripatetic Press, 1980).
W.D. Ross, Aristotle's Physics. A Revised Text with
Introd. and Commentary by W.D. Ross (New York:
Clarendon Press, 1936). [not so much a translation,
but revision of the Greek text, with English paraphrase]
Philip Wheelwright, Natural Science [includes
Physics I-II, III.1, VIII]" in Aristotle: Containing Selections from Seven of the Most Important Books of
Aristotle ... Natural science, the Metaphysics, Zoology, Psychology, The Nicomachean Ethics, On
Statecraft, and The Art of Poetry. (New York:
Odyssey Press, 1935). OCLC 3363066
R.P. Hardie and R.K. Gaye, Physica in The Works of
Aristotle v. 2, W.D. Ross, ed. (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1930).
Archive.org, scanned, so it includes the translators' emphases and divisions within chapters
(missing in the editions below).
Wikisource, formatted into books andparts
.
online at Adelaide (divided into books).
MIT Classics Archive (divided into books;
book IV is incomplete).
online at BU (one le).
at Ancient Greek Online Library (divided into
pages).
in PDF
P.H. Wicksteed and F.M. Cornford, The Physics (2
vols., 1929) (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press Loeb Classical Library,1980).
Thomas Taylor, The Physics or Physical Auscultation
of Aristotle: with Copious Notes in Which Is Given the
Substance of the Invaluable Commentaries of Simplicius (1806) (republished by Prometheus Trust,
2000) ISBN 1-898910-18-9.
48
Averroes, AverroesQuestions in Physics, trans. Helen Tunik Goldstein. (Boston : Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1991).
Buridan, Jean, Subtilissimae Quaestiones super octo
Physicorum libros Aristotelis (Paris, 1509).
Coimbra Commentators, In octo libros physicorum
Aristotelis (Coimbra, 1592).
Jandun, Jean, Quaestiones super 8 [i.e. octo] libros Physicorum Aristotelis (Venedig, 1551/Frankfurt: Minerva, 1969). OCLC 488626102.
Mair, John, Commentary on Aristotle's Physical and
Ethical Writings, (Paris, 1526).
Ockham, William, Exposition of Aristotle's Physics
in William of Ockham: Philosophical Writings, trans.
Philotheus Boehner (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett,
1990).
Ockham, William, Ockham on Aristotle's Physics: A
Translation of Ockham's Brevis Summa Libri Physicorum (St. Bonaventure N.Y: The Franciscan Institute, 1989).
and
Michael Bradie and Fred D. Miller, Jr.,Teleology and Natural Necessity in Aristotle,
History of Philosophy Quarterly 1, 2 (1984),
133-46.
49
David Bostock, Aristotle on the Transmutation of the Elements in De Generatione et Corruptione 1.14,Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 13 (1995), 217-29.
Cynthia A. Freeland, Scientic Explanation
and Empirical Data in Aristotle's Meteorology,Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 8
(1990), 67-102.
Mohan Matthen and R.J. Hankinson,Aristotle's Universe: Its Form and Matter,Synthese
96 (1993), 417-35.
David Charles, Aristotle on Substance,
Essence and Biological Kinds,Proceedings of
the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy 7 (1991), 227-61.
Morison, Benjamin, On Location: Aristotle's Concept of Place (Oxford University Press, 2002).
Reizler, Kurt, Physics and Reality (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1940).
Roark, Tony, Aristotle on Time: A Study of the
Physics (Cambridge University Press, 2013).
Sachs, Joe, Motion and its Place in Nature,Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006. (accessed
18 October 2008).
Solmsen, Friedrich, Aristotle's System of the Physical
World: A Comparison with His Predecessors (Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press, 1960).
Smith, Vincent Edward, The General Science of Nature (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company,
1958).
50
8.5 Bibliography
8.6 References
[1] "Aristotle's Physics is the hidden, and therefore never adequately studied, foundational book of Western philosophy." (Emphasis in original; Martin Heidegger, On the
Essence and Concept of in Aristotle's Physics , 1;"
in Pathmarks, ed. William McNeill [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998], 183230; 185.)
[2] Martin Heidegger, The Principle of Reason, trans. Reginald Lilly, (Indiana University Press, 1991), 6263.
[3] Russell, Bertrand (1946). The History of Western Philosophy. George Allen & Unwin. p. 226.
[4] Joe Sachs, Aristotle's Physics: A Guided Study (New
Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995), p. 47.
[5] H.G. Liddell, R. Scott, J.M. Whiton (1891). A lexicon abridged from Liddell & Scott's Greek-English lexicon.
Harper and Brothers. p. 725.
[6] See Ren Descartes, Principles of Philosophy I (1644),
The Principles of Human Knowledge, 53 and cf. 8,
54, 63. Cf also E.A. Burtt, Metaphysical Foundations of
Modern Science (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954), pp. 117118 and 238-239.
[7] See David L. Schindler, "The Problem of Mechanism"
in Beyond Mechanism: The Universe in Recent Physics
and Catholic Thought, ed. David L. Schindler (University
Press of America, 1986).
[8] Hankinson, R. J. (1997). Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 125.
ISBN 978-0-19-924656-4.
[9] David L. Schindler, "The Problem of Mechanism,Beyond Mechanism: The Universe in Recent Physics and
Catholic Thought, ed. David L. Schindler (University
Press of America, 1986).
8.7.3 Other
[11] For an especially clear discussion, see chapter 6 of Mortimer Adler, Aristotle for Everybody: Dicult Thought
Made Easy (1978).
Chapter 9
Classical element
4 Elementsredirects here. For the album by Chronic cepts once thought to be analogous, such as the Chinese
Future, see 4 Elements (album).
Wu Xing, are now understood more guratively.
Many philosophies and worldviews have a set of clas-
9.1 Ancient
In classical thought, the four elements earth, water, air,
and re frequently occur; sometimes including a fth element or quintessence (after quintmeaning fth)
called aether in ancient Greece and akasha in India. The
concept of the ve elements formed a basis of analysis in
both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, particularly
in an esoteric context, the four states-of-matter describe
matter, and a fth element describes that which was beyond the material world. Similar lists existed in ancient
China and Japan. In Buddhism the four great elements,
to which two others are sometimes added, are not viewed
as substances, but as categories of sensory experience.
sical elements believed to reect the simplest essential parts and principles of which anything can consist
or upon which the constitution and fundamental powers of everything are based. Most frequently, classical
elements refer to ancient concepts which some science
writers compare to the modern states of matter, relating
earth to the solid state, water to liquid, air to gaseous and
re to plasma.* [1]* [2] Historians trace the evolution of
modern theory pertaining to the chemical elements, as
well as chemical compounds and mixtures of chemical
substances to medieval, and Greek models. Many con-
9.2 Greece
The ancient Greek belief in ve basic elements, these being earth ( ge), water ( hudor), air ( aer),
re ( pur) and aether ( aither), dates from preSocratic times and persisted throughout the Middle Ages
and into the Renaissance, deeply inuencing European
thought and culture. These ve elements are sometimes
associated with the ve platonic solids.
Sicilian philosopher Empedocles (ca. 450 BC) proved (at
least to his satisfaction) that air was a separate substance
by observing that a bucket inverted in water did not be-
51
52
In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related cal elements in the corners of the image, alongside the tria prima
each of the four elements to two of the four sensible qual- on the central triangle
ities:
tradition.* [11] His system consisted of the four Aristotelian elements of air, earth, re, and water in addition to two philosophical elements: sulphur, character Air is primarily cold and secondarily wet.
izing the principle of combustibility, the stone which
burns";
and mercury, characterizing the principle of
Water is primarily wet and secondarily cold.
metallic properties. They were seen by early alchemists
Earth is primarily dry and secondarily hot.
as idealized expressions of irreducibile components of
the universe* [12] and are of larger consideration within
One classic diagram (above) has one square inscribed in philosophical alchemy.
the other, with the corners of one being the classical ele- The three metallic principlessulphur to ammability or
ments, and the corners of the other being the properties. combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and salt
The opposite corner is the opposite of these properties, to soliditybecame the tria prima of the Swiss alchemist
hot coldand dry wet.
Paracelsus. He reasoned that Aristotles four element
Aristotle added a fth element, aether, as the theory appeared in bodies as three principles. Paracelsus
quintessence, reasoning that whereas re, earth, air, saw these principles as fundamental and justied them
and water were earthly and corruptible, since no changes by recourse to the description of how wood burns in re.
had been perceived in the heavenly regions, the stars Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it
cannot be made out of any of the four elements but left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke described the
must be made of a dierent, unchangeable, heavenly volatility (the mercurial principle), the heat-giving ames
described ammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash
substance.* [9]
described solidity (salt).* [13]
Fire is primarily hot and secondarily dry.
The Neoplatonic philosopher, Proclus, rejected Aristotle's theory relating the elements to the sensible qualities
9.3 Egypt
hot, cold, wet, and dry. He maintained that each of the
elements has three properties. Fire is sharp, subtle, and
mobile while its opposite, earth, is blunt, dense, and im- A Greek text called the Kore Kosmou (Virgin of the
mobile; they are joined by the intermediate elements, air World) ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus (the name
given by the Greeks to the Egyptian god Thoth), names
and water, in the following fashion:* [10]
the four elements re, water, air, and earth. As described
in this book:
9.2.1
Medieval alchemy
9.4. INDIA
with all. And, on the contrary, again some are
made enemies of re, and some of water, some
of earth, and some of air, and some of two of
them, and some of three, and some of all. For
instance, son, the locust and all ies ee re;
the eagle and the hawk and all high-ying birds
ee water; sh, air and earth; the snake avoids
the open air. Whereas snakes and all creeping
things love earth; all swimming things love water; winged things, air, of which they are the
citizens; while those that y still higher love
the re and have the habitat near it. Not that
some of the animals as well do not love re; for
instance salamanders, for they even have their
homes in it. It is because one or another of
the elements doth form their bodies' outer envelope. Each soul, accordingly, while it is in its
body is weighted and constricted by these four.
53
In the Pali literature, the mahabhuta (great elements)
or catudhatu (four elements) are earth, water, re and
air. In early Buddhism, the four elements are a basis for
understanding suering and for liberating oneself from
suering. The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the
four primary material elements are the sensory qualities
solidity, uidity, temperature, and mobility; their characterization as earth, water, re, and air, respectively, is
declared an abstraction instead of concentrating on the
fact of material existence, one observes how a physical
thing is sensed, felt, perceived.* [19]
9.4 India
9.4.1
Hinduism
9.4.2
Buddhism
Wa-
54
Muladhara
Earth/Rock/Nature/Soil/Metal/Wood
(Root):
9.5 Tibet
In Bn or ancient Tibetan philosophy, the ve elemental
processes of earth, water, re, air and space are the essential materials of all existent phenomena or aggregates.
The elemental processes form the basis of the calendar,
astrology, medicine, psychology and are the foundation of the spiritual traditions of shamanism, tantra and
Dzogchen.
Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche states that
physical properties are assigned to the elements: earth is solidity; water is cohesion; re
is temperature; air is motion; and space is the
spatial dimension that accommodates the other
four active elements. In addition, the elements
are correlated to dierent emotions, temperaments, directions, colors, tastes, body types,
illnesses, thinking styles, and character. From
the ve elements arise the ve senses and the
ve elds of sensory experience; the ve negative emotions and the ve wisdoms; and the
ve extensions of the body. They are the ve
primary pranas or vital energies. They are the
constituents of every physical, sensual, mental,
and spiritual phenomenon.* [23]
9.6 China
Main article: Wu Xing
The Chinese had a somewhat dierent series of elements, namely Fire, Earth, Metal (literally gold), Water
and Wood, which were understood as dierent types of
energy in a state of constant interaction and ux with one
another, rather than the Western notion of dierent kinds
of material.
Although it is usually translated as element, the Chinese word xing literally means something likechanging
states of being,permutationsormetamorphoses of
being.* [25] In fact Sinologists cannot agree on any single translation. The Chinese elements were seen as ever
changing and moving one translation of wu xing is simply the ve changes.
The Wu Xing are chiey an ancient mnemonic device for
systems with ve stages; hence the preferred translation of
movements,phasesorstepsoverelements.
In the bagua, metal is associated with the divination gure
Du (, the lake or marsh: / z) and with Qin
(, the sky or heavens: tin). Wood is associated with
Xn (, the wind: / fng) and with Zhn (,
the arousing/thunder: li). In view of the durability
of meteoric iron, metal came to be associated with the
aether, which is sometimes conated with Stoic pneuma,
as both terms originally referred to air (the former being
higher, brighter, more ery or celestial and the latter being
merely warmer, and thus vital or biogenetic). In Taoism,
qi functions similarly to pneuma in a prime matter (a basic
principle of energetic transformation) that accounts for
both biological and inanimate phenomena.
9.9. MODERN
Wood feeds re;
Fire creates earth (ash);
Earth bears metal;
55
9.9 Modern
See also: Chemical element History
The Aristotelian tradition and medieval Alchemy eventu-
ally gave rise to modern scientic theories and new taxonomies. By the time of Antoine Lavoisier, for exam Metal chops wood.
ple, a list of elements would no longer refer to classical
elements.* [26] The classical elements correspond more
There are also two cycles of imbalance, an overacting cy- closely to four of the states of matter: solid, liquid, gas
cle (cheng) and an insulting cycle (wu).
and plasma.
Fire melts metal;
9.7 Japan
Main article: Five elements (Japanese philosophy)
Japanese traditions use a set of elements called the
(godai, literally ve great). These ve are earth,
water, re, wind/air, and void. These came from Indian
Vastu shastra philosophy and Buddhist beliefs; in addition, the classical Chinese elements (, wu xing) are
also prominent in Japanese culture, especially to the inuential Neo-Confucianists during the Edo period.
Earth represented things that were solid.
Modern science recognizes classes of elementary particles which have no substructure (or rather, particles that
are not made of other particles) and composite particles
having substructure (particles made of other particles).
56
9.11 Notes
[1] Boyd, T.J.M.; Sanderson, J.J. (2003). The Physics of
Plasmas. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN
9780521459129. LCCN 2002024654.
[2] Ball, P. (2004). The Elements: A Very Short Introduction.
Very Short Introductions. OUP Oxford. p. 33. ISBN
9780191578250.
[3] Francesca Rochberg (December 2002). A consideration of Babylonian astronomy within the historiography
of science. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
33 (4): 661684. doi:10.1016/S0039-3681(02)00022-5.
[4] Russell, p. 72
[5] Russell, p. 61
[6] Russell, p. 46
[7] Russell, pp. 62, 75
[8] Plato, Timaeus, 48b
[9] G. E. R. Lloyd (1968). Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought. Cambridge Univ. Pr. pp. 133139.
ISBN 0-521-09456-9.
9.12 References
Bertrand Russell. History of Western Philosophy,
Routledge, 1995 ISBN 0-415-07854-7.
Paul Strathern (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream the
Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books.
Chapter 10
is the root of modern English wordsdynamic,dynamite, anddynamo.* [5] In early modern philosophy,
English authors like Hobbes and Locke used the English
word poweras their translation of Latin potentia.* [6]
In his philosophy, Aristotle distinguished two meanings
of the word dunamis. According to his understanding of
nature there was both a weak sense of potential, meaning
simply that somethingmight chance to happen or not to
happen, and a stronger sense, to indicate how something
could be done well. For example, sometimes we say
that those who can merely take a walk, or speak, without
doing it as well as they intended, cannot speak or walk
. This stronger sense is mainly said of the potentials of
living things, although it is also sometimes used for things
like musical instruments.* [7]
In philosophy, potentiality and actuality* [1] are principles of a dichotomy which Aristotle used to analyze
motion, causality, ethics, and physiology in his Physics,
Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics and De Anima (which
is about the human psyche).* [2]
The concept of potentiality, in this context, generally
refers to anypossibilitythat a thing can be said to have.
Aristotle did not consider all possibilities the same, and
emphasized the importance of those that become real of
their own accord when conditions are right and nothing
stops them.* [3] Actuality, in contrast to potentiality, is
the motion, change or activity that represents an exercise
or fulllment of a possibility, when a possibility becomes
real in the fullest sense.* [4]
These concepts, in modied forms, remained very important into the middle ages, inuencing the development of
medieval theology in several ways. Going further into
modern times, while the understanding of nature (and,
according to some interpretations, deity) implied by the
dichotomy lost importance, the terminology has found
new uses, developing indirectly from the old. This is most
obvious in words likeenergyanddynamic(words
brought into modern physics by Leibniz) but also in examples such as the biological concept of an "entelechy".
10.1 Potentiality
Potentiality and potency are translations of the Ancient
Greek word dunamis () as it is used by Aristotle
as a concept contrasting with actuality. Its Latin translation is "potentia", root of the English word potential, and
used by some scholars instead of the Greek or English
variants.
Dunamis is an ordinary Greek word for possibility or capability. Depending on context, it could be translated
potency,potential,capacity,ability,power
,capability,strength,possibility,forceand
57
58
10.2 Actuality
Sachs explains the convergence of energeia and entelecheia as follows, and uses the word actuality to de*
Energeia is a word based upon (ergon), mean- scribe the overlap between them: [2]
ing work.* [11]* [13] It is the source of the modern
Just as energeia extends to entelecheia beword "energy" but the term has evolved so much over the
cause it is the activity which makes a thing what
course of the history of science that reference to the modit is, entelecheia extends to energeia because it
ern term is not very helpful in understanding the original
is the end or perfection which has being only
as used by Aristotle. It is dicult to translate his use of
in, through, and during activity.
energeia into English with consistency. Joe Sachs renders
it with the phrase beingatworkand says that we
might construct the word is-at-work-ness from AngloSaxon roots to translate energeia into English.* [14] Aris- 10.3 Motion
totle says the word can be made clear by looking at examples rather than trying to nd a denition.* [15]
Aristotle discusses motion (kinsis) in his Physics quite
Two examples of energeiai in Aristotle's works are dierently from modern science. Aristotle's denition of
pleasure and happiness (eudaimonia). Pleasure is an en- motion is closely connected to his actuality-potentiality
ergeia of the human body and mind whereas happiness is distinction. Taken literally, Aristotle denes motion as
more simply the energeia of a human being a human.* [16] the actuality (entelecheia) of a potentiality as such
*
Kinesis, translated as movement, motion, or in some con- . [18] What Aristotle meant however is the subject of
texts change, is also explained by Aristotle as a particular several dierent interpretations. A major diculty
comes from the fact that the terms actuality and potentype of energeia. See below.
tiality, linked in this denition, are normally understood
within Aristotle as opposed to each other. On the other
hand theas suchis important and is explained at length
10.2.2 Entelechy or entelechia
by Aristotle, giving examples of potentiality as such.
Entelechy, in Greek entelcheia, was coined by Aristotle For example the motion of building is the energeia of the
and transliterated in Latin as entelechia. According to dunamis of the building materials as building materials
as opposed to anything else they might become, and this
Sachs (1995, p. 245):
potential in the unbuilt materials is referred to by Aristotle as the buildable. So the motion of building is
Aristotle invents the word by combining
the actualization of the buildableand not the actualentels (,complete, full-grown) with
ization of a house as such, nor the actualization of any
echein (= hexis, to be a certain way by the
other possibility which the building materials might have
continuing eort of holding on in that conhad.* [19]
dition), while at the same time punning on
10.2.1
Energeia
endelecheia (, persistence) by
inserting "telos" (,completion). This
is a three-ring circus of a word, at the heart of
59
interpretation. While this has not become a consensus, it 10.3.3 3. The interpretation of Kosman,
has been described as having becomeorthodox.* [20]
Coope, Sachs and others
This and similar more recent publications are the basis of
the following summary.
Sachs (2005), amongst other authors (such as Aryeh
Kosman and Ursula Coope), proposes that the solution
to problems interpreting Aristotle's denition must be
10.3.1 1. The processinterpretation
found in the distinction Aristotle makes between two different types of potentiality, with only one of those correKosman (1969) and Coope (2009) associate this ap- sponding to the potentiality as suchappearing in the
proach with W.D. Ross. Sachs (2005) points out that it denition of motion. He writes:
was also the interpretation of Averroes and Maimonides.
This interpretation is, to use the words of Ross thatit is
the passage to actuality that is kinesisas opposed to any
potentiality being an actuality.* [21]
The argument of Ross for this interpretation requires him
to assert that Aristotle actually used his own word entelecheia wrongly, or inconsistently, only within his denition, making it meanactualization, which is in conict with Aristotle's normal use of words. According to
Sachs (2005) this explanation also can not account for the
as suchin Aristotle's denition.
10.3.2
2. The productinterpretation
60
physics.* [23]
61
The Monad orthe Onesometimes also described
as "the Good". This is the dunamis or possibility of
existence.
The Intellect, or Intelligence, or, to use the Greek
term, Nous, which is described as God, or a
Demiurge. It thinks its own contents, which are
thoughts, equated to the Platonic ideas or forms
(eide). The thinking of this Intellect is the highest
activity of life. The actualization of this thinking is
the being of the forms. This Intellect is the rst principle or foundation of existence. The One is prior to
it, but not in the sense that a normal cause is prior to
an eect, but instead Intellect is called an emanation
of the One. The One is the possibility of this foundation of existence.
Soul or, to use the Greek term, psyche. The soul is
also an energeia: it acts upon or actualizes its own
thoughts and creates a separate, material cosmos
that is the living image of the spiritual or noetic
Cosmos contained as a unied thought within the
Intelligence.
This was based largely upon Plotinus' reading of Plato,
but also incorporated many Aristotelian concepts, including the Unmoved Mover as energeia.* [33]
New meanings of energeia or energy 10.6.3 Essence-energies debate in medieval Christian theology
Already in Aristotle's own works, the concept of a distinction between energeia and dunamis was used in many
ways, for example to describe the way striking metaphors
work,* [30] or human happiness. Polybius about 150 BC,
in his work the Histories uses Aristotle's word energeia in
both an Aristotelian way and also to describe theclarity
and vividnessof things.* [31] Diodorus Siculus in 60-30
BC used the term in a very similar way to Polybius. However Diodorus uses the term to denote qualities unique to
individuals. Using the term in ways that could translated
asvigoror "energy" (in a more modern sense); for society,practiceorcustom"; for a thing,operation
or working"; like vigor in action.* [32]
10.6.2
Neoplatonism
62
10.6.4
The notion of possibility was greatly analyzed by medieval and modern philosophers. Aristotle's logical work
in this area is considered by some to be an anticipation
of modal logic and its treatment of potentiality and time.
Indeed, many philosophical interpretations of possibility
are related to a famous passage on Aristotle's On Interpretation, concerning the truth of the statement: There
will be a sea battle tomorrow.* [35]
Contemporary philosophy regards possibility, as studied
by modal metaphysics, to be an aspect of modal logic.
Modal logic as a named subject owes much to the writings
of the Scholastics, in particular William of Ockham and
John Duns Scotus, who reasoned informally in a modal
manner, mainly to analyze statements about essence and
accident.
10.6.5
Aristotle's metaphysics, his account of nature and causality, was for the most part rejected by the early modern
philosophers. Francis Bacon in his Novum Organon in Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, the source of the modern adapone explanation of the case for rejecting the concept of a tations of Aristotle's concepts of potentiality and actuality.
formal cause or naturefor each type of thing, argued
for example that philosophers must still look for formal
causes but only in the sense of simple naturessuch as
or activity ; that is, a state from which action
colour, and weight, which exist in many gradations and
naturally ows if nothing hinders it. But matmodes in very dierent types of individual bodies.* [36]
ter, primary and pure, taken without the souls
In the works of Thomas Hobbes then, the traditional Arisor lives which are united to it, is purely passive
totelian terms, "potentia et actus", are discussed, but he
; properly speaking also it is not a substance,
equates them simply to cause and eect.* [37]
but something incomplete.
There was an adaptation of at least one aspect of Aristotle's potentiality and actuality distinction, which has become part of modern physics, although as per Bacon's
approach it is a generalized form of energy, not one conLeibniz's study of theentelechynow known as energy
nected to specic forms for specic things. The denition
was a part of what he called his new science ofdynamof energy in modern physics as the product of mass and
ics, based on the Greek word dunamis and his underthe square of velocity, was derived by Leibniz, as a corstanding that he was making a modern version of Aristorection of Descartes, based upon Galileo's investigation
tle's old dichotomy. He also referred to it as thenew sciof falling bodies. He preferred to refer to it as an entence of power and action, (Latin "potentia et eectu" and
elecheia or living force(Latin vis viva), but what he
"potentia et actione"). And it is from him that the modern
dened is today calledkinetic energy, and was seen by
distinction between statics and dynamics in physics stems.
Leibniz as a modication of Aristotle's energeia, and his
The emphasis on dunamis in the name of this new science
concept of the potential for movement which is in things.
comes from the importance of his discovery of potential
Instead of each type of physical thing having its own speenergy which is not active, but which conserves energy
cic tendency to a way of moving or changing, as in Arisnevertheless. As 'a science of power and action', dytotle, Leibniz said that instead, force, power, or motion
namics arises when Leibniz proposes an adequate archiitself could be transferred between things of dierent
tectonic of laws for constrained, as well as unconstrained,
types, in such a way that there is a general conservation of
motions.* [40]
this energy. In other words, Leibniz's modern version of
entelechy or energy obeys its own laws of nature, whereas For Leibniz, like Aristotle, this law of nature concerning
dierent types of things do not have their own separate entelechies was also understood as a metaphysical law,
important not only for physics, but also for understanding
laws of nature.* [38] Leibniz wrote:* [39]
life and the soul. A soul, or spirit, according to Leib...the entelechy of Aristotle, which has
niz, can be understood as a type of entelechy (or living
made so much noise, is nothing else but force
monad) which has distinct perceptions and memory.
10.8. REFERENCES
10.6.6
63
As discussed above, terms derived from dunamis and energeia have become parts of modern scientic vocabulary
with a very dierent meaning from Aristotle's. The origi- [11] Bradshaw (2004) page 13
nal meanings are not used by modern philosophers unless
they are commenting on classical or medieval philosophy. [12] Durrant (1993, p. 201)
In contrast, entelecheia, in the form of entelechyis a [13] Metaphysics 1050a21-23. In Tredinnick's translation:
word used much less in technical senses in recent times.
For the activity is the end, and the actuality (energeia)
is the activity (ergon); hence the term actualityis
As mentioned above, the concept had occupied a central
derived
from activity,and tends to have the meanposition in the metaphysics of Leibniz, and is closely reing of complete reality (entelecheia).Greek:
lated to his monad in the sense that each sentient entity
, ,
contains its own entire universe within it. But Leibniz' use
of this concept inuenced more than just the development
.
of the vocabulary of modern physics. Leibniz was also
one of the main inspirations for the important movement [14] Sachs (1995), Sachs (1999), Sachs (2005)
in philosophy known as German Idealism, and within this
[15] Metaphysics 1048a30.
movement and schools inuenced by it entelechy may denote a force propelling one to self-fulllment.
[16] Nicomachean Ethics, Book X. Chapters 15.
In the biological vitalism of Hans Driesch, living things [17] Sachs (1995)
develop by entelechy, a common purposive and organising eld. Leading vitalists like Driesch argued that many [18] Physics 201a10-11, 201a27-29, 201b4-5. Metaphysics
Book VII.
of the basic problems of biology cannot be solved by a
philosophy in which the organism is simply considered a
[19] Metaphysics Book XI, 1066a.
machine.* [41]
Aspects and applications of the concept of entelechy [20] Trifogli, Cecilia (2000), Oxford Physics in the Thirteenth
Century (ca. 1250-1270): Motion, Innity, Place & Time,
have been explored by the American critic and philosoBrill, p. 8, ISBN 9004116575
pher Kenneth Burke (18971993) whose concept of the
"terministic screens" illustrates his thought on the subject. [21] Physics, text with commentary, London, 1936, p. 359,
quoted by Sachs (2005).
10.8 References
[1] The words potentialityand actualityare one set
of translations from the original Greek terms of Aristotle.
Other translations (including Latin) and alternative Greek
terms are sometimes used in scholarly work on the subject.
[2] Sachs (2005)
[3] Sachs (1999, p. lvii).
[4] Durrant (1993, p. 206)
[5] See Perseus dictionary references for dunamis.
[6] Locke (1689, chpt. XXI)
[7] Metaphysics 1019a - 1019b. The translations used are
those of Tredennick on the Perseus project.
64
10.9 Bibliography
10.9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aristotle (1908). Metaphysica translated by W.D.
Ross. The Works of Aristotle VIII. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Aristotle (1989). Metaphysics, Hugh Tredennick
trans.. Aristotle in 23 Volumes. 17, 18. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press; (London: William Heinemann Ltd.). This 1933 translation is reproduced online at the Perseus Project.
65
Chapter 11
Four causes
explanation for how a thing came about;* [6] in this context, x is the aition of y means x makes a y.
The material cause of an object is equivalent to the nature of the raw material out of which the object is composed. (The wordnaturefor Aristotle applies to both
its potential in the raw material and its ultimate nished
form. In a sense this form already existed in the material.
Aristotle held that there were four kinds of See Potentiality and actuality.)
causes:* [2]* [4]
Whereas modern physics looks to simple bodies, Aristotle's physics instead treated living things as exemplary.
However, he felt that simple natural bodies such as earth,
re, air, and water also showed signs of having their
own innate sources of motion, change, and rest. Fire,
for example, carries things upwards, unless stopped from
doing so. Things like beds and cloaks, formed by hu A change or movement's formal cause is a change man artice, have no innate tendency to become beds or
or movement caused by the arrangement, shape or cloaks.* [7]
appearance of the thing changing or moving. Aris- In Aristotelian terminology, material is not the same as
totle says for example that the ratio 2:1, and number substance. Matter has parallels with substance in so far
in general, is the cause of the octave.
as primary matter serves as the substratum for simple
A change or movement's material cause is the aspect of the change or movement which is determined by the material which the moving or changing
things are made of. For a table, that might be wood;
for a statue, that might be bronze or marble.
By Aristotle's own account, this is a dicult and controversial concept. It is associated with theories of forms
Aristotle's word forcauseis the Greek , aition, a such as those of Aristotle's teacher, Plato, but in Arisneuter, singular form of an adjective meaning respon- totle's own account (see his Metaphysics), he takes into
sible.* [5] He uses this word in the sense meaning an account many previous writers who had expressed opin66
67
ions about forms and ideas, but he shows how his own sawing as being a certain kind of dividing, then this canviews are dierent.
not come about unless the saw has teeth of a certain kind;
and these cannot be unless it is of iron.* [10] According
See also Platonic realism.
to Aristotle, once a nal cause is in place, the material,
ecient and formal causes follow by necessity. However
he recommends that the student of nature determine the
11.4 Ecient cause
other causes as well,* [11] and notes that not all phenomena have a nal cause, e.g., chance events.* [12]
The ecient causeof an object is equivalent to that
which causes change and motion to start or stop (such
as a painter painting a house) (see Aristotle, Physics II
3, 194b29). In many cases, this is simply the thing that
brings something about. For example, in the case of a
statue, it is the person chiseling away which transforms a
block of marble into a statue.
For example, according to Aristotle a seed has the even- 11.6 The four causes in modern scitual adult plant as its nal cause (i.e., as its telos) if and
ence
only if the seed would become the adult plant under normal circumstances.* [9] In Physics II.9, Aristotle hazards
a few arguments that a determination of the nal cause of See also: Teleology Teleology and science
a phenomenon is more important than the others. He argues that the nal cause is the cause of that which brings Francis Bacon wrote in his Advancement of Learning
it about, so for example if one denes the operation of (1605) that natural sciencedoth make inquiry, and take
68
11.6.1
Biology
11.6.2 Physics
In quantum mechanics, a physically existing or actual
quantal entity is dened by a process of passage from
source to destination. Source and destination are respectively dened by values in conguration space or an equivalent space, for example momentum space. The quantum
kinematics does not allow a complete specication of an
entity's sourcestatethat would allow precise prediction
of the destinationstate. This contrasts with the kinematics of classical mechanics, which does allow such precise prediction. In thermodynamics, the internal energy
and entropy of a body are dened by its nal state with respect to a process by which it came from some standard
initial reference state. In this sense, both quantum mechanics and thermodynamics use both of Aristotle's initiating (or ecient) and nal explanatory modes (causes).
Thermodynamics was born in the nineteenth century and
quantum mechanics in the twentieth, unknown to earlier
philosophy.
69
technology. Heidegger uses examples like this to draw
readers back to the four causes, proving that they remain
relevant in today's world either directly with the newest
products or their origination.
Teleology
11.9 Notes
[1] Aristotle, Physics 194 b1720; see also: Posterior Analytics 71 b911; 94 a20.
[4] Aristotle,Book 5, section 1013a, Metaphysics, Translated by Hugh Tredennick Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vols.
17, 18, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1933, 1989; (hosted at
perseus.tufts.edu.) Aristotle also discusses the four causes
in his Physics, Book B, chapter 3.
70
11.10 References
Cohen, Marc S.The Four Causes(Lecture Notes)
Accessed March 14, 2006.
Falcon, Andrea. Aristotle on Causality (link to section labeledFour Causes). Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy 2008.
Hennig, Boris.The Four Causes.Journal of Philosophy 106(3), 2009, 13760.
Moravcsik, J.M.Aitia as generative factor in Aristotle's philosophy.Dialogue, 14 : pp 622638,
1975.
English translation of Study on Phideas, by Pa
Figueroa written with theme of Final Cause as per
Aristotle PDF le with references
Chapter 12
Metaphysics (Aristotle)
Metaphysics (Greek: ; Latin: Metaphysica* [1]) is one of the principal works of Aristotle and
the rst major work of the branch of philosophy with the
same name. The principal subject is being qua being, or being understood as being. It examines what
can be asserted about anything that exists just because of
its existence and not because of any special qualities it
has. Also covered are dierent kinds of causation, form
and matter, the existence of mathematical objects, and a
prime-mover God.
12.1 Overview
The Metaphysics is considered to be one of the greatest philosophical works. Its inuence on the Greeks,
the Muslim philosophers, the scholastic philosophers and
even writers such as Dante, was immense. It is essentially
a reconciliation of Plato's theory of Forms that Aristotle acquired at the Academy in Athens, with the view of
the world given by common sense and the observations
of the natural sciences. According to Plato, the real nature of things is eternal and unchangeable. However, the
world we observe around us is constantly and perpetually
changing. Aristotles genius was to reconcile these two
apparently contradictory views of the world.* [2] The result is a synthesis of the naturalism of empirical science,
and the rationalism of Plato, that informed the Western
intellectual tradition for more than a thousand years.* [3]
Aristotle encountered the theory of forms when he studied at the Academy, which he joined at the age of about
18 in the 360s B.C.* [4] Aristotle soon expanded on the
concept of forms in his Metaphysics. He believed that in
every change there is something which persists through
the change (for example, Socrates), and something else
which did not exist before, but comes into existence as a
result of the change (musical Socrates). To explain how
Socrates comes to be born (since he did not exist before
he was born) Aristotle says that it is
matter
(hyle) that underlies the change. The matter has theformof Socrates
imposed on it to become Socrates himself. Thus all the
things around us, all substances, are composites of two
radically dierent things: form and matter. This doctrine
is sometimes known as Hylomorphism (from the Greek
At the heart of the book lie three questions. What is ex- words for matter and form).
istence, and what sorts of things exist in the world? How
can things continue to exist, and yet undergo the change
we see about us in the natural world? And how can this
12.2 Title, date, and the arrangeworld be understood?
By the time Aristotle was writing, the tradition of Greek
philosophy was only two hundred years old. It had begun
with the eorts of thinkers in the Greek world to theorize
about the common structure that underlies the changes we
observe in the natural world. Two contrasting theories,
those of Heraclitus and Parmenides, were an important
inuence on both Plato and Aristotle.
72
12.3 Summary
12.3.1 Books IVI: Alpha, little Alpha,
Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon
Book 7 of the Metaphysics: Ens dicitur multipliciter- the word
'being' is meant in many ways. It's translated from Greek into
Latin.
It is notoriously dicult to specify the date at which Aristotle wrote these treatises as a whole or even individually,
especially because the Metaphysics is, in Jonathan Barnes'
words, a farrago, a hotch-potch, and more generally
because of the diculty of dating any of Aristotle's writings.* [7]
Book IV or Gamma: Chapters 2 and 3 argue for its status as a subject in its own right. The rest is a defense of (a)
what we now call the principle of contradiction, the principle that it is not possible for the same proposition to be
In the manuscripts, books are referred to by Greek let- (the case) and not to be (the case), and (b) what we now
call the principle of excluded middle: tertium non datur
ters. The second book was given the title little alpha,
apparently because it appears to have nothing to do with there cannot be an intermediary between contradictory
statements.
the other books (and, very early, it was supposed not to
have been written by Aristotle) or, although this is less Book V or Delta (philosophical lexicon) is a list of
likely, because of its shortness. This, then, disrupts the denitions of about fty key terms such as cause, nature,
correspondence of letters to numbers, as book 2 is little one, and many.
alpha, book 3 is beta, and so on. For many scholars, it Book VI or Epsilon has two main concerns. Aristotle
is customary to refer to the books by their letter names. is rst concerned with a hierarchy of the sciences. As
Thus book 1 is called Alpha (); 2, little alpha (); 3, we know, a science can be either productive, practical or
Beta (); 4, Gamma (); 5, Delta (); 6, Epsilon (); 7, theoretical. Because theoretical sciences study being or
Zeta (); 8, Eta (); 9, Theta (); 10, Iota (); 11, Kappa beings for their own sakefor example, Physics studies
(); 12, Lambda (); 13, Mu (); 14, Nu ().
beings that can be moved (1025b27)and do not have a
12.4. STYLE
necessity (per se or ), and therefore does not
deserve to be studied as a science. Aristotle dismisses
the study of the per accidens as a science t for Sophists,
a group whose philosophies (or lack thereof) he consistently rejects throughout the Metaphysics.
12.3.2
VII: Zeta
Book Zeta begins with the remark thatBeinghas many
senses. The purpose of philosophy is to understand being. The primary kind of being is what Aristotle calls
substance. What substances are there, and are there any
substances besides perceptible ones? Aristotle considers
four candidates for substance: (i) theessenceorwhat
it was to be a thing(ii) the Platonic universal, (iii) the
genus to which a substance belongs and (iv) the substratum or matterwhich underlies all the properties of a
thing. He dismisses the idea that matter can be substance,
for if we eliminate everything that is a property from what
can have the property, we are left with something that has
no properties at all. Such 'ultimate matter' cannot be substance. Separability and 'this-ness' are fundamental to our
concept of substance.
73
IX: Theta
Theta sets out to dene potentiality and actuality. Chapters 15 discuss potentiality. We learn that this term indicates the potential (, dunamis) of something
to change: potentiality is a principle of change in another thing or in the thing itself qua other(1046a9). In
chapter 6 Aristotle turns to actuality. We can only know
actuality through observation oranalogy;" thusas that
which builds is to that which is capable of building, so is
that which is awake to that which is asleep...or that which
is separated from matter to matter itself(1048b14).
Actuality is the completed state of something that had
the potential to be completed. The relationship between
actuality and potentiality can be thought of as the relationship between form and matter, but with the added aspect of time. Actuality and potentiality are diachronic
(across time) distinctions, whereas form and matter are
synchronic (at one time) distinctions.
Kappa,
74
.
.
[ . See
'The Biography of Ibn Sn [Avicenna] According to the
Tabaqt of Ibn Ab Usayb]
12.6 Notes
[1] Aristotelis Opera by August Immanuel Bekker (1837)
[2] Bertrand Russell said that Aristotle is Plato diluted by
common sense. History of Western Philosophy, chapter
19.
[3] Lawson-Tancred, introduction.
[4] Lawson-Tancred.
[5] W. D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 1, p.
xxxii.
[6] e.g., in Movement of Animals 700b9.
[7] Jonathan Barnes, Life and Workin The Cambridge
Companion to Aristotle (1995), pp. 18-22."Farrago":
Barnes, Metaphysicsin The Cambridge Companion to
Aristotle, p. 58.
[8] Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 1, p. xxiii.
12.8 References
Greek text with commentary: Aristotle's Metaphysics. W.D. Ross. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1924. Reprinted 1953 with corrections.
Greek text: Aristotelis Metaphysica. Ed. Werner
Jaeger. Oxford Classical Texts. Oxford University
Press, 1957. ISBN 978-0-19-814513-4.
Greek text with English: Metaphysics. Trans. Hugh
Tredennick. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library 271,
287. Harvard U. Press, 1933-35. ISBN 0-67499299-7, ISBN 0-674-99317-9.
Aristotle's Metaphysics. Trans. Hippocrates Gorgias
Apostle. Bloomington: Indiana U. Press, 1966.
Aristotle's Metaphysics. Trans. Joe Sachs. 2nd
ed. Santa Fe, N.M.: Green Lion, 2002. ISBN 1888009-03-9.
Thomas Aquinas. Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics. Trans. John P. Rowan. 1961; rpt. Notre
Dame, Ind.: Dumb Ox, 1995.
75
Chapter 13
76
Aristotle
Hylomorphism
Problem of universals
Chapter 14
Aristotelian ethics
Aristotle rst used the term "ethics" to name a eld of 14.1 Three ethical treatises
study developed by his predecessors Socrates and Plato.
Philosophical ethics is the attempt to oer a rational re- Three Aristotelian ethical works survive today which are
sponse to the question of how humans should best live. considered to be either by Aristotle, or from relatively
Aristotle regarded ethics and politics as two related but soon after:
separate elds of study, since ethics examines the good
of the individual, while politics examines the good of the
Nicomachean Ethics, abbreviated as the NE or
city-state (Greek polis).
sometimes (from the Latin version of the name) as
Aristotle's writings have been read more or less continthe EN. The NE is in 10 books, and is the most
uously since ancient times,* [1] and his ethical treatises
widely read of Aristotle's ethical treatises.
in particular continue to inuence philosophers working
Eudemian Ethics, often abbreviated as the EE.
today. Aristotle emphasized the importance of developing excellence (virtue) of character (Greek ethik aret),
Magna Moralia, often abbreviated as the MM.
as the way to achieve what is nally more important, excellent activity (Greek energeia). As Aristotle argues in
Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the man who pos- The exact origins of these texts is unclear, although they
sesses character excellence does the right thing, at the were already considered the works of Aristotle in ancient
right time, and in the right way. Bravery, and the cor- times. Textual oddities suggest that they may not have
rect regulation of one's bodily appetites, are examples been put in their current form by Aristotle himself. For
of character excellence or virtue. So acting bravely and example, Books IV-VI of Eudemian Ethics also appear as
acting temperately are examples of excellent activities. Books V-VII of Nicomachean Ethics. The authenticity of
The highest aims are living well and eudaimonia a Greek the Magna Moralia has been doubted,* [3] whereas almost
word often translated as well-being, happiness orhuman no modern scholar doubts that Aristotle wrote the Nicoourishing.* [2] Like many ethicists, Aristotle regards machean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics himself, even if
excellent activity as pleasurable for the man of virtue. For an editor also played some part in giving us those texts in
example, Aristotle thinks that the man whose appetites their current forms.
are in the correct order actually takes pleasure in acting The Nicomachean Ethics has received the most scholarly
moderately.
attention, and is the most easily available to modern readAristotle emphasized that virtue is practical, and that the
purpose of ethics is to become good, not merely to know.
Aristotle also claims that the right course of action depends upon the details of a particular situation, rather
than being generated merely by applying a law. The type
of wisdom which is required for this is calledprudence
orpractical wisdom(Greek phronesis), as opposed to
the wisdom of a theoretical philosopher (Greek sophia).
But despite the importance of practical decision making,
in the nal analysis the original Aristotelian and Socratic
answer to the question of how best to live, at least for the
best types of human, was to live the life of philosophy.
ers in many dierent translations and editions. Some critics consider the Eudemian Ethics to be less mature,
while others, such as Kenny (1978),* [4] contend that the
Eudemian Ethics is the more mature, and therefore later,
work.
Traditionally it was believed that the Nicomachean Ethics
and the Eudemian Ethics were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son and pupil Nicomachus and his
disciple Eudemus, respectively, although the works themselves do not explain the source of their names. Although
Aristotle's father was also called Nicomachus, Aristotle's
son was the next leader of Aristotle's school, the Lyceum,
and in ancient times he was already associated with this
work.* [5]
A fourth treatise, Aristotle's Politics, is often regarded as
the sequel to the Ethics, in part because Aristotle closes
77
78
Fragments also survive from Aristotle's Protrepticus, another work which dealt with ethics.
79
readers will have some kind of experienced understand- gets angry too easily is hot-headed, but the man who does
ing of such actions, and value noble and just actions to at not get angry easily enough is soft. This so-called docleast some degree.* [11]
trine of the meanis one of the best-known aspects of
Aristotle's
ethics. As Aristotle himself remarks, it is still
Elsewhere, Aristotle also seems to rely upon common
possible
to
be extremely brave,but what this actually
conceptions of how the world works. In fact, some regard
means
is
to
be extremely close to the mean. It is also a
his ethical inquiries as using a method that relies upon
mistake
to
suppose
that the mean is some mechanical avpopular opinion (his so-called endoxic methodfrom
erage
of
the
excess
and
deciency. For example, Aristotle
the Grk. endoxa). There is some dispute, however, about
thinks that knowingly going to one's death is sometimes
exactly how such common conceptions t into Aristotle's
method in his ethical treatises,* [12] particularly since he the right thing to do, but such an action is not moderate
in the usual sense of that word.
also makes use of more formal arguments, especially the
so-calledfunction argument,which is described below. Aristotle distinguishes the disposition to feel emotions
Aristotle describes popular accounts about what life of a certain kind from virtue and vice. But such emowould be happy as dividing into three most common tional dispositions may also lie at a mean between two
types: a life dedicated to vulgar pleasure; a life dedicated extremes, and these are also to some extent a result of
to fame and honor; or a life dedicated to contemplation up-bringing and habituation. Two examples of such dis(NE I.1095b17-19). To reach his own conclusion about positions would be modesty, or a tendency to feel shame,
the best life, however, Aristotle tries to isolate the func- which Aristotle discusses in NE IV.9; and righteous intion of humans. The argument he develops here is ac- dignation (nemesis), which is a balanced feeling of symthe undeserved pleasures and
cordingly widely known asthe function argument,and pathetic pain concerning
*
pains
of
others.
[15]
Exactly
which habitual dispositions
is among the most-discussed arguments made by any anare
virtues
or
vices
and
which
only
concern emotions, dif*
cient philosopher. [13] He argues that while humans unfers
between
the
dierent
works
which
have survived, but
dergo nutrition and growth, so do other living things, and
the
basic
examples
are
consistent,
as
is
the basis for diswhile humans are capable of perception, this is shared
tinguishing
them
in
principle.
with animals (NE I.1098b22-1098a15). Thus neither of
these characteristics is particular to humans. According
to Aristotle, what remains and what is distinctively human is reason. Thus he concludes that the human function
is some kind of excellent exercise of the intellect. And,
since Aristotle thinks that practical wisdom rules over the
character excellences, exercising such excellences is one
way to exercise reason and thus fulll the human function.
I. Prudence
II. Temperance
III. Courage
IV. Justice
I. Prudence, also known as practical wisdom, is the most
important virtue for Aristotle. In war, soldiers must ght
with prudence by making judgments through practical
wisdom. This virtue is a must to obtain because courage
requires judgments to be made.
II. Temperance, or self-control, simply means moderation. Soldiers must display moderation with their enjoyment while at war in the midst of violent activities. Temperance concerning courage gives one moderation in priAristotle also claims that each specic character excel- vate which leads to moderation in public.
lence lies between an excess and a deciency, each of III. Courage, the one we will focus on in this article, is
which is a dierent vice that deviates in some way from moderation or observance of the mean with respect to
the virtuous character state. For example, the man who feelings of fear and condence.Courage isobservance
80
educated judge is needed to apply just decisions regarding any particular case. This is where we get the image
of the scales of justice, the blindfolded judge symbolizing blind justice, balancing the scales, weighing all the
evidence and deliberating each particular case individually.
Vices of courage must also be identied which are cowardice and recklessness. Soldiers who are not prudent act
with cowardice, and soldiers who do not have temperance act with recklessness. One should not be unjust toward their enemy no matter the circumstance. On another
note, one becomes virtuous by rst imitating another who
exemplies such virtuous characteristics, practicing such
ways in their daily lives, turning those ways into customs
and habits by performing them each and every day, and
nally, connecting or uniting the four of them together.
Only soldiers can exemplify such virtues because war demands soldiers to exercise disciplined and rm virtues,
but war does everything in its power to shatter the virtues
Being just in the true sense. This is the type of jusit demands. Since virtues are very fragile, they must be
tice or fairness of a good ruler in a good commupracticed always, for if they are not practiced they will
nity.* [17]
weaken and eventually disappear. One who is virtuous
Phronesis or practical wisdom, as shown by good
has to avoid the enemies of virtue which are indierleaders.* [18]
ence or persuasion that something should not be done,
self-indulgence or persuasion that something can wait and
The virtue of being a truly good friend.* [19]
does not need to be done at that moment, and despair
or persuasion that something simply cannot be accom Having the nobility kalokagathia of a gentleplished anyway. In order for one to be virtuous they
man.* [20]
must display prudence, temperance, courage, and justice;
moreover, they have to display all four of them and not
Aristotle also says, for example in NE Book VI, that such
just one or two to be virtuous.
a complete virtue requires intellectual virtue, not only
practical virtue, but also theoretical wisdom. Such a virtuous person, if they can come into being, will choose the
most pleasant and happy life of all, which is the philo14.7 Justice
sophical life of contemplation and speculation.
Aristotle devotes Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics to
justice (this is also Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics). In
this discussion, Aristotle denes justice as having two different but related sensesgeneral justice and particular
justice. General justice is virtue expressed in relation to
other people. Thus the just man in this sense deals properly and fairly with others, and expresses his virtue in his
dealings with themnot lying or cheating or taking from
others what is owed to them. Particular justice is the correct distribution of just deserts to others. For Aristotle,
such justice is proportionalit has to do with people receiving what is proportional to their merit or their worth.
In his discussion of particular justice, Aristotle says an
81
est. Modern science develops theories about the physical world based on experiments and careful observation
in particular, on the basis of exact measurements of
time and distance. Aristotle, on the other hand, bases his
science largely on qualitative and non-experimental observation. Accordingly, he made some inaccurate claims
which have been overturnedsuch as the claim that objects of dierent mass accelerate at dierent rates due to
gravity.
82
[12] Martha Nussbaum, for example, has argued that Aristotle's so-called endoxic method, described at NE
VII.1145b1 . is in fact Aristotle's general philosophical method. See Nussbaum, Fragility of Goodness (Cambridge: 1986/2001) pp. 240 .
[13] As noted by Rachel Barney, Aristotle's Argument for a
Human Function,in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy
34 (Summer 2008) pg. 3.
[14] As noted by Jennifer Whiting in an article that defends the
argument. See Whiting,Aristotle's Function Argument:
A DefenseAncient Philosophy 8, pg. 35.
[15] EE III.vii. Also see MM.
[16] It is mentioned within the initial discussion of practical
examples of virtues and vices at Book IV.1123b.
[17] This description occurs for example during the special discussion of the virtue (or virtues) of justice at 1129b in
Book V.
[18] Mentioned in this way at 1144b in Book VI.1144b.
[19] Book VIII.1157a
[20] Eudemian Ethics Book VIII, chapter 3.
Chapter 15
Nicomachean Ethics
The Nicomachean Ethics (/nkmkin/) is the name
normally given to Aristotle's best-known work on ethics.
The work, which plays a pre-eminent role in dening
Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from
his lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by
or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus.
83
84
macha or, De Moribus ad Nicomachum.
15.3. BOOK I
The way in which Aristotle sketches the highest good for
man involving both a practical and a theoretical side, with
the two sides necessary for each other, is also in the tradition of Socrates and Plato, as opposed to pre-Socratic
philosophy. As Burger (2008) points out (p. 212):-The
Ethics does not end at its apparent peak, identifying perfect happiness with the life devoted to theria; instead it
goes on to introduce the need for a study of legislation,
on the grounds that it is not sucient only to know about
virtue, but one should try to put that knowledge to use.At
the end of the book, according to Burger, the thoughtful
reader is led to understand thatthe end we are seeking is
what we have been doingwhile engaging with the Ethics
(p. 215).
15.3 Book I
Book I attempts to both dene the subject matter itself
and justify the method which has been chosen (in chapters 3, 4, 6 and 7). As part of this, Aristotle considers
common opinions along with the opinions of poets and
philosophers.
15.3.1
85
should act, in the same way that doctors do not need to
philosophize over the denition of health in order to treat
each case.* [13]
86
Aristotle also mentions two other possibilities that he ar- things of the body, or good external things. Aristotle
gues can be put aside:
says that virtue, practical judgment and wisdom, and also
pleasure, all associated with happiness, and indeed an as Having virtue but being inactive, even suering evils sociation with external abundance, are all consistent with
and misfortunes, which Aristotle says no one would this denition.
consider unless they were defending a hypothesis. If happiness is virtue, or a certain virtue, then it must not
(As Sachs points out, this is indeed what Plato de- just be a condition of being virtuous, potentially, but an
picts Socrates doing in his Gorgias.)
actual way of virtuously "being at work" as a human. For
as in the Ancient Olympic Games, it is not the most
Money making, which Aristotle asserts to be a life
beautiful or the strongest who are crowned, but those who
based on aiming at what is pursued by necessity in
compete. And such virtue will be good, beautiful and
order to achieve higher goals, an intermediate good.
pleasant, indeed Aristotle asserts that in most people different pleasures are in conict with each other whilethe
Each of these three commonly proposed happy ways of things that are pleasant to those who are passionately delife represents a target that people aim at for its own sake, voted to what is beautiful are the things that are pleasant
just like they aim at happiness itself for its own sake. Con- by nature and of this sort are actions in accordance with
cerning honor, pleasure, and intelligence (nous) and also virtue. External goods are also necessary in such a virevery virtue, though they lead to happiness, even if they tuous life, because a person who lacks things such as good
did not we would still pursue them.
family and friends might nd it dicult to be happy.* [21]
Happiness in life then, includes the virtues, and Aristotle adds that it would include self-suciency (autarkeia),
not the self-suciency of a hermit, but of someone with 15.3.3 Questions that might be raised
about the denition
a family, friends and community. By itself this would
make life choiceworthy and lacking nothing. In order
to describe more clearly what happiness is like, Aristo- In chapters 9-12 Aristotle confronts some objections or
tle next asks what the work (ergon) of a human is. All questions that might be had to his denition of happiness
living things have nutrition and growth as a work, all so far.
animals (according to the denition of animal Aristotle
First he considers the denition of happiness in conused) would have perceiving as part of their work, but
trast to an old Socratic question (found for example
what is more particularly human? The answer accordin Plato's Meno) of whether happiness might be a
ing to Aristotle is that it must involve articulate speech
result of learning or habit or training, or perhaps di(logos), including both being open to persuasion by reavine lot or even chance. Aristotle says that it admits
soning, and thinking things through. Not only will happiof being shared by some sort of learning and taking
ness involve reason, but it will also be an active being at
pains. But despite this, even if not divine, it is one
work (energeia), not just potential happiness, and it will
of the most divine things, and for what is greatest
be over a lifetime, because one swallow does not make
and most beautiful to be left to chance would be too
a spring. The denition given is therefore:
discordant.* [22]
The Good of man is the active exercise of
his soul's faculties in conformity with excellence or virtue, or if there be several human
excellences or virtues, in conformity with the
best and most perfect among them. Moreover,
to be happy takes a complete lifetime; for one
swallow does not make a spring.
Rackham translation of I.7.1098a.* [18]
And because happiness is being described as a work or
function of humans, we can say that just as we contrast
harpists with serious harpists, the person who lives well
and beautifully in this actively rational and virtuous way
Neoptolemus killing Priam. Aristotle accepted that it would be
will be a serious(spoudaios) human.* [19]* [20]
wrong to call Priam unhappy only because his last years were
87
Priam, for example, would be dened as unhappy These virtues of character, ormoral virtuesas they are
only because of his unhappy old age.* [23]
often translated, become the central topic in Book II. The
intellectual aspect of virtue will be discussed in Book VI.
Concerning the importance of chance to happiness,
Aristotle argues that a happy person at work in accordance with virtue will bear what misfortune
brings most beautifully and in complete harmony 15.4 Books IIV: Concerning exin every instance. Only many great misfortunes
cellence of character or moral
will limit how blessed such a life can be, but even
theneven in these circumstances something beauvirtue
tiful shines through.* [24]
Addressing an opinion that he expected amongst his
contemporaries about happiness, Aristotle says that
it seems too unfeeling and contrary to people's
opinionsto claim that the fortunes of one's descendants and all one's friends have no inuence at
all. But he says that it seems that if anything at
all gets through to the deceased, whether good or
the reverse, it would be something faint and small
.* [25]
Once again turning to the divinity of happiness Aristotle distinguishes virtue and happiness saying that
virtue, through which people become apt at performing beautiful actionsis praiseworthy, while
happiness is something more important, like god,
since every one of us does everything else for the
sake of this, and we set down the source and cause of
good things as something honored and divine.* [26]
88
15.4.2
Moral
89
15.4.3
90
Plato's treatment of the same subject is once again freAristotle's treatment of the subject is often compared to quently compared to Aristotle's, as was apparently ArisPlato's. Courage was dealt with by Plato in his Socratic totle's intention (see Book I, as explained above):
dialogue named the Laches.
Temperance (sphrosun)
Every virtue, as it comes under examination in the Platonic dialogues, expands far beTemperance (sphrosun, also translated as soundness of
yond the bounds of its ordinary understandmind, moderation, discretion) is a mean with regards to
ing: but sphrosun undergoes, in Plato's
pleasure. He adds that it is only concerned with pains in
Charmides, an especially explosive expansion
a lesser and dierent way. The vice which occurs most
from thee rst denition proposed; a quiet
often in the same situations is excess with regards to pleatemperament (159b), tothe knowledge of itsure (akolasia, translated licentiousness, intemperance,
self and other knowledges(166e).
proigacy, dissipation etc.). Pleasures can be divided
into those of the soul and of the body. But those who
Burger (2008) p.80
are concerned with pleasures of the soul, honor, learning, for example, or even excessive pleasure in talking, are
not usually referred to as the objects of being temperate
or dissipate. Also, not all bodily pleasures are relevant, Aristotle discusses this subject further in Book VII.
15.4.4
91
Book IV. The second set of exam- should not get it, in order to give for a decent sort of
taking goes along with a decent sort of giving. Having
ples of moral virtues
Magnicence is described as a virtue similar to generosity except that it deals with spending large amounts of
wealth. Aristotle says that while the magnicent man
This is a virtue we observe when we see how people act is liberal, the liberal man is not necessarily magnicent
with regards to giving money, and things whose worth . The immoderate vices in this case would be concerning
is thought of in terms of money. The two un-virtuous making a great display on the wrong occasions and in
extremes are wastefulness and stinginess (or meanness). the wrong way. The extremes to be avoided in order to
Stinginess is most obviously taking money too seriously, achieve this virtue are paltriness (Rackham) or chintzibut wastefulness, less strictly speaking, is not always ness (Sachs) on the one hand and tastelessness or vulgarthe opposite (an under estimation of the importance of ity on the other. Aristotle reminds us here that he has
money) because it is also often caused by being unre- already said that moral dispositions (hexeis) are caused
strained. A wasteful person is destroyed by their own by the activities (energeia) we perform, meaning that a
acts, and has many vices at once. Aristotle's approach magnicent person's virtue can be seen from the way he
to dening the correct balance is to treat money like any chooses the correct magnicent acts at the right times.
other useful thing, and say that the virtue is to know how The aim of magnicence, like any virtue, is beautiful acto use money: giving to the right people, the right amount tion, not for the magnicent man himself but on public
at the right time. Also, as with each of the ethical virtues, things, such that even his private gifts have some resemAristotle emphasizes that such a person gets pleasures and blance to votive oerings. Because he is aiming at a specpains at doing the virtuous and beautiful thing. Aristotle tacle, a person with this virtue will not be focusing on dogoes slightly out of his way to emphasize that generosity is ing things cheaply, which would be petty, and he or she
not a virtue associated with making money, because, he may well overspend. So as with liberality, Aristotle sees
points out, a virtuous person is normally someone who a potential conict between some virtues, and being good
causes beautiful things, rather than just being a recipient. with money. But he does say that magnicence requires
Aristotle also points out that we do not give much grat- spending according to means, at least in the sense that
itude and praise at all to someone simply for not taking poor man can not be magnicent. The vices of paltriness
(which might however earn praise for being just). Aristo- and vulgar chintziness do not bring serious discredit,
tle also points out that generous people are loved prac- since they are not injurious to others, nor are they excestically the most of those who are recognized for virtue, sively unseemly.* [51]
since they confer benets, and this consists in giving
and he does not deny that generous people often won't
be good at maintaining their wealth, and are often easy Magnanimity or greatness of soul
to cheat. Aristotle goes further in this direction by saying that it might seem that it is better to be wasteful than Book IV, Chapter 3. Magnanimity is a latinization of the
to be stingy: a wasteful person is cured by age, and by original Greek used here which was megalopsuchia which
running out of resources, and if they are not merely unre- means greatness of soul. Although the word magnanimity
strained people then they are foolish rather than vicious has a traditional connection to Aristotelian philosophy, it
and badly brought-up. Also, a wasteful person at least also has its own tradition in English which now causes
benets someone. Aristotle points out also that a person some confusion.* [52] This is why some modern translawith this virtue would not get money from someone he tions refer literally to greatness of soul. In particular, the
Liberality or Generosity (eleutheriots)
92
term implied not just greatness, but a person who thought
of themselves worthy of great thing, or in other words a
sort of pride. (Michael Davis translates it as pride.* [53])
Although the term could imply a negative insinuation of
lofty pride, Aristotle as usual tries to dene what the word
should mean as a virtue. He says that not everybody
who claims more than he deserves is vainand indeed
most small-souled of all would seem to be the man who
claims less than he deserves when his deserts are great.
Being vain, or being small-souled, are the two extremes
which fail to achieve the mean of the virtue of magnanimity.* [54] The small souled person, according to Aristotle,
seems to have something bad about him.* [55]
In order to have the virtue of greatness of soul, and be
worthy of what is greatest, one must be good in a true
sense, and possess what is great in all virtues. As Sachs
points out: Greatness of soul is the rst of four virtues
that Aristotle will nd to require the presence of all the
virtues of character.* [5] Aristotle views magnanimity
asa sort of adornment of the moral virtues; for it makes
them greater, and it does not arise without them.* [56]
Aristotle also focuses on the question of what the greatest
things are which one may be worthy of. At rst he says
this is spoken of in terms of external goods, but he observes that the greatest of these must be honor, because
this is what we assign to gods, and this is what people of
the highest standing aim at. But he qualies this by saying that actually great souled people will hold themselves
moderately toward every type of good or bad fortune,
even honor. It is being good, and being worthy of honor
that is more important. (The disdain of a great souled person towards all kinds of non-human good things can make
great souled people seem arrogant, like an un-deserving
vain person.)* [57] Leo Strauss notes thatthere is a close
kinship between Aristotle's justice and biblical justice,
but Aristotle's magnanimity, which means a man's habitual claiming for himself great honors while he deserves
these honors, is alien to the Bible". Strauss describes the
Bible as rejecting the concept of a gentleman, and that
this displays a dierent approach to the problem of divine law in Greek and Biblical civilization.* [58] See also
below concerning the sense of shame.
Aristotle lists some typical characteristics of great souled
people:* [59]
They do not take small risks, and are not devoted
to risk taking, but they will take big risks, without
regard for their life, because a worse life is worth
less than a great life. Indeed they do few things, and
are slow to start on things, unless there is great honor
involved.
They do not esteem what is popularly esteemed, nor
what others are good at. They take few things seriously, and are not anxious.
They gladly do favors but are ashamed to receive
them, being apt to forget a favor from another, or
93
94
95
96
vary.* [75] Aristotle insists that justice is both xed in
nature in a sense, but also variable in a specic way:the
rules of justice ordained not by nature but by man are
not the same in all places, since forms of government are
not the same, though in all places there is only one form
of government that is natural, namely, the best form.
*
[76] He believed people can generally see which types
of rules are conventional, and which by nature, and he felt
that most important when trying to judge whether someone was just or unjust was determining whether someone
did something voluntarily or not. Some people commit
crimes by accident or due to vices other than greed or
injustice.
97
Wisdom is aimed at for its own sake, like health, being Socrates. According to Aristotle, Socrates argued that
a component of that most complete virtue which makes all unrestrained behavior must be a result of ignorance,
happiness.
whereas it is commonly thought that the unrestrained perAristotle closes by arguing that in any case, when one con- son does things that they know to be evil, putting aside
siders the virtues in their highest form, they would all exist their own calculations and knowledge under the inuence
of passion. Aristotle begins by suggesting Socrates must
together.
be wrong, but comes to conclude at the end of Chapter 3
that what Socrates was looking for turns out to be the
case.* [84] His way of accommodating Socrates relies
15.6 Book VII. Impediments to on the distinction between knowledge which is activated
or not, for example in someone drunk or enraged. People
virtue
in such a state may sound like they have knowledge, like
an actor or student reciting a lesson can.
This Book is the last of three books which are identical
in both the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics. In chapter 4 Aristotle species that when we call someone
It is Book VI in the latter. It extends discussions which unrestrained, it is in cases (just in the cases where we say
were discussed especially at the end of Book II, with the someone has the vice of akolasia in Book II) where bodily
discussion of the vice akolasia and the virtue of sophro- pleasure or pain, such as those associated with food and
sex, has caused someone to act in a shameful way against
sune.
their own choice and reason. Other types of failure to
Aristotle names three things that humans should avoid,
master oneself are akrasia only in a qualied sense, for
that have to do with one's character:example akrasiain angerorin the pursuit of honor
. These he discusses next, under tendencies which are
Evils or vices (kakia), the opposites of virtues. neither vice nor akrasia, but more animal-like.* [85]
These have been discussed already in Book II beAristotle makes a nature and nurture distinction between
cause, like the virtues, vices are stable disposidierent causes of bestial behavior which he says octions (hexeis),knowingly and deliberately chosen
curs in some cases from natural disposition, and in
(Sachs p. 119).
others from habit, as with those who have been abused
Incontinence (akrasia), the opposite of self- from childhood. He refers to these as animal-like and
*
restraint. Unlike true vices, these are weaknesses disease-like conditions. [86] Aristotle says that every
where someone passively follows an urge rather sort of senselessness or cowardice or dissipation or harshness that goes to excess is either animal-like or diseasethan a deliberate choice.
like.* [87]
Being beast-like, or brutish (thoriots), the opposite
For Aristotle, akrasia, unrestraint, is distinct from
of something more than human, something heroic or
animal-like behavior because it is specic to humans and
god-like such as Homer attributes to Hector. (Arisinvolves conscious rational thinking about what to do,
totle notes that these terms beast-like and god-like
even though the conclusions of this thinking are not put
are strictly speaking only for humans, because real
into practice. When someone behaves in a purely animalbeasts or gods would not have virtue or vice.)* [82]
like way, then for better or worse they are not acting based
upon any conscious choice.
Because vice (a bad equivalent to virtue) has already been
discussed in Books II-V, in Book VII then, rst akrasia, Returning to the question of anger or spiritedness (thumos) then, Aristotle distinguishes it from desires because
and then bestiality are discussed.
he says it listens to reason, but often hears wrong, like
a hasty servant or a guard dog. He contrasts this with
15.6.1 Book VII. Chapters 110: Self mas- desire, which he says does not obey reason, although
it is frequently responsible for the weaving of unjust
tery
plots.* [88] He also says that a bad temper is more natural
and less blamable than desire for excessive unnecessary
According to Aristotle, akrasia and self-restraint, are not
pleasure.* [89] And he claims that acts of hubris never reto be conceived as identical with Virtue and Vice, nor
sult from anger, but always have a connection to pleasure
yet as dierent in kind from them.* [83] Aristotle arseeking, whereas angry people act from pain, and often
gues that a simple equation should not be made between
regret it.* [90]
the virtue of temperance, and self-restraint, because selfrestraint might restrain good desires, or weak unremark- So there are two ways in which people lose mastery of
able ones. Furthermore, a truly temperate person would their own actions and do not act according to their own
deliberations, one is through excitability, where a person
not even have bad desires to restrain.
does not wait for reason but follows the imagination, often
Aristotle reviews various opinions held about selfhaving not been prepared for events. The other worse and
mastery, most importantly one which he associates with
98
at some higher end. Even if a temperate person avoids excesses of some pleasures, they still have pleasures.* [95]
Chapter 13 starts from pain, saying it is clearly bad, either in a simple sense or as an impediment to things. He
argues that this makes it clear that pleasure is good. He
rejects the argument of Speusippus that pleasure and pain
are only dierent in degree because this would still not
make pleasure, bad, nor stop it, or at least some pleasure,
even from being the best thing. Aristotle focuses from
this on to the idea that pleasure is unimpeded, and that
while it would make a certain sense for happiness (eudaimonia) to be a being at work which is unimpeded in
some way, being impeded can hardly be good. Aristotle appeals to popular opinion that pleasure of some type
is what people aim at, and suggests that bodily pleasure,
while it might be the most obvious type of pleasure, is not
the only type of pleasure. He points out that if pleasure is
not good then a happy person will not have a more pleasant life than another, and would have no reason to avoid
pain.* [96]
15.6.2
compared to the dierent types of constitution, according to the same classication system Aristotle explains in
his Politics (Monarchy, Tyranny, Aristocracy, Oligarchy,
Timocracy, and Democracy).* [106]
99
100
which is within humans. According to Aristotle, contemplation is the only type of happy activity which it would
not be ridiculous to imagine the gods having. The intellect
is indeed each person's true self, and this type of happiness would be the happiness most suited to humans, with
both happiness (eudaimonia) and the intellect (nous) being things other animals do not have. Aristotle also claims
that compared to other virtues, contemplation requires
the least in terms of possessions and allows the most selfreliance, though it is true that, being a man and living
in the society of others, he chooses to engage in virtuous
action, and so will need external goods to carry on his life
as a human being.* [113]
Aristotle also argues that each type of animal has pleasures which are more appropriate to it, and in the same
way there can be dierences between people and what
pleasures are most suitable to them. Aristotle proposes
that it would be most beautiful to say that the person of
serious moral stature is the appropriate standard, with
whatever things they enjoy being the things most pleasant.* [111]
15.8.2
Young Spartans Exercising by Edgar Degas (1834-1917). Aristotle approved of how Spartan law focused upon up-bringing.
15.10. FOOTNOTES
young people themselves without the right help from lawmakers.
101
Aristotle closes the Nicomachean Ethics therefore by announcing a programme of study in politics, including the [8] 1144b at Perseus Project
collecting of studies of dierent constitutions, and the re[9] 1157a at Perseus Project
sults of this programme are generally assumed to be contained in the work which exists today and is known as the [10] See for example Book 6 Chapter 13 for Aristotle on
Socrates; and the Laches for Plato's Socrates on courage.
Politics.* [114]
[11] Book X, chapter 7 1177a, cf. 1170b, 1178b
15.10 Footnotes
[1] Book II, chapter 2, 1103b
[2] Book I Chapters 3, 4, 6, 7. See below.
[3] Book I, chapter 7 1098a
[4] Book II, chapter 1, 1103b
[5] Sachs, Joe, Nicomachean Ethics, p. 68 Greatness of
soul is the rst of four virtues that Aristotle will nd to
require the presence of all the virtues of character.In
the Eudemian Ethics (Book VIII, chapter 3) Aristotle also
uses the word "kalokagathia", the nobility of a gentleman
(kalokagathos), to describe this same concept of a virtue
containing all the moral virtues.
102
[29] However Aristotle himself seems to choose this formulation as a basic starting point because it is already wellknown. One of the two Delphic motto's strongly associated with Aristotle's own Socratic teachers was nothing
in excess, a motto much older than Socrates himself,
and similar ideas can be found in Pythagorianism, and the
Myth of Icarus.
[57] 1123b-1124a
[61] 1125b-1126b
[63] 1126b-1127a
103
[80] 1142a
[81] 1142b
[82] 1145a. Burger (p.133) notes that Aristotle's various remarks throughout the Ethics about this part of the Iliad
seem to indicate that Aristotle seems to have gone out
of his way to furnish a particularly problematic illustration
of divine virtue.
104
15.11.1
Translations
Bartlett, Robert C.; Collins, Susan D. (2011). Nicomachean Ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 978-0-226-02674-9. (Translation,
with Interpretive Essay, Notes, Glossary.)
Irwin, Terence (1999). Nicomachean Ethics. Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87220-464-2.
Rackham, H. (1926). Aristotle The Nicomachean
Ethics with an English Translation by H. Rackham.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99081-1.
Ross, David (1925). Aristotle The Nicomachean
Ethics: Translated with an Introduction. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283407-X..
Re-issued 1980, revised by J. L. Ackrill and J. O.
Urmson.
Sachs, Joe (2002). Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics:
Translation, Glossary and Introductory Essay. Focus Publishing. ISBN 1-58510-035-8.
Thomson, J. A. K. (1955). The Ethics of Aristotle:
The Nicomachean Ethics. Penguin Classics.. Reissued 1976, revised by Hugh Tredennick.
Chapter 16
Eudaimonia
For the moth, see Eudaemonia (moth). For other uses, In his Nicomachean Ethics, (21; 1095a1522) Aristotle
see Eudaemon (disambiguation).
says that everyone agrees that eudaimonia is the highest
good for human beings, but that there is substantial disEudaimonia (Greek: [eu daimona]), agreement on what sort of life counts as doing and living
sometimes anglicized as eudaemonia or eudemonia well; i.e. eudaimon:
/judmoni/, is a Greek word commonly translated
as happiness or welfare; however, human ourishing
Verbally there is a very general agreement;
has been proposed as a more accurate translation.* [1]
for both the general run of men and people of
Etymologically, it consists of the words "eu" (good
superior renement say that it is [eudaimonia],
) and "daimn" (spirit). It is a central concept
and identify living well and faring well with bein Aristotelian ethics and political philosophy, along
ing happy; but with regard to what [eudaimowith the terms "aret", most often translated as "virtue"
nia] is they dier, and the many do not give the
or excellence, and "phronesis", often translated as
same account as the wise. For the former think
practical or ethical wisdom.* [2] In Aristotle's works,
it is some plain and obvious thing like pleasure,
eudaimonia was (based on older Greek tradition) used as
wealth or honour[1095a17]* [5]
the term for the highest human good, and so it is the aim
of practical philosophy, including ethics and political So, as Aristotle points out, saying that eudaimon life is a
philosophy, to consider (and also experience) what it life which is objectively desirable, and means living well,
really is, and how it can be achieved.
is not saying very much. Everyone wants to be eudaiDiscussion of the links between virtue of character (ethik mon; and everyone agrees that being eudaimon is related
s well being. The really
aret) and happiness (eudaimonia) is one of the central to faring well and to an individual
concerns of ancient ethics, and a subject of much dis- dicult question is to specify just what sort of activities
agreement. As a result there are many varieties of eudai- enable one to live well. Aristotle presents various popular
monism. Two of the most inuential forms are those of conceptions of the best life for human beings. The canAristotle* [3] and the Stoics. Aristotle takes virtue and its didates that he mentions are a (1) life of pleasure, (2) a
exercise to be the most important constituent in eudai- life of political activity and (3) a philosophical life.
monia but acknowledges also the importance of external One important move in Greek philosophy to answer the
goods such as health, wealth, and beauty. By contrast, the question of how to achieve eudaimonia is to bring in anStoics make virtue necessary and sucient for eudaimo- other important concept in ancient philosophy, arete
nia and thus deny the necessity of external goods.* [4]
("virtue"). Aristotle says that the eudaimon life is one of
As already noted, the Greek word aret is usually translated into English as virtue. One problem with this is
that we are inclined to understand virtue in a moral sense,
which is not always what the ancients had in mind. For a
Greek, aret pertains to all sorts of qualities we would not
16.1 Denition
105
106
regard as relevant to ethics, for example, physical beauty. thing else. (see Plato, Apology 30b, Euthydemus 280d
So it is important to bear in mind that the sense ofvirtue 282d, Meno 87d89a). However, Socrates adopted a
operative in ancient ethics is not exclusively moral and quite radical form of eudaimonism (see above): he seems
includes more than states such as wisdom, courage and to have thought that virtue is both necessary and sucompassion. The sense of virtue which aret connotes cient for eudaimonia. Socrates is convinced that virtues
would include saying something like speed is a virtue such as self-control, courage, justice, piety, wisdom and
in a horse, orheight is a virtue in a basketball player. related qualities of mind and soul are absolutely crucial
Doing anything well requires virtue, and each character- if a person is to lead a good and happy (eudaimon) life.
istic activity (such as carpentry, ute playing, etc.) has its Virtues guarantee a happy life eudaimonia. For example,
own set of virtues. The alternative translation excellence in the Meno, with respect to wisdom, he says: every(or a desirable quality) might be helpful in convey- thing the soul endeavours or endures under the guidance
ing this general meaning of the term. The moral virtues of wisdom ends in happiness[Meno 88c].
are simply a subset of the general sense in which a human
In the Apology, Socrates clearly presents his disagreement
being is capable of functioning well or excellently.
with those who think that the eudaimon life is the life of
Socrates
107
16.2.2
Plato
16.2.3 Aristotle
108
16.2.4
Epicurus
pain and distress. But it is important to notice that Epicurus does not advocate that one pursue any and every
pleasure. Rather, he recommends a policy whereby pleasures are maximized in the long run.In other words,
Epicurus claims that some pleasures are not worth having because they lead to greater pains, and some pains
are worthwhile when they lead to greater pleasures. The
best strategy for attaining a maximal amount of pleasure
overall is not to seek instant gratication but to work out
a sensible long term policy.
16.2.5
The Stoics
109
110
modern
3. Self-acceptance
4. Purpose in life
5. Environmental mastery
6. Positive relations with others.
Importantly, she also produced scales for assessing
mental health.* [12]
This factor structure has been debated,* [13]* [14] but has
generated much research in wellbeing, health and successful aging.
16.4.1 Genetics
Individual dierences in both overall Eudaimonia, idenJulia Driver in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy tied loosely with self-control and in the facets of eudaimonia are heritable. Evidence from one study supports
explains:
5 independent genetic mechanisms underlying the Ry
facets of this trait, leading to a genetic construct of euAnscombe's article Modern Moral Philosodaimonia in terms of general self-control, and four subphy stimulated the development of virtue ethics
sidiary biological mechanisms enabling the psychological
as an alternative to Utilitarianism, Kantian
capabilities of purpose, agency, growth, and positive soEthics, and Social Contract theories. Her pricial relations * [15]
mary charge in the article is that, as secular approaches to moral theory, they are without foundation. They use concepts such as
16.5 Etymology and translation
morally ought,
morally obligated,
morally
right,
and so forth that are legalistic and require
a legislator as the source of moral authority. In
In terms of its etymology, eudaimonia is an abstract noun
the past God occupied that role, but systems
derived from eu meaning welland daimon (daemon),
that dispense with God as part of the theory are
which refers to a minor deity or a guardian spirit.* [3]
lacking the proper foundation for meaningful
Eudaimonia implies a positive and divine state of being
employment of those concepts.* [11]
that humanity is able to strive toward and possibly reach.
A literal view of eudaimonia means achieving a state of
being similar to benevolent deity, or being protected and
16.4 Eudaimonia and modern psy- looked after by a benevolent deity. As this would be considered the most positive state to be in, the word is ofchology
ten translated as 'happiness' although incorporating the
divine nature of the word extends the meaning to also inFurther information: Psychological well-being and clude the concepts of being fortunate, or blessed. Despite
Meaningful Life
this etymology, however, discussions of eudaimonia in
ancient Greek ethics are often conducted independently
Models of eudaimonia in psychology emerged from early of any super-natural signicance.
work on self-actualisation and the means of its accom- In his Nicomachean Ethics, (1095a1522) Aristotle says
plishment by researchers such as Erikson, Allport, and that eudaimonia means doing and living well. It is
Maslow.* [12] The psychologist C. D. Ry highlighted signicant that synonyms for eudaimonia are living well
the distinction between eudaimonia wellbeing, which she and doing well. On the standard English translation, this
identied as psychological well-being, and hedonic well- would be to say that happiness is doing well and living
being or pleasure. Building on Aristotelian ideals of be- well
. The wordhappiness
does not entirely capture the
longing and beneting others, ourishing, thriving and meaning of the Greek word. One important dierence is
exercising excellence, she conceptualised eudaimonia as that happiness often connotes being or tending to be in
a six-factor structure :
a certain pleasant state of consciousness. For example,
when we say that someone isa very happy person,we
usually mean that they seem subjectively contented with
1. Autonomy
the way things are going in their life. We mean to im2. Personal growth
ply that they feel good about the way things are going for
16.7. REFERENCES
them. In contrast, eudaimonia is a more encompassing
notion than feeling happy since events that do not contribute to ones experience of feeling happy may aect
ones eudaimonia.
Eudaimonia depends on all the things that would make
us happy if we knew of their existence, but quite independently of whether we do know about them. Ascribing eudaimonia to a person, then, may include ascribing such things as being virtuous, being loved and having good friends. But these are all objective judgments
about someones life: they concern a persons really
being virtuous, really being loved, and really having ne
friends. This implies that a person who has evil sons and
daughters will not be judged to be eudaimonic even if he
or she does not know that they are evil and feels pleased
and contented with the way they have turned out (happy).
Conversely, being loved by your children would not count
towards your happiness if you did not know that they
loved you (and perhaps thought that they did not), but
it would count towards your eudaimonia. So eudaimonia corresponds to the idea of having an objectively good
or desirable life, to some extent independently of whether
one knows that certain things exist or not. It includes conscious experiences of well being, success, and failure, but
also a whole lot more. (See Aristotles discussion: Nicomachean Ethics, book 1.101.11.)
111
16.7 References
[1] Daniel N. Robinson. (1999). Aristotle's Psychology.
Published by Daniel N. Robinson. ISBN 0-9672066-0-X
ISBN 978-0967206608
[2] Rosalind Hursthouse (July 18, 2007). Virtue Ethics
. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 201006-05. But although modern virtue ethics does not have
to take the form known as neo-Aristotelian, almost
any modern version still shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are aret (excellence or
virtue) phronesis (practical or moral wisdom) and eudaimonia (usually translated as happiness or ourishing.) As
modern virtue ethics has grown and more people have
become familiar with its literature, the understanding of
these terms has increased, but it is still the case that readers familiar only with modern philosophy tend to misinterpret them.
112
113
Chapter 17
Politics (Aristotle)
Politics (Greek: ) is a work of political philosophy by Aristotle, a fourth-century BC Greek philosopher.
The end of the Nicomachean Ethics declared that the inquiry into ethics necessarily follows into politics, and the
two works are frequently considered to be parts of a larger
treatise, or perhaps connected lectures, dealing with the
philosophy of human aairs.The title of the Politics
literally means the things concerning the polis.
17.1 Overview
17.1.1
Book I
Aristotle then moves to the question of property in general, arguing that the acquisition of property does not
114
115
17.1.4
Book IV
17.1.6 Book VI
Democratic constitutions
Oligarchic constitutions
Types of democracies
Types of oligarchies
Polity (Constitutional Government) is the optimal
form of government
When perverted, a Polity becomes a
Democracy, the least harmful derivative
government as regarded by Aristotle.
Government oces
17.1.5
Book V
Constitutional change
Revolutions in dierent types of constitutions and
ways to preserve constitutions
Instability of tyrannies
116
to various criteria. On one side stand the true (or good)
constitutions, which are considered such because they
aim for the common good, and on the other side the perverted (or deviant) ones, considered such because they
aim for the well being of only a part of the city. The constitutions are then sorted according to the numberof
those who participate to the magistracies: one, a few, or
many. Aristotle's sixfold classication is slightly dierent from the one found in The Statesman by Plato. The
diagram above illustrates Aristotle's classication.
Davis, Michael (1996). The Politics of Philosophy: A Commentary on Aristotle's Politics. Lanham:
Rowman & Littleeld.
Werner Jaeger suggested that the Politics actually represents the conation of two, distinct treatises.* [6] The rst
(Books IIII, VIIVIII) would represent a less mature
work from when Aristotle had not yet fully broken from
Plato, and consequently show a greater emphasis on the
best regime. The second (Books IVVI) would be more
empirically minded, and thus belong to a later stage of
development.
Carnes Lord has argued against the suciency of this
view, however, noting the numerous cross-references between Jaeger's supposedly separate works and questioning the dierence in tone that Jaeger saw between them.
For example, Book IV explicitly notes the utility of examining actual regimes (Jaeger's empiricalfocus) in
determining the best regime (Jaeger'sPlatonicfocus).
Instead, Lord suggests that the Politics is indeed a nished
treatise, and that Books VII and VIII do belong in between Books III and IV; he attributes their current ordering to a merely mechanical transcription error.* [7]
Goodman, Lenn E.; Talisse, Robert B. (2007). Aristotles Politics Today. Albany: State University of
New York Press.
Keyt, David; Miller, Fred D. (1991). A Companion
to Aristotles Politics. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Kraut, ed., Richard; Skultety, Steven (2005). Aristotles Politics: Critical Essays. Lanham: Rowman
& Littleeld.
Simpson, Peter L. (1998). A Philosophical Commentary on the Politics of Aristotle. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press.
Nichols, Mary P. (1992). Citizens and Statesmen: A
Study of Aristotles Politics. Lanham: Rowman &
Littleeld.
Lord, Carnes (1982). Education and Culture in the
Political Thought of Aristotle. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Miller, Fred D. (1995). Nature, Justice, and Rights
in Aristotles Politics. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Mayhew, Robert (1997). Aristotles Criticism of
Platos Republic. Lanham: Rowman & Littleeld.
Strauss, Leo (Ch. 1). The City and Man.
Salkever, Stephen. Finding the Mean.
Nussbaum, Martha. The Fragility of Goodness.
Nichols, Mary. Citizens and Statesmen.
17.4 Notes
[1] Ebenstein, Alan (2002). Introduction to Political Thinkers.
Boston, MA: Wadsworth.
[2] Lord, Introduction,27.
17.6 Translations
Barker, Sir Ernest (1995). The Politics of Aristotle.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19953873-7.
Jowett, Benjamin (1984). Jonathan Barnes, ed. Politics. The Complete Works of Aristotle 2. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69101651-1.
Lord, Carnes (2013). Aristotle's Politics: Second
Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 978-0-226-92183-9.
Lord, Carnes (1984). The Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-026695. (Out of Print)
Reeve, C. D. C. (1998). Politics. Indianapolis:
Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-388-4.
Simpson, Peter L. P. (1997). The Politics of Aristotle: Translation, Analysis, and Notes. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-08078-2327-9.
Sinclair, T. A. (1981).
The Politics.
Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044421-6.
Politics at LibriVox
117
Chapter 18
Rhetoric (Aristotle)
Aristotle's Rhetoric (Greek: ; Latin: Ars
Rhetorica* [1]) is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of
persuasion, dating from the 4th century BC. The English title varies: typically it is titled Rhetoric, the Art of
Rhetoric, or a Treatise on Rhetoric.
18.1 Background
Aristotle is generally credited with developing the basics
of the system of rhetoric that thereafter served as its
touchstone,* [2] inuencing the development of rhetorical theory from ancient through modern times. The
Rhetoric is regarded by most rhetoricians as the most
important single work on persuasion ever written.* [3]
Gross and Walzer concur, indicating that, just as Alfred
North Whitehead considered all Western philosophy a
footnote to Plato, all subsequent rhetorical theory is
but a series of responses to issues raisedby Aristotle's
Rhetoric.* [4] This is largely a reection of disciplinary
divisions, dating back to Peter Ramus' attacks on Aristotlean rhetoric in the late 16th century* [5] and continuing to the present.* [6]
Like the other works of Aristotle that have survived from
antiquity, the Rhetoric seems not to have been intended
for publication, being instead a collection of his students'
notes in response to his lectures. The treatise shows the
development of Aristotle's thought through two dierent
periods while he was in Athens, and illustrates Aristotle's
expansion of the study of rhetoric beyond Plato's early
criticism of it in the Gorgias (ca. 386 BC) as immoral,
dangerous, and unworthy of serious study.* [7]* [8] Plato's
nal dialogue on rhetoric, the Phaedrus (ca.370 BC), offered a more moderate view of rhetoric, acknowledging
its value in the hands of a true philosopher (themidwife
of the soul) for winning the soul through discourse.
This dialogue oered Aristotle, rst a student and then a
teacher at Plato's Academy, a more positive starting point
for the development of rhetoric as an art worthy of systematic, scientic study.
The Rhetoric was developed by Aristotle during two periods when he was in Athens, the rst, from 367 to 347
BC (when he was seconded to Plato in the Academy), and
the second, from 335 to 322 BC (when he was running
118
119
Chapter Two Aristotle's famous denition of rhetoric
is viewed as the ability in any particular case to
see the available means of persuasion. He denes
pisteis as atechnic (inartistic) and entechnic (artistic). Of the pisteis provided through speech there are
three parts: ethos, pathos, and logos. He introduces
paradigms and syllogisms as means of persuasion.
The Rhetoric consists of three books. Book I oers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a
Chapter Eight Aristotle denes and discusses the four
working denition; it also oers a detailed discussion of
forms of politeia (constitution) useful in deliberathe major contexts and types of rhetoric. Book II distive rhetoric: democracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, and
cusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an ormonarchy.
ator must rely on: those grounded in credibility (ethos),
in the emotions and psychology of the audience (pathos),
Chapter Nine This chapter discusses the virtues and
and in patterns of reasoning (logos). Book III introduces
concepts of to kalon (the honorable) included in epithe elements of style (word choice, metaphor, and sendeictic rhetoric. Aristotle describes what makes certence structure) and arrangement (organization). Some
tain topics appropriate or worthy for praise or blame.
attention is paid to delivery, but generally the reader
He also states that it is important to highlight certain
is referred to the Poetics for more information in that
traits of the subject of praise.
*
area. [19]
Many chapters in Book I of Aristotle's Rhetoric cover the Chapter Ten Discusses what syllogisms should be devarious typical deliberative arguments in Athenian culrived from kategoria (accusations) and apologia (deture.
fenses) for judicial rhetoric. Also introduces the
wrongdoing, which is useful for judicial rhetoric.
Chapter One Aristotle rst denes rhetoric as the
counterpart (antistrophos) of dialectic (Bk. 1:1:1- Chapter Eleven This chapter discusses the many dif2). He explains the similarities between the two but
ferent types of hedone (pleasure) useful for judicial
fails to comment on the dierences. Here he introrhetoric. Aristotle states these as the reasons for
duces the term enthymeme (Bk. 1:1:3).
people doing wrong.
120
121
diences as a central guide. Thus, the speakers eect on Chapter 7 Aristotle expands on the use of appropriate
the audience serves as a key theme throughout Book II.
style in addressing the subject. Lexis will be appropriate if it expresses emotion and character and
Book II ends with a transition to Book III. The transition
is proportional to the subject matter. Aristotle
concludes the discussion of pathos, ethos, paradigms, enstresses emotion, credibility, genus (like age), and
thymemes, and maxims so that Book III may focus on
moral state as important considerations (Bk. 3 7:1delivery, style, and arrangement.
6).
18.6.1
Chapter 11 Explains why devices of style can defamiliarize language. Aristotle warns that it is inappropriate to speak in hyperbole (Bk. 3 11:15).
Chapter 5 Addresses how to speak properly by using Chapter 15 Handles prejudicial attacks according to
Aristotle which later on became part of Stasis (arguconnectives, calling things by their specic name,
mentation theory) which is determining the quesavoiding terms with ambiguous meanings, observtion at issue in a trial.
ing the gender of nouns, and correctly using singular
and plural words (Bk. 3 5:1-6).
Chapter 16 Digsis or narration is discussed and
demonstrates how one must work through an arguChapter 6 Gives practical advice on how to amment by using logos. Narration diers in epideictic,
plify language by using Onkos (expansiveness) and
judicial, and deliberative narratives.
syntomia (conciseness). Not using the term circle,
but giving its denition, would exemplify onkos, and
using the word as the denition would exemplify Chapter 17 Looks at the pistis or the proof in an oration, and how it varies in each type of speech.
syntomia (Bk.3 5:1-3).
122
Chapter 18 Erotsis, also known as interrogation referred to asking and demanding responses in trials
during Aristotle's time. It is seen as, most opportune when an opponent has said one thing and when
if the right question is asked, an absurdity results
(Bk. 3 19:1).
Chapter 19 Aristotle's nal chapter in Book III discusses epilogues, which are the conclusion of
speeches and must include four things: disposing
the hearer favorably toward the speaker and unfavorably to the opponent, amplifying and minimizing, moving the hearer into emotional reactions, and
giving reminder of the speech's main points(Bk.
3 19:1-4).
Scholars are turning to Book III once again to develop
theories about Greek style and its contemporary relevance.* [23]
18.9 Notes
[1] Ars Rhetorica. Edited by W. D. Ross. OCT. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1959.
[2] Bizzell, P. and Bruce Herzberg. (2000). The Rhetorical
Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present.
NY: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 3.
[3] Golden, James L., Goodwin F. Berquist, William E. Coleman, Ruth Golden and J. Michael Sproule (eds.). (2007).
The rhetoric of Western thought: From the Mediterranean
world to the global setting, 9th ed. Dubuque, IA (USA):
p.67.
[4] Gross, Alan G. and Arthur E. Walzer. (2000). Rereading Aristotle's Rhetoric. Carbondale, IL (USA): Southern
Illinois University Press: p.ix. Gross and Walzer further
say that There is no comparable situation in any other
discipline: No other discipline would claim that a single
ancient text so usefully informs current deliberations on
practice and theory."(p.x).
[5] Murphy, John J. (1983). Introduction, " Peter Ramus,
Arguments in Rhetoric against Quintilian. C. Newlands
(trans.), J. J. Murphy (ed.). DeKalb IL (USA): Univ. of
Illinois Press.
[6] Gross and Walzer, 2000, p.ix.
[7] Griswold, Charles.Plato on Rhetoric and Poetry, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, December 22, 2003.
[8] Gorgias, 465a, Perseus Project.
[9] Aristotle, Retoric, 1.1.1.
[10] Jebb, Richard C. (trans.) (1909). The Rhetoric of Aristotle. Cambridge: University Press.
[11] Freese, John H. (trans.) (1924). Aristotle, The Art of
Rhetoric. With Greek text. Cambridge: Loeb Classical
Library/Harvard University Press.
[12] Roberts, W.Rhys (trans). (1924). Rhetorica: The Works
of Aristotle, Vol.11. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rpt. 1954
in Aristotle, Rhetoricand Poetics(trans. Roberts
and Ingram Bywater). New York: Modern Library.
[13] Cooper, Lane (trans). (1932/1960). The Rhetoric of
Aristotle. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
[14] Kennedy, George A. (trans./ed.). 1991. Aristotle
'On Rhetoric': A Theory of Civic Discourse. New
York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
123
[16] Wichelns, H. (1925/1958). 'The Literary Criticism of Oratory' in D.C.Bryant (ed.) The Rhetorical Idiom: Essays
in Rhetoric, Oratory, Language, and Drama. D.C.Bryant
(ed.). Rpt. Ithaca NY (USA): Cornell University Press.
p.5-42.
Kennedy, George A. Aristotle, on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. NY/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Chapter 19
Poetics (Aristotle)
Aristotle's Poetics (Greek: , Latin: De 19.1.1 Form
Poetica;* [1] c. 335 BCE* [2]) is the earliest surviving
work of dramatic theory and the rst extant philosoph- The table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern
ical treatise to focus on literary theory.* [3]
Library's Basic Works of Aristotle (2001) identies ve
*
In it, Aristotle oers an account of what he callspoetry basic parts within it. [9]
(a term which in Greek literally means makingand
in this context includes dramacomedy, tragedy, and the
satyr playas well as lyric poetry and epic poetry). They
are similar in the fact that they are all imitations but different in the three ways that Aristotle describes:
1. Dierences in music rhythm, harmony, meter and
melody.
2. Dierence of goodness in the characters.
3. Dierence in how the narrative is presented: telling
a story or acting it out.
In examining itsrst principles, Aristotle nds two: 1)
imitation and 2) genres and other concepts by which that
of truth is applied/revealed in the poesis. His analysis
of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion.* [4] Although Aristotle's Poetics is universally acknowledged in
the Western critical tradition,almost every detail about
his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions.* [5]
The work was lost to the Western world for a long time.
It was available in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance
only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes.* [6]
19.1.2
Content
125
[used] separately in the [various] parts [of the
play] and [represented] by people acting and
not by narration, accomplishing by means of
pity and terror the catharsis of such emotions.
By embellished speech, I mean that
which has rhythm and melody, i.e. song. By
with its elements separately, I mean that
some [parts of it] are accomplished only by
means of spoken verses, and others again by
means of song (1449b25-30).* [14]
Tragedy consists of six parts which Aristotle enumerates
in order of importance, beginning with the most essential
and ending with the least: Aristotle considers Tragedy superior to Epics and considers them higher forms of art.
Tragedies are said to be animitation of an action that is
serious.Tragedies are written in a dramatic form with dialogue between multiple character, and not in traditional
narrative form. Tragedy should make the viewer feel fear
and pity. Tragedy arouses the emotions of pity and fear in
order to purge away their excess, to reduce these passions
to a healthy level. Aristotle also talks about pleasure
that is proper to tragedy, apparently meaning the aesthetic
pleasure one gets from contemplating the pity and fear
that are aroused through the play. Tragedy is rooted in
the fundamental order of the universe; it creates a causeand-eect chain that clearly reveals what may happen at
any time or place because that is the way the world operates.
plot (mythos)
Refers to the structure of incidents(actions). Key elements
of the plot are reversals, recognition, and suering. The best plot
should be complex(i.e. involve
a change of fortune). It should
imitate actions arousing fear and
pity. Thus it should proceed from
good fortune to bad and involve a
high degree of suering for the protagonist, usually involving physical
harm or death.
Actions should be logical and follow naturally from actions that precede them. They will be more satisfying to the audience if they come
about by surprise or seeming coincidence and are only afterward seen
as plausible, even necessary.
When a character is unfortunate
by reversal(s) of fortune (peripeteia
known today in pop culture as
a plot twist), at rst he suers
126
character (ethos)
It is much better if a tragical accident happens to a hero because of
a mistake he makes (hamartia) instead of things that might happen
anyway. That is because the audience is more likely to be moved
by it. A hero may have made it
knowingly (in Medea) or unknowingly (Oedipus). A hero may leave
a deed undone (due to timely discovery, knowledge present at the
point of doing deed). Character
is the moral or ethical character in
tragic play. In a perfect tragedy,
the character will support the plot,
which means personal motivations
will somehow connect parts of the
cause-and-eect chain of actions
producing pity and fear.
Main character should be
good Aristotle explains that
audiences do not like, for example, villains making fortune from miseryin the end.
It might happen though, and
might make the play interesting. Nevertheless, the moral
is at stake here and morals
are important to make people
happy (people can, for example, see tragedy because they
want to release their anger)
appropriateif a character is
supposed to be wise, it is unlikely he is young (supposing
wisdom is gained with age)
consistent if a person is a
soldier, he is unlikely to be
scared of blood (if this soldier
is scared of blood it must be
explained and play some role
in the story to avoid confusing
the audience); it is alsogood
if a character doesn't change
opinionthat muchif the play
is not drivenby who characters are, but by what they
do (audience is confused in
case of unexpected shifts in
behaviour [and its reasons and
morals] of characters)
consistently inconsistentif
a character always behaves
foolishly it is strange if he suddenly becomes smart. In this
case it would be good to explain such change, otherwise
the audience may be confused.
If character changes opinion
a lot it should be clear he is
a character who has this trait,
not a real life person - this is
also to avoid confusion
thought (dianoia) spoken (usually) reasoning of
human characters can explain the characters or story
background
diction (lexis)
Refers to the quality of speech in
tragedy. Speeches should reect
character, the moral qualities of
those on the stage. The expression
of the meaning of the words.
melody (melos)
The Chorus too should be regarded
as one of the actors. It should be
an integral part of the whole, and
share in the action. Should be contributed to the unity of the plot. It
is a very real factor in the pleasure
of the drama.
spectacle (opsis)
Refers to the visual apparatus of
the play, including set, costumes
and props (anything you can see).
Aristotle calls spectacle the least
artisticelement of tragedy, and the
least connected with the work of
the poet (playwright). For example:
if the play hasbeautifulcostumes
andbadacting andbadstory,
there is something wrongwith
it. Even though thatbeautymay
save the play it isnot a nice thing.
Spectacle is like a suspenseful horror lm.
He oers the earliest-surviving explanation for the origins
of tragedy and comedy:
Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy tragedy
127
19.2 Inuence
Peripeteia or reversal
Anagnorisis or recognition, identication
Hamartia or miscalculation(understood in Romanticism as tragic aw)
Mythos or plot
Ethos or character
Dianoia or thought, theme
Lexis or diction, speech
Melos, or melody
The Poetics and Rhetoric have often been treated as sister works, separate from the rest of the Aristotelian
canon.* [16] This is probably because in Aristotle's time
rhetoric and poetics were classied as sort of siblings,
two dierent aspects of performance.* [17] Because of
rhetoric's direct importance for law and politics, it
evolved to become, to a large degree, distinct from poetics, in spite of both themes being classied under aesthetics in the Aristotelian system. In this sense, rhetoric
and poetics are two sides of the same thingthe aesthetic
dimension.
The Arabic version of Aristotles Poetics that inuenced
the Middle Ages was translated from a Greek manuscript
dated to sometime prior to the year 700. This manuscript
was translated from Greek to Syriac and is independent
of the currently-accepted 11th-century source designated
Paris 1741. The Syriac language source used for the
Arabic translations departed widely in vocabulary from
the original Poetics and it initiated a misinterpretation of
Aristotelian thought that continued through the Middle
Ages.* [18] Paris 1741 today can be found on line at the
Bibliothque nationale de France (National Library of
France).* [19]
Opsis or spectacle
128
19.6 Notes
19.7 Sources
Editions commentaries translations
Aristotles Treatise On Poetry, transl. with notes by
Th. Twining, I-II, London 2 1812
Aristotelis De arte poetica liber, tertiis curis recognovit et adnotatione critica auxit I. Vahlen, Lipsiae
3
1885
Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. A revised Text with
Critical Introduction, Translation and Commentary
by I. Bywater, Oxford 1909
Aristoteles: , mit Einleitung, Text
und adnotatio critica, exegetischem Kommentar [...]
von A. Gudeman, Berlin/Leipzig 1934
,
. , ,
. , (. ,
2) 1937
Aristotele: Poetica, introduzione, testo e commento
di A. Rostagni, Torino 2 1945
Aristotles Poetics: The Argument, by G. F. Else,
Harvard 1957
Aristotelis De arte poetica liber, recognovit brevique
adnotatione critica instruxit R. Kassel, Oxonii 1965
Aristotle: Poetics, Introduction, Commentary and
Appendixes by D. W. Lucas, Oxford 1968
Aristotle: Poetics, with Tractatus Coislinianus, reconstruction of Poetics II, and the Fragments of
the On the Poets, transl. by R. Janko, Indianapolis/Cambridge 1987
Aristotle: Poetics, edited and translated by St. Halliwell, (Loeb Classical Library), Harvard 1995
Aristotle: Poetics, translated with an introduction and
notes by M. Heath, (Penguin) London 1996
Aristoteles: Poetik, (Werke in deutscher bersetzung
5) bers. von A. Schmitt, Darmstadt 2008
Aristotle: Poetics, editio maior of the Greek text with
historical introductions and philological commentaries by L. Tarn and D. Goutas, (Mnemosyne Supplements 338) Leiden/Boston 2012
19.7. SOURCES
129
Lanza, D. (ed.), La poetica di Aristotele e la sua storia, Pisa 2002
Further reading
Belore, Elizabeth, S., Tragic Pleasures: Aristotle on
Plot and Emotion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP
(1992). ISBN 0-691-06899-2
Bremer, J.M., Hamartia: Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle and the Greek Tragedy, Amsterdam
1969
Butcher, Samuel H., Aristotles Theory of Poetry
and Fine Art, New York 4 1911
Carroll, M., Aristotles Poetics, c. xxv, n the Light
of the Homeric Scholia, Baltimore 1895
Cave, Terence, Recognitions. A Study in Poetics, Oxford 1988
Carlson, Marvin, Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the
Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell
UP (1993). ISBN 978-0-8014-8154-3.
Dukore, Bernard F., Dramatic Theory and Criticism:
Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle
(1974). ISBN 0-03-091152-4
Downing, E., o : n ssay on Aristotle
s muthos, Classical Antiquity 3 (1984) 164-78
Leonhardt, J., Phalloslied und Dithyrambos. Aristoteles ber den Ursprung des griechischen Dramas.
Heidelberg 1991
Lienhard, K., Entstehung und Geschichte von Aristoteles Poetik, Zrich 1950
Lord, C.,Aristotles History of Poetry, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
Association 104 (1974) 195-228
Lucas, F. L., Tragedy: Serious Drama in Relation
to Aristotle's Poetics. London: Hogarth (1957).
New York: Collier. ISBN 0-389-20141-3. London:
Chatto. ISBN 0-7011-1635-8
Luserke, M. (ed.), Die aristotelische Katharsis.
Dokumente ihrer Deutung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Hildesheim/Zrich/N. York 1991
Morpurgo- Tagliabue, G., Linguistica e stilistica di
Aristotele, Rome 1967
Rorty, Amlie Oksenberg (ed.), Essays on Aristotle
s Poetics, Princeton 1992
Intellect
130
Chapter 20
man and woman takes on a hierarchical character by commenting on male rule overbarbarians, or non-Greeks.
By nature the female has been distinguished from the
slave. For nature makes nothing in the manner that the
coppersmiths make the Delphic knife - that is, frugally
- but, rather, it makes each thing for one purpose. For
each thing would do its work most nobly if it had one task
rather than many. Among the barbarians the female and
the slave have the same status. This is because there are
no natural rulers among them but, rather, the association
among them is between male and female slave. On account of this, the poets say that it is tting that Greeks
rule barbarians,as the barbarian and the slave are by
nature the same.* [7] While Aristotle reduced women's
roles in society, and promoted the idea that women should
receive less food and nourishment than males, he also criticised the results: a woman, he thought, was then more
compassionate, more opinionated, more apt to scold and
to strike. He stated that women are more prone to despondency, more void of shame or self-respect, more false
of speech, more deceptive, and of having a better memory.* [8]
As for the dierences between husband and wife, ArisHis idea of procreation was an active, ensouling mascu- totle says that these alwaysconsisted in external apline element bringing life to a passive female element.* [6] pearances, in speeches, and in honors.* [12] Aristotle adAristotle explains how and why the association between vocated that, should a husband lose money and his rep131
132
utation, a wife was to refrain from complaint and to attribute this to sickness, ignorance or accidental errors. He
thought that, sometimes but not always, males were leaders, or, both the male and the female have the deliberative
capacity of the soul, but he thought that in the female it
lacked authority.
20.2.1
Aristotle wrote that a husband should secure the agreement, loyalty, and devotion of his wife, so that whether
he himself is present or not, there may be no dierence
in her attitude towards him, since she realizes that they
are alike guardians of the common interests; and so when
he is away she may feel that to her no man is kinder or
more virtuous or more truly hers than her own husband.
20.2.4 Children
20.4. REFERENCES
133
kind of people they become and thus the kind of society [14] The Politics of Aristotle, Book 2 Ch. 9, trans. Benjamin
Jowett, London: Colonial Press, 1900
or community that everyone lives in.
20.3 Legacy
20.3.1
Galen
20.3.2
Church Fathers
Joyce E. Salisbury argues that the Church Fathers, inuenced by Aristotle's opinions, opposed the practice
of independent female ascetism because it threatened to
emancipate women from men.* [17]
20.3.3
Otto Weininger
20.4 References
[1] Aristotle: Politics [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]". Iep.utm.edu. 2005-07-27. Retrieved 2013-10-09.
[2] Contributed by: BARBARA A. PARSONS. Aristotle
On Women. Gem.greenwood.com. Retrieved 2013-1009.
[3] Generation of Animals, II, 728a
[4] Generation of Animals, I, 728a
[5] Generation of Animals, VI, 728a
[6] Aristotle on woman
[7] Dana Jalbert Stauer The Journal of Politics, Vol. 70, No.
4 (Oct. 2008), pp. 929941
[8] History of Animals, book IX, part 1
[9] Politics, 1252a7f., 1254b2-6, 1255b16-20
[10] Politics, 1255b20, 1259b4-6; see also Book III, 1277b7-9
[11] Politics, I, 1259a39-b1
[12] Politics, 1259b6-10
[13] The Politics and Economics of Aristotle, Edward English
Walford and John Gillies, trans., (London: G. Bell &
Sons, 1908)
Chapter 21
Aristotelian physics
Aristotelian physics is a form of natural science described in the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384322 BCE). In the Physics, Aristotle established general principles of change that govern all natural bodies,
both living and inanimate, celestial and terrestrial including all motion, change with respect to place, change
with respect to size or number, qualitative change of any
kind; andcoming to be(coming into existence,generation) andpassing away(no longer existing,corruption).
21.1 Concepts
nature is everywhere the cause of order.* [1]
Aristotle, Physics VIII.1
While consistent with common human experience, Aristotle's principles were not based on controlled, quantitative experiments, so, while they account for many broad
features of nature, they do not describe our universe in the
precise, quantitative way now expected of science. Contemporaries of Aristotle like Aristarchus rejected these
principles in favor of heliocentrism, but their ideas were
not widely accepted. Aristotle's principles were dicult to disprove merely through casual everyday observation, but later development of the scientic method challenged his views with experiments and careful measurement, using increasingly advanced technology such as the
telescope and vacuum pump.
hot
dry
AIR
EARTH
wet
cold
WATER
21.1. CONCEPTS
process. These properties are predicated of an actual substance relative to the work it is able to do; that of heating
or chilling and of desiccating or moistening. The four elements exist only with regard to this capacity and relative
to some potential work. The celestial element is eternal
and unchanging, so only the four terrestrial elements account forcoming to beandpassing away or, in the
terms of Aristotle's De Generatione et Corruptione (
),generationandcorruption
.
21.1.2
Elements
135
ements. Other, lighter objects, he believed, have less
earth, relative to the other three elements in their composition.* [5]
Aether
Main articles: Aether (classical element) and Dynamics
of the celestial spheres
The Sun, Moon, planets and stars are embedded in
perfectly concentric "crystal spheres" that rotate eternally at xed rates. Because the celestial spheres are
incapable of any change except rotation, the terrestrial
sphere of re must account for the heat, starlight and
occasional meteorites.* [6] The lunar sphere is the only
celestial sphere that actually comes in contact with the
sublunary orb's changeable, terrestrial matter, dragging
the rareed re and air along underneath as it rotates.* [7]
Like Homer's there () thepure airof Mount
Olympus was the divine counterpart of the air breathed
by mortal beings (, aer). The celestial spheres are
composed of the special element aether, eternal and unchanging, the sole capability of which is a uniform circular motion at a given rate (relative to the diurnal motion
of the outermost sphere of xed stars).
The concentric, aetherial, cheek-by-jowl "crystal
spheres" that carry the Sun, Moon and stars move
eternally with unchanging circular motion. Spheres are
embedded within spheres to account for the wandering
stars(i.e. the planets, which, in comparison with the
Sun, Moon and stars, appear to move erratically). Later,
the belief that all spheres are concentric was forsaken in
favor of Ptolemy's deferent and epicycle model. Aristotle
submits to the calculations of astronomers regarding
the total number of spheres and various accounts give
a number in the neighborhood of fty spheres. An
unmoved mover is assumed for each sphere, including
a prime moverfor the sphere of xed stars. The
unmoved movers do not push the spheres (nor could
they, being immaterial and dimensionless) but are the
nal cause of the spheres' motion, i.e. they explain it in a
way that's similar to the explanation the soul is moved
by beauty.
136
Material
21.1. CONCEPTS
are ambiguous: "A is for the sake of B" may
mean that A exists or is undertaken in order to
bring B about; or it may mean that A is for B
s benet (An II.4 415b23, 201); but both
types of nality have, he thinks. a crucial role
to play in natural. as well as deliberative, contexts. Thus a man may exercise for the sake of
his health: and so health,and not just the
hope of achieving it, is the cause of his action
(this distinction is not trivial). But the eyelids
are for the sake of the eye (to protect it: PA
II.1 3) and the eye for the sake of the animal
as a whole (to help it function properly: cf. An
II.7).* [14]
R.J. Hankinson, Causesin Blackwell
Companion to Aristotle
21.1.4
Biology
According to Aristotle, the science of living things proceeds by gathering observations about each natural kind
of animal, organizing them into genera and species (the
dierentiae in History of Animals) and then going on to
study the causes (in Parts of Animals and Generation of
Animals, his three main biological works).* [15]
The four causes of animal generation can
be summarized as follows. The mother and
father represent the material and ecient
causes, respectively. The mother provides the
matter out of which the embryo is formed,
while the father provides the agency that
informs that material and triggers its development. The formal cause is the denition of the
animals substantial being (GA I.1 715a4: ho
logos ts ousias). The nal cause is the adult
form, which is the end for the sake of which
development takes place.* [15]
Devin M. Henry, Generation of Animals
in Blackwell Companion to Aristotle
137
processes naturally constituted things simply
seek to realize in full actuality the potentials
contained within them (indeed, this is what
is for them to be natural); on the other hand,
as the detractors of Aristotelianism from the
seventeenth century on were not slow to point
out, this economy is won at the expense of any
serious empirical content. Mechanism, at least
as practiced by Aristotles contemporaries
and predecessors, may have been explanatorily
inadequate but at least it was an attempt at a
general account given in reductive terms of the
lawlike connections between things. Simply
introducing what later reductionists were to
sco at as occult qualitiesdoes not explain
it merely, in the manner of Molires
famous satirical joke, serves to re-describe the
eect. Formal talk, or so it is said, is vacuous.
Things are not however quite as bleak as this.
For one thing, theres no point in trying to engage in reductionist science if you dont have
the wherewithal, empirical and conceptual, to
do so successfully: science shouldn't be simply
unsubstantiated speculative metaphysics. But
more than that. there is a point to describing
the world in such teleologically loaded terms:
it makes sense of things in a way that atomist
speculations do not. And further. Aristotle
s talk of species-forms is not as empty as
his opponents would insinuate. He doesn't
simply say that things do what they do because
that's the sort of thing they do: the whole
point of his classicatory biology, most clearly
exemplied in PA, is to show what sorts of
function go with what, which presuppose
which and which are subservient to which.
And in this sense, formal or functional biology
is susceptible of a type of reductionism. We
start, he tells us, with the basic animal kinds
which we all pre-theoretically (although not
indefeasibly) recognize (cf. PA I.4): but we
then go on to show how their parts relate to
one another: why it is, for instance that only
blooded creatures have lungs, and how certain
structures in one species are analogous or
homologous to those in another (such as scales
in sh, feathers in birds, hair in mammals).
And the answers, for Aristotle, are to be found
in the economy of functions, and how they all
contribute to the overall well-being (the nal
cause in this sense) of the animal.* [16]
R.J. Hankinson, The Relations between
the Causesin Blackwell Companion to
Aristotle
138
Psychology
According to Aristotle, perception and thought are similar, though not exactly alike in that perception is concerned only with the external objects that are acting on
our sense organs at any given time, whereas we can think
about anything we choose. Thought is about universal
forms, in so far as they've been successfully understood,
based on our memory of having encountered instances of
those forms directly.* [17]
Aristotles theory of cognition rests on two
central pillars: his account of perception and
his account of thought. Together, they make
up a signicant portion of his psychological
writings, and his discussion of other mental
states depends critically on them. These two
activities, moreover, are conceived of in an
analogous manner, at least with regard to their
most basic forms. Each activity is triggered
by its object each, that is, is about the very
thing that brings it about. This simple causal
account explains the reliability of cognition:
perception and thought are, in eect, transducers, bringing information about the world into
our cognitive systems, because, at least in their
most basic forms, they are infallibly about
the causes that bring them about (An III.4
429a1318). Other, more complex mental
states are far from infallible. But they are still
tethered to the world, in so far as they rest on
the unambiguous and direct contact perception
and thought enjoy with their objects.* [17]
Victor Caston, Phantasia and Thought
in Blackwell Companion to Aristotle
139
but only chance (, tukhe), namely an indenite be temporary and self-expending, meaning that all mo() cause(Metaphysics V, 1025a25).
tion would tend toward the form of Aristotle's natural motion.
It is obvious that there are principles and
causes which are generable and destructible
apart from the actual processes of generation
and destruction; for if this is not true, everything will be of necessity: that is, if there must
necessarily be some cause, other than accidental, of that which is generated and destroyed.
Will this be, or not? Yes, if this happens; otherwise not (Metaphysics VI, 1027a29).
21.1.8
140
21.7. REFERENCES
141
of universal gravitation. This, in turn, was replaced by [11] Hankinson, R.J.The Theory of the Physics. Blackwell
Companion to Aristotle. p. 216.
the General theory of relativity due to Albert Einstein.
Further information: Gravity
21.5 Works
21.6 Notes
[17] Caston, Victor (2009).Phantasia and Thought. Blackwell Companion to Aristotle. pp. 3222233.
[18] De Caelo II. 13-14.
[19] For instance, by Simplicius in his Corollaries on Place.
21.7 References
[22] Gindikin, S.G. (1988). Tales of Physicists and Mathematicians. Birkh. p. 29. ISBN 9780817633172. LCCN
87024971.
142
that this power or condition and not the ambient medium secures the continuation of
such motion. According to Philoponos this
impressed virtue was temporary. It was a
self-expending inclination, and thus the violent motion thus produced comes to an end
and changes into natural motion. Ibn Sina
adopted this idea in its rough outline, but the
violent inclination as he conceived it was a
non-self-consuming one. It was a permanent
force whose eect got dissipated only as a result of external agents such as air resistance.
He is apparently the rst to conceive such a
permanent type of impressed virtue for nonnatural motion. [...] Indeed, self-motion of
the type conceived by Ibn Sina is almost the
opposite of the Aristotelian conception of violent motion of the projectile type, and it is
rather reminiscent of the principle of inertia,
i.e., Newton's rst law of motion.
[27] Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). To Save the Phenomena: An
Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo,
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. 28.
[28] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., Al-Biruni
, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of
St Andrews.
[29] Rak Berjak and Muzaar Iqbal, Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni
correspondence, Islam & Science, June 2003.
[30] Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), Statics, in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 2, pp. 614642 [621-622].
(Routledge, London and New York.)
[31] Shlomo Pines (1970).Abu'l-Barakt al-Baghdd, Hibat
Allah. Dictionary of Scientic Biography 1. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 2628. ISBN 0-684-101149.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003).Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory, Journal of the History
of Ideas 64 (4), pp. 521546 [528].)
[32] A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
[33] Aydin Sayili (1987),Ibn Sn and Buridan on the Motion
of the Projectile, Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences 500 (1): 477482
[34] Gutman, Oliver (2003). Pseudo-Avicenna, Liber Celi Et
Mundi: A Critical Edition. Brill Publishers. p. 193. ISBN
90-04-13228-7.
[35] (Ragep 2001b, pp. 634)
[36] (Ragep 2001a, pp. 1523)
[37] Galileo Galilei, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems.
[38] Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences.
21.8 Sources
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a). Tusi and Copernicus:
The Earth's Motion in Context. Science in Context
(Cambridge University Press) 14 (12): 145163.
doi:10.1017/s0269889701000060.
Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b). Freeing
Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic
Inuence on Science. Osiris, 2nd Series 16 (Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions):
4964 and 6671. Bibcode:2001Osir...16...49R.
doi:10.1086/649338.
H. Carteron (1965) Does Aristotle Have a Mechanics?" in Articles on Aristotle 1.
Science
eds. Jonathan Barnes, Malcolm Schoeld, Richard
Sorabji (London: General Duckworth and Company
Limited), 161-174.
Chapter 22
Aristotelian Society
The Aristotelian Society for the Systematic Study of
Philosophy, more generally known as the Aristotelian
Society, was founded at a meeting on 19 April 1880, at
17 Bloomsbury Square* [1] which resolvedto constitute
a society of about twenty and to include ladies; the society
to meet fortnightly, on Mondays at 8 o'clock, at the rooms
of the Spelling Reform Association"* [2]
cuss philosophical papers from all philosophical traditions. The current President is Sarah Broadie, a Professor
of Philosophy at University of St Andrews.* [5]
Its other work includes giving grants to support the organisation of academic conferences in philosophy, and, with
Oxford University Press, the production of the 'Lines of
Thought' series of philosophical monographs.
Amongst other things, the rules of the Society stipulated: Its annual conference, organised since 1918 in conjunction with the Mind Association (publishers of the philoThe object of this Society shall be the
sophical journal Mind), known as the Joint Session of the
systematic study of philosophy; 1st,
Aristotelian Society and the Mind Association, is hosted
as to its historical development; 2nd,
by dierent university departments in turn in July each
as to its methods and problems.
year.
According to H. Wildon Carr, in choosing a name for the
society, it was:
essential to nd a name which would denitely prescribe the speculative character of the
study which was to be the Society's ideal, and
it seemed that this could best be secured by
adopting the name of a philosopher eminently
representative. There is only one such name in
the history of philosophy and so we became the
Aristotelian Society, not for the special study
of Aristotle, or of Aristotelianism, but for the
systematic study of Philosophy.* [3]
22.1 Publications
The rst edition of the Society's proceedings, the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society for the Systematic Study
of Philosophy, now the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, was issued in 1888.
The papers from the invited speakers at the Joint Session
conference are published in the June of each year (i.e.,
prior to the joint conference) in The Proceedings of the
Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume.ISSN 00667374
144
D. G. Ritchie (1898-1899)
G. F. Stout (1899-1904)
R. B. Braithwaite (1946-1947)
C. A. Mace (1948-1949)
J. Wisdom (1950-1951)
A. J. Ayer (1951-1952)
H. B. Acton (1952-1953)
G. E. Moore (1918-1919)
C. D. Broad (1954-1955)
J. N. Findlay (1955-1956)
W. R. Inge (1920-1921)
J. L. Austin (1956-1957)
F. C. S. Schiller (1921-1922)
R. I. Aaron (1957-1958)
A. N. Whitehead (1922-1923)
H. L. A. Hart (1959-1960)
A. E. Duncan-Jones (1960-1961)
J. A. Smith (1925-1926)
H. D. Lewis (1962-1963)
C. D. Broad (1927-1928)
A. E. Taylor (1928-1929)
W. H. Walsh (1964-1965)
J. Laird (1929-1930)
W. G. de Burgh (1931-1932)
D. J. O'Connor (1968-1969)
L. S. Stebbing (1933-1934)
P. F. Strawson (1969-1970)
G. C. Field (1934-1935)
W. B. Gallie (1970-1971)
J. L. Stocks (1935-1936)
R. M. Hare (1972-1973)
G. F. Stout (1938-1939)
A. M. Quinton (1975-1976)
D. M. Mackinnon (1976-1977)
A. C. Ewing (1941-1942)
D. W. Hamlyn (1977-1978)
G. E. L. Owen (1978-1979)
H. H. Price (1943-1944)
H. J. Paton (1944-1945)
P. G. Winch (1980-1981)
22.3. NOTES
R. F. Holland (1981-1982)
T. J. Smiley (1982-1983)
145
22.3 Notes
G. E. M. Anscombe (1987-1988)
A. R. Manser (1983-1984)
22.4 References
Brown, A.W., The Metaphysical Society: Victorian Minds in Crisis, 1869-1880New York:
Columbia University Press (1947)
Carr, H.W., The Fiftieth Session: A Retrospect
, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol.29,
(1928-1929), pp. 359386.
Chapter 23
Aristotelian theology
Aristotelian theology and the scholastic view of God
have been inuential in Western intellectual history.
23.1 Metaphysics
Main articles: Metaphysics (Aristotle) and Unmoved
movers
In his rst philosophy, later called the Metaphysics, (or
after the Physics), Aristotle discusses the meaning
of being as being. He refers to the unmoved movers,
and assigns one to each movement in the heavens and
tasks future astronomers with correlating the estimated
47 to 55 motions of the Eudoxan planetary model with
the most current and accurate observations. According
to Aristotle, each unmoved mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation; they have no knowledge of
the cosmos, nor do they participate therein. The planets
and stars, which have their source of motion within themselves (by virtue of aether, Aristotle's fth element) aspire
to emulate the uniform circular motion of their particular mover. Thus captivated, their tireless performance is
entirely the result of their own desire. This is one way in
which the movers are said to be unmoved. Also, because
they are immaterial eternal substantial form, they lack any
aspect of magnitude or volume and occupy no location;
thus, they are physically incapable of moving anywhere,
or of moving anything. Likewise, they must have no sensory perception whatsoever on account of Aristotle's theory of cognition: were any form of sense perception to intrude upon their thoughts, in that instant they would cease
to be themselves, because actual self-reection is their singular essence, their whole being. Like the heavenly bodies in their unadorned pursuit, so the wise look, with affection, toward the star; and hence as a role model, they
inspire those who look up to them, and by whom others
still, will yet nd themselves enthralled, and so on, creating the enduring natural order of aeon, season, animal
and plant.
146
147
that might not exist, may have led Anselm to his famous
ontological argument for God's existence.
23.3 Inuence
See also: Ontological argument and Apophatic theology
Aristotle's principles of being (see section above) inuenced Anselm's view of God, whom he calledthat than
which nothing greater can be conceived.Anselm thought
that God did not feel emotions such as anger or love, but
appeared to do so through our imperfect understanding.
The incongruity of judging beingagainst something
Henotheism
23.5 References
[1] Aristotle, Metaphysics 1074b.
[2] Leo Elders, Aristotle's theology: A commentary on Book
[lambda] of the Metaphysics, Assen: Van Gorcum, 1972;
Michael Frede, David Charles, ed., Aristotle's Metaphysics
Lambda, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
148
Chapter 24
Corpus Aristotelicum
rection or supervision. (The Constitution of Athens, the
only major modern addition to the Corpus Aristotelicum,
has also been so regarded.) Other works, such as On Colors may have been products of Aristotle's successors at
the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Strato of Lampsacus.
Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities
in doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by
Nicolaus of Damascus. A nal category, omitted here,
includes medieval palmistries, astrological and magical
texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and
self-promotional.
In several of the treatises, there are references to other
works in the corpus. Based on such references, some
scholars have suggested a possible chronological order
for a number of Aristotle's writings. W.D. Ross, for instance, suggested the following broad chronology (which
of course leaves out much): Categories, Topics, Sophistici
Elenchi, Analytics, Metaphysics , the physical works, the
Ethics, and the rest of the Metaphysics.* [1] Many modern
scholars, however, based simply on lack of evidence, are
skeptical of such attempts to determine the chronological
order of Aristotle's writings.* [2]
The end of Sophistical Refutations and beginning of Physics on
page 184 of Bekker's 1831 edition.
149
150
ing on Aristotle use the Bekker number so that the au- The works surviving only in fragments include the diathor's citations can be checked by readers without having logues On Philosophy (or On the Good), Eudemus (or On
to use the same edition or translation that the author used. the Soul), Protrepticus, On Justice, and On Good Birth.
While Bekker numbers are the dominant method used The possibly spurious work, On Ideas survives in quotato refer to the works of Aristotle, Catholic or Thomist tions by Alexander of Aphrodisias in his commentary on
scholars often use the medieval method of reference by Aristotle's Metaphysics. For the dialogues, see also the
book, chapter, and sentence, albeit generally in addition editions of Richard Rudolf Walzer, Aristotelis Dialogorum fragmenta, in usum scholarum (Florence 1934), and
to Bekker numbers.
Renato Laurenti, Aristotele: I frammenti dei dialoghi (2
Stephanus pagination is the comparable system for refer- vols.), Naples: Luigi Loredo, 1987.
ring to the works of Plato.
24.5 Notes
[1] W. D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 1, p.
lxxxii. By thephysical works, Ross means the Physics,
On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption, and the
Meteorology; see Ross, Aristotle's Physics (1936), p. 3.
[2] E.g., Jonathan Barnes,Life and Workin The Cambridge
Companion to Aristotle (1995), pp. 18-22.
[3] The Complete Works of Aristotle, edited by Jonathan
Barnes, 2 vols., Princeton University Press, 1984.
[4] "CU-Boulder Expert Wins $75,000 Award For Research
On Aristotle, University of Colorado Oce of News
Services, December 14, 2005.
24.4.2
Fragments
Surviving fragments of the many lost works of Aristotle were included in the fth volume of Bekker's edition,
edited by Valentin Rose. These are not cited by Bekker
numbers, however, but according to fragment numbers.
Rose's rst edition of the fragments of Aristotle was Aristoteles Pseudepigraphus (1863). As the title suggests,
Rose considered these all to be spurious. The numeration of the fragments in a revised edition by Rose, published in the Teubner series, Aristotelis qui ferebantur librorum fragmenta, Leipzig, 1886, is still commonly used
(indicated by R3 ), although there is a more current edition
with a dierent numeration by Olof Gigon (published in
1987 as a new vol. 3 in Walter de Gruyter's reprint of the
Bekker edition), and a new de Gruyter edition by Eckart
Schtrumpf is in preparation.* [4]
For a selection of the fragments in English translation,
see W.D. Ross, Select Fragments (Oxford 1952), and
Jonathan Barnes (ed.), The Complete Works of Aristotle:
The Revised Oxford Translation, vol. 2, Princeton 1984,
pp. 23842465.
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
1
2
3
4
5
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
9
10
11
12
151
Chapter 25
Categories (Aristotle)
The Categories (Greek Katgoriai; Latin
Categoriae) is a text from Aristotle's Organon that enumerates all the possible kinds of things that can be the
subject or the predicate of a proposition. They areperhaps the single most heavily discussed of all Aristotelian
notions.* [1] The work is brief enough to be divided,
not into books as is usual with Aristotle's works, but into
fteen chapters.
3. Some are both in a subject and able to be predicated of a subject, for example science, which is in
the mind as in a subject, and may be predicated of
geometry as of a subject.
4. Last, some things neither can be in any subject nor
can be predicated of any subject. These are individual substances, which cannot be predicated, because
they are individuals; and cannot be in a subject, because they are substances.
The antepraedicamenta
153
Traditionally, this category is also called a habitus
(from Latin habere, to have).
9. Doing or action (, poiein, to make or do). The
production of change in some other object (or in the
agent itself qua other).
10. Being aected or aection (, paschein, to
suer or undergo). The reception of change from
some other object (or from the aected object itself
qua other). Aristotle's name paschein for this category has traditionally been translated into English as
aectionandpassion(alsopassivity), easily misinterpreted to refer only or mainly to aection
as an emotion or to emotional passion. For action he
gave the example, to lance, to cauterize; for
aection, to be lanced, to be cauterized. His
examples make clear that action is to aection as the
active voice is to the passive voice as acting is to
being acted on.
4. Relative or relation ( , pros ti, toward something). This is the way one object may be related
25.1.3 The postpraedicamenta* [7]
to another. Examples: double, half, large, master,
knowledge.
After discussing the categories, four ways are given in
5. Where or place (, pou, where). Position in rela- which things may be considered contrary to one another.
tion to the surrounding environment. Examples: in Next, the work discusses ve senses wherein a thing may
be considered prior to another, followed by a short section
a marketplace, in the Lyceum.
on simultaneity. Six forms of movement are then dened:
6. When or time (, pote, when). Position in rela- generation, destruction, increase, diminution, alteration,
tion to the course of events. Examples: yesterday, and change of place. The work ends with a brief considlast year.
eration of the word 'have' and its usage.
7. Being-in-a-position, posture, attitude (,
keisthai, to lie). The examples Aristotle gives indicate that he meant a condition of rest resulting from
an action: Lying, sitting, standing. Thus
position may be taken as the end point for the corresponding action. The term is, however, frequently
taken to mean the relative position of the parts of an
object (usually a living object), given that the position of the parts is inseparable from the state of rest
implied.
8. Having or state, condition (, echein, to have
or be). The examples Aristotle gives indicate that
he meant a condition of rest resulting from an affection (i.e. being acted on): shod, armed
. The term is, however, frequently taken to mean
the determination arising from the physical accoutrements of an object: one's shoes, one's arms, etc.
154
25.3 Notes
[1] Smith, Robin 1995Logic. In J. Barnes (ed) The Cambridge companion to Aristotle, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, p. 55.
[2] The forms of predication were called by the medieval
scholastic philosophers the antepraedicamenta.
[3] Note, however, that although Aristotle has apparently distinguished between being in a subject, and being
predicated truly of a subject, in the Prior Analytics these
are treated as synonymous. This has led some to suspect
that Aristotle was not the author of the Categories.
[4] Aristotle (1995)
[5] The Oxford Translation is universally recognized as the
standard English version of Aristotle. See the publisher
s blurb
[6] Note that while Aristotle's use of ousia is ambiguous between 'essence' and substance' there is a close link between
them. See his Metaphysics
[7] This part was probably not part of the original text, but
added by some unknown editor, Ackrill (1963) pp.69-70
25.4 References
Ackrill, John (1963). Aristotle, Categories and De
Interpretatione. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.
Aristotle (1995). Categories. In Barnes,
Jonathan. The Complete Works of Aristotle, 2 vols.
Transl. J. L. Ackrill. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 324.
at Wikisource
Works related to Categories (Owen) at Wikisource
1930 Oxfordtranslation by E. M. Edghill
Classical Library HTML
MIT Classical Archive HTML
1963 translation by J. L. Ackrill, Chapters 1-5 PDF
Translation by Octavius Freire Owen, Librivox
(public domain) audiobook
25.5.2 Commentary
Aristotle's Theory of Categories with an extensive
bibliography
Aristotle's Categories entry by Paul Studtmann in
the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Chapter 26
The Aristotelian Constitution of Athens, now in the British Library (Papyrus 131)
26.1 Aristotle
26.1.1 Synopsis
The Constitution of the Athenians (in ancient Greek , Athenaion Politeia) describes the political system of ancient Athens. The treatise was composed
between 330 and 322 BC. Some ancient authors, such as
A facsimile of the papyrus with the textConstitution of the Athe- Diogenes Lartius, state that Aristotle assigned his pupils
niansby Aristotle.
to prepare a monograph of 158 constitutions of Greek
cities, including a constitution of Athens.
The Aristotelian text is unique, because it is not a part of
the Corpus Aristotelicum. It was lost until two leaves of a The work consists of two parts. The rst part, from Chappapyrus codex carrying part of the text were discovered in ter I to Chapter XLI, deals with the dierent forms of the
Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in 1879 and published in 1880.* [1] constitution, from the trial of the Alcmaeonidae until 403
A second, more extensive papyrus text was purchased in BC. The second part describes the city's institutions, inEgypt by an American missionary in 1890. E. A. Wallis cluding the terms of access to citizenship, magistrates and
Budge of the British Museum acquired it later that year, the courts.
and the rst edition of it by Frederic G. Kenyon was pub- The text was published in 1891 by Frederic George
lished in January, 1891.* [2] The editions of the Greek Kenyon.
Shortly after a controversy arose over
155
156
26.2 Pseudo-Xenophon
26.2.1
by Horace Rackham
Chapter 27
De Interpretatione
De Interpretatione or On Interpretation (Greek:
, Peri Hermeneias) is the second text from
Aristotle's Organon and is among the earliest surviving
philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with
the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit, and formal way. The work is usually
known by its Latin title.
'cat' and the French word 'chat' are dierent symbols, but
the mental experience they stand for the concept of a
cat is the same for English speakers and French speakers). Nouns and verbs on their own do not involve truth
or falsity.
158
Semiotics
Sign
Sign relation
159
Chapter 28
Economics (Aristotle)
This article is about the treatise sometimes said to be writ- 28.1 Introduction
ten by Aristotle. For the similarly named Socratic dialogue by Xenophon, see Oeconomicus.
The title of this piece is derived from the Greek word
The Economics (Greek: ; Latin: Oeconomi- oikos meaning household. However it is still based
on the origin of economics that is commonly known today. This term refers to household management and how
the roles have been created that members of the household should have. In a broad sense the household is the
beginning to economics as a whole. The natural, every day activities of maintaining a house is essential to
the beginning of the economy. From farming, cleaning,
cooking to hiring workers and guarding your property the
household becomes the center for modern understanding
of a society. In this text, the two books explore the true
meaning of economics, while showing that there are many
dierent aspects of it.
28.2 Book I
Book I is broken down to six chapters that begin to give
background of what economics is. The text starts out describing that economics and politics dier in two major
ways. One, from the subjects which they deal with and
two, the number of rulers involved. Like an owner of a
house, there is only one ruling being in the economy while
politics involve many rulers. The one thing that both of
the sciences have in common is they both have a household or city and are trying to make the best use of what
they have to thrive.
28.3 Book II
The second book begins with the idea of there being
four dierent types of economies. The four consist of
the Royal Economy, the Satrapic Economy, the Political Economy, and the Personal Economy. Aristotle states
that he who intends to participate in the economy needs
to know every characteristic of the part of economy they
are involved in to be successful and make the economy
work as whole.
All the economies have one specic thing in common. No
matter what is done, expenditures cannot exceed income.
Aristotle saw this as an important issue, a fundamental to
the notion ofeconomy.The rest of Aristotles second
book involves historical events that created very important ways in which an economy began to function more
eciently and where certain terms arose from that we use
today. The main aspect is the ow of money through any
economy and certain events. War, and more specically
overall protection of countries is where many aspects of
loans, debt, increase taxes, and intriguing investments became important. In times of war an increase of money
to pay for the war was needed. So, places like Athens
needed to either borrow money from other places or be
given men (mercenaries) at specic nancial deals. Other
events like paying for sea explorations and schooling also
increased the dierent types of money exchanges further
stimulating economies. In all, Aristotles book on economy shows an idea of what actually was going on in his
economy from the macro levels all the way down to many
specic micro levels in which still stand to be relevant to-
161
day.
The third book is only known from Latin versions, not
Greek, and deals with the relationship between husband
and wife.
28.5 Notes
[1] Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1995). Oeconomicus: A Social and
Historical Commentary, p. 68. Oxford University Press.
Preview. ISBN 0-19-815025-3.
28.6 References
Armstrong, G Cyril,Introduction to Oeconomica
, Aristotle XVIII, Loeb Classical Library
Chapter 29
Eudemian Ethics
The Eudemian Ethics (Greek: ; Latin:
Ethica Eudemia* [1]), sometimes abbreviated EE in
scholarly works, is a work of philosophy by Aristotle. Its
primary focus is on Ethics, making it one of the primary
sources available for study of Aristotelian Ethics. It is
named for Eudemus of Rhodes, a pupil of Aristotle who
may also have had a hand in editing the nal work.* [2]
It is commonly believed to have been written before the
Nicomachean Ethics, though this is not without controversy.* [2]* [3]
The Eudemian Ethics usually receives less attention than
Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, and when scholars refer simply to The Ethics of Aristotle, they usually mean
the latter. The Eudemian Ethics is shorter than the Nicomachean Ethics, eight books as opposed to ten, and some
of its most interesting passages are mirrored in the latter.
Books IV, V, and VI of the Eudemian Ethics, for example,
are identical to Books V, VI, and VII of the Nicomachean
Ethics, and as a result some critical editions of the former
include only Books IIII and VIIVIII (the omitted books
being included in the publisher's critical edition of the latter).
The translator for the Loeb edition, Harris Rackham,
states in the Introduction to that edition that in some
places The Eudemian Ethics is fuller in expression or more
discursive than The Nicomachean Ethics.Compared to
the Nicomachean Ethics, Rackham mentions, for example
in Book III, which discusses the virtues and some minor
graces of character:
29.1 Notes
[1] Aristotelis Opera by August Immanuel Bekker (1837)
[2] Rackham,Introduction, The Eudemian Ethics, Harvard
University Press
[3] p. xii, M. Woods, Aristotle's Eudemian Ethics: Books I, II,
and VIII, Clarendon Press 1982.
Itinserts the virtue of Mildness between Temperance and Liberality. Temperance is discussed at
the end of Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics, and
Liberality immediately afterwards in the beginning
of Book IV.
Itadds to the minor Graces of Character Nemesis
(righteous indignation at another's undeserved good
or bad fortune), Friendliness and Dignity, while it
omits Gentleness and Agreeableness. The Nicomachean Ethics actually states in Book II that Nemesis will be discussed within that work, but never does
so.
Book VII is concerning friendship, discussed in greater
162
Chapter 30
Generation of Animals
The Generation of Animals (or On the Generation of Animals; Greek ; Latin De Generatione Animalium) is a text by Aristotle.
163
Chapter 31
History of Animals
31.1 Context
Aristotle (384322 BC) studied at Plato's Academy in
Athens, remaining there for some 17 years. Like Plato,
he sought universals in his philosophy, but unlike Plato he
backed up his views with detailed observation, notably of
the natural history of the island of Lesbos and the marine
life in the seas around it. This study made him the earliest
natural historian whose written work survives. No similarly detailed work on zoology was attempted until the
sixteenth century; accordingly Aristotle remained highly
inuential for some two thousand years. His writings on
zoology form about a quarter of his surviving work.* [1]
31.2 Approach
In the History of Animals, Aristotle sets out to investigate
the existing facts (Greekhoti, what), prior to establishing their causes (Greekdioti, why).* [1]* [2] The book
is thus a defence of his method of investigating zoology.
Aristotle investigates four types of dierences between
164
31.5. INFLUENCE
165
A German translation of books IVIII was made by Anton Karsch, starting in 1866.* [8] A translation of all
ten books into German was made by Paul Gohlke in
1949.* [9]
31.3 Organisation
Book I The grouping of animals and the parts of the human body.
Book II The dierent parts of red-blooded animals.
Book III The internal organs, including generative system, veins, sinews, bone etc.
Book IV Animals without blood (non-vertebrates)
cephalopods, crustaceans, etc. In chapter 8, the sense organs of all animals.
Book V Reproduction, spontaneous and sexual of nonvertebrates.
Book VI Reproduction of birds, sh and quadrupeds.
Book VII Reproduction of man.
Book VIII The character and habits of animals, food,
migration, health, diseases and the inuence of climate.
31.5 Inuence
The comparative anatomist Richard Owen said in 1837
that Zoological Science sprang from [Aristotle's]
labours, we may almost say, like Minerva from the Head
of Jove, in a state of noble and splendid maturity.* [10]
Ben Waggoner of the University of California Museum
of Paleontology wrote that
Though Aristotle's work in zoology was not
without errors, it was the grandest biological
synthesis of the time, and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his
death. His observations on the anatomy of octopus, cuttlesh, crustaceans, and many other
marine invertebrates are remarkably accurate,
and could only have been made from rsthand experience with dissection. Aristotle described the embryological development of a
chick; he distinguished whales and dolphins
from sh; he described the chambered stomachs of ruminants and the social organization
of bees; he noticed that some sharks give birth
to live young his books on animals are lled
with such observations, some of which were
not conrmed until many centuries later.* [11]
Book IX The relations of animals to each other, means Walter Pagel comments that Aristotle perceptibly inof procuring food.
uencedthe founders of modern zoology, the Swiss
A Book X is included in some versions, dealing with the Conrad Gessner with his Historiae animalium, the Italian
causes of barrenness in women, but is generally regarded Ulisse Aldrovandi, the French Guillaume Rondelet and
as not being by Aristotle. In the preface to his translation, the Dutch Volcher Coiter, while his methods of looking
D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson calls it spurious beyond at time series and making use of comparative anatomy
assisted the Englishman William Harvey in his work on
question.* [3]
embryology.* [12]
31.4 Translations
The Arabic translation comprises treatises 110 of the
Kitb al-Hayawn (The Book of Animals). It was known
to the Arab philosopher Al-Kind (d. 850) and was commented on by Avicenna.
English translations were made by Richard Cresswell
in 1862* [4] and by the zoologist D'Arcy Wentworth
Thompson in 1910.* [5]
31.6 References
[1] Lennox, James (27 July 2011). Aristotle's Biology.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.
Retrieved 28 November 2014.
[2] History of Animals, I, 6.
[3] Thompson, 1910, page iv
166
London:
Zehn
Chapter 32
Magna Moralia
The Magna Moralia (Latin, Great Ethics) is a treatise on ethics traditionally attributed to Aristotle, though
the consensus now is that it represents an epitome of
his ethical thought by a later, if sympathetic, writer.
Several scholars have disagreed with this, taking the
Magna Moralia to be an authentic work by Aristotle, notably Friedrich Schleiermacher, Hans von Arnim, and
J. L. Ackrill. In any case, it is considered a less mature piece than Aristotle's other ethical works, viz. the
Nicomachean Ethics, the Eudemian Ethics, and Virtues
and Vices. There is some debate as to whether they follow
more closely the Eudemian or the Nicomachean version
of the Ethics.
The name "Magna Moralia" cannot be traced further
back in time than the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Henry
Jackson suggested that the work acquired its name from
the fact that the two rolls into which it is divided would
have loomed large on the shelf in comparison to the eight
rolls of the Eudemian Ethics, even though the latter are
twice as long.* [1] The title has been translated to Greek
as " .* [2]
32.3 Commentaries
Magna Moralia. bersetzt und erlutert von Franz
Dirlmeier, Berlin 1958. ISBN 3-05-001193-9
Saint Gregory's Commentary on Job is sometimes also referred to by the title Magna Moralia.
32.1 References
[1] G. Cyril Armstrong, Introduction to theMagna Moralia
in Aristotle, Metaphysics X-XIV, Oeconomica, and Magna
Moralia, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1947), 4278.
[2] Pietro Tomasi, Una nuova lettura dell'Aristotele di Franz
Brentano alla luce di alcuni inediti, Editrice UNI Service,
2009, p. 55.
32.2 Editions
Losada (Spanish) paperback edition, ISBN 950-039305-0
trans. Taylor (1911), ISBN 0-7661-8801-9
167
Chapter 33
Mechanics (Aristotle)
Mechanics (or Mechanica or Mechanical Problems;
Greek: ) is a text traditionally attributed to
Aristotle, though his authorship of it is disputed. Thomas
Winter has suggested that the author was Archytas.* [1]
However, Coxhead says that it is only possible to conclude that the author was one of the Peripatetics.* [2]
During the Renaissance, an edition of this work was published by Francesco Maurolico.
33.2 Notes
[1] Thomas Nelson Winter, "The Mechanical Problems in
the Corpus of Aristotle,DigitalCommons@University of
Nebraska - Lincoln, 2007.
[2] Coxhead, Michael A. (2012). A close examination of
the pseudo-Aristotelian Mechanical Problems: The homology between mechanics and poetry as techne. Studies
in History and Philosophy of Science 43: 300306.
168
Chapter 34
Meteorology (Aristotle)
Renaissance.* [3]
34.1 Physics
"...the motion of these latter bodies [of four] being of two kinds: either from the centre or to the
centre. (339a14-15)
So we must treat re and earth and the elements like them as the material causes of the
events in this world (meaning by material what
is subject and is aected), but must assign
causality in the sense of the originating principle of motion to the inuence of the eternally
moving bodies. (339a27-32)
This is a reference to the unmoved movers, a teleological
explanation.
170
34.3.1
Water vapor
34.3.2
Weather
34.4 Geology
So it is clear, since there will be no end to time
and the world is eternal, that neither the Tanais
nor the Nile has always been owing, but that
the region whence they ow was once dry: for
their eect may be fullled, but time cannot.
And this will be equally true of all other rivers.
But if rivers come into existence and perish and
the same parts of the earth were not always
moist, the sea must needs change correspondingly. And if the sea is always advancing in one
place and receding in another it is clear that the
same parts of the whole earth are not always
either sea or land, but that all this changes in
course of time.. " (353a14-24)
34.5 Geography
To judge from what is known from journeys by
sea and land, the length [of the inhabited earth]
is much greather than the width; indeed the distance from the pillars of Heracles [at Cadiz] to
India exceeds that from Aethiopia [Sudan] to
Lake Maeotis [Sea of Azov] and the farthest
part of Scythia is the proportion of more than
ve to three (362b19-23)
34.6 Hydrology
The Red Sea, for instance, communicates but
slightly with the ocean outside the straits,...
(354a1-3)
The whole of the Mediterranean does actually
ow. The direction of this ow is determined
by the depth of the basins and by the number of rivers. Maeotis ows into Pontus and
Pontus into the Aegean. After that the ow of
the remaining seas is not so easy to observe.
(354a11-14)
34.8 Notes
[1] It was the basis for the early thirteenth-century Hebrew translation made by Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon
(Schoonheim 2000).
[2] Translations of both texts are in Peter L. Schoonheim,
Aristotle's Meteorology in the Arabico-Latin Tradition,
(Leiden: brill) 2000.
[3] A copy of Meteorologicorum libri quatuor, edited by
Joachim Prion with corrections by Nicolas de Grouchy
(Paris, 1571) exists in the Morgan Library (New York),
the Cambridge University Library, the Bibliotheek Universiteit Leiden and the Tom Slick rare book collections
of the Southwest Research Institute library (San Antonio,
Texas), and other libraries.
171
Chapter 35
Movement of Animals
De motu animaliumredirects here. For other uses,
see De motu animalium (disambiguation).
Movement of Animals (or On the Motion of Animals;
Greek ; Latin De Motu Animalium)
is a text by Aristotle on the general principles of motion
in animals.
172
Chapter 36
On Breath
On Breath (Greek: , Latin: De spiritu)
is a philosophical treatise included in the Corpus Aristotelicum but usually regarded as spurious. Its opening sentence raises the question: What is the mode of
growth, and the mode of maintenance, of the natural (or
'connate': emphutos) vital spirit (pneuma)?"
36.1 Authorship
36.3 Notes
[1] Roselli, p. 13
[2] Roselli, pp. 17. with nn. 1720
36.4 References
Commentaries
173
Chapter 37
On Colors
On Colors (Greek , Latin De Coloribus)
is a treatise attributed to Aristotle but sometimes ascribed
to Theophrastus or Strato. The work outlines the theory
that all colors (yellow, red, purple, green, and blue) are
derived from mixtures of black and white. On colors had
a pronounced impact on subsequent color theories and remained inuential until Isaac Newton's experiments with
light refraction.
174
Chapter 38
On Divination in Sleep
On Divination in Sleep (or On Prophesying by Dreams;
Greek: ; Latin: De divinatione per somnum) is a text by Aristotle in which he
discusses precognitive dreams.
The treatise, one of the Parva Naturalia, is an early inquiry (perhaps the rst formal one) into this phenomenon.
In his skeptical consideration of such dreams, Aristotle
argues that, although the sender of such dreams should
be God,it is nonetheless the casethat those to whom he
sends them are not the best and wisest, but merely commonplace persons(i, 462b20-22). Thus, Most [socalled prophetic] dreams are, however, to be classed as
mere coincidences(i, 463a31-b1).
175
Chapter 39
On Dreams
For the book by Sigmund Freud, see The Interpretation
of Dreams.
On Dreams (Ancient Greek: , Latin:
De insomniis) is one of the short treatises that make up
Aristotle's Parva Naturalia.
176
Chapter 40
40.1 Bibliography
The most recent and authoritative Greek text is the
Bud edition by Marwan Rashed, Aristote. De la
gneration et la corruption. Nouvelle dition. Paris:
Les Belles Lettres, 2005. ISBN 2-251-00527-7.
This edition includes a French translation, notes and
appendices, and a lengthy introduction exploring the
treatise's contents and the history of the text.
177
Chapter 41
On Indivisible Lines
On Indivisible Lines (Greek ,
Latin De Lineis Insecabilibus) is a short treatise attributed
to Aristotle, but likely written by a member of the
Peripatetic school some time before the 2nd century BC.
On Indivisible Lines seeks to refute Xenocrates' views on
lines and minimal parts.
178
Chapter 42
Greco interattivo
Mikros Apoplous (with Modern Greek translation and notes)
179
Chapter 43
43.2 Notes
[1] Thomas (2002:138).
[2] Barnes (1995:VII).
43.3 References
Thomas, Rosalind (2002). Herodotus in context:
ethnography, science and the art of persuasion.
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-01241-4
Jonathan Barnes (ed.) (6 1995)The Complete Works
of Aristotle, Volume 2, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 0-691-01651-8
180
Chapter 44
44.2 Notes
[1] Guthrie (1962:367).
44.3 References
Guthrie, W. K. C. (1962). A History of Greek Philosophy Volume I: The Earlier Presocratics and the
Pythagoreans. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-29420-1
181
Chapter 45
On Memory
On Memory (Greek: ,
Latin: De memoria et reminiscentia) is one of the short
treatises that make up Aristotle's Parva Naturalia. It
is frequently published together, and read together, with
Aristotle's De Anima.
45.1 Editions
Richard Sorabji, Aristotle On Memory, second edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006,
ISBN 0-226-76823-6 (review)
David Bloch, Aristotle on Memory and Recollection:
Text, Translation, Interpretation, and Reception in
Western Scholasticism, Leiden: Brill, 2007, ISBN
978-90-04-16046-0 (review)
182
Chapter 46
On Plants
On Plants (Greek: ; Latin: De Plantis) is
a work, sometimes attributed to Aristotle, but generally
believed to have been written by Nicolaus of Damascus
in the rst century BC. It describes the nature and origins
of plants.
46.1 Book
The work is divided into two parts.
46.1.1
Part 1
46.1.2
Part 2
183
Chapter 47
On Sleep
On Sleep (or On Sleep and Sleeplessness; Greek
; Latin: De somno et vigilia) is
a text by Aristotle, one of the Parva Naturalia.
184
Chapter 48
On the Heavens
tions are eternal and perfect, and the perfect motion is
the circular one, which, unlike the earthly up-and downward locomotions, can last eternally selfsame. As substances, celestial bodies have matter (aether) and form
(a given period of uniform rotation). Sometimes Aristotle seems to regard them as living beings with a rational soul as their form* [1] (see also Metaphysics, bk. XII)
This work is signicant as one of the dening pillars of
the Aristotelian worldview, a school of philosophy that
dominated intellectual thinking for almost two millennia.
Similarly, this work and others by Aristotle were important seminal works by which much of scholasticism was
derived.
185
186
(Public
Domain
Internet
48.2.2 French
Dalimier, C. and Pellegrin, P. (2004) Aristote.
Trait du ciel (Paris).
Moraux, P. (1965) Aristote. Du ciel (Paris).
Thomas Aquinas and Averroes
and physics.
The 14th century French philosopher Nicole Oresme
translated and commentated on De Caelo in his role as 48.2.3 German
adviser to King Charles V of France, on two separate oc Jori, A., (2008), ber den Himmel (Berlin).
casions, once early on in life, and again near the end of it.
These versions were a traditional Latin transcription and a
Gigon, O. (1950) Vom Himmel, Von der Seele, Von
more comprehensive French version that synthesized his
der Dichtkunst (Zurich).
views on cosmological philosophy in its entirety, Questiones Super de Celo and Livre du ciel et du monde respec Prantl, C. (1857) AristotelesVier Bcher ber das
tively. Livre du ciel et du mondewas written at the
Himmelsgebude und Zwei Bcher ber Entstehen
command of King Charles V, though for what purpose
und Vergehen (Leipzig).
remains of some debate. Some speculate that, having already had Oresme translate Aristotelian works on ethics
Prantl, C., (1881) De coelo, et de generatione et corand politics in the hope of educating his courtiers, doruptione (Leipzig).
ing the same with De Caelo may be of some value to the
king.* [4]
48.2.4 Italian
48.2 Translations
48.2.1
English
Aristotelian physics
Celestial spheres
Adelaide Etexts
Sacred Texts
InfoMotions
MIT (incomplete)
48.4 References
[1] Alan C. Bowen, Christian Wildberg, New perspectives on
Aristotle's De caelo (Brill, 2009)
187
Chapter 49
On the Soul
On the Soul (Greek , Per Pschs; Latin
De Anima) is a major treatise by Aristotle on the nature
of living things. His discussion centres on the kinds of
souls possessed by dierent kinds of living things, distinguished by their dierent operations. Thus plants have
the capacity for nourishment and reproduction, the minimum that must be possessed by any kind of living organism. Lower animals have, in addition, the powers of
sense-perception and self-motion (action). Humans have
all these as well as intellect.
49.1.1 Book I
DA I.1 introduces the theme of the treatise;
DA I.25 provide a survey of Aristotles predecessors
views about the soul;
49.1.2 Book II
Expositio et quaestionesin Aristoteles De Anima (Jean Buridan, c. 1362)
189
49.1.4
Summary
Book I contains a summary of Aristotle's method of investigation and a dialectical determination of the nature
of the soul. He begins by conceding that attempting to dene the soul is one of the most dicult questions in the
world. But he proposes an ingenious method to tackle
the question: just as we can come to know the properties
and operations of something through scientic demonstration, i.e. a geometrical proof that a triangle has its
interior angles equal to two right angles, since the principle of all scientic demonstration is the essence of the
object, so too we can come to know the nature of a thing
if we already know its properties and operations. It is like
nding the middle term to a syllogism with a known conclusion. Therefore we must seek out such operations of
the soul to determine what kind of nature it has. From a
consideration of the opinions of his predecessors, a soul,
he concludes, will be that in virtue of which living things
have life.
Book II contains his scientic determination of the nature
of the soul. By dividing substance into its three meanings
(matter, form, and what is composed of both), he shows
that the soul must be the rst actuality of a naturally organised body. This is its form or essence. It cannot be
matter because the soul is that in virtue of which things
have life, and matter is only being in potency. The rest
of the book is divided into a determination of the nature of the nutritive and sensitive souls. (1) All species
of living things, plant or animal, must be able to nourish themselves and reproduce others of the same kind.
(2) All animals have, in addition to the nutritive power,
sense-perception, and thus they all have at least the sense
of touch, which he argues is presupposed by all other
senses, and the ability to feel pleasure and pain, which is
the simplest kind of perception. If they can feel pleasure
and pain they also have desire. Some animals in addition
190
Aristotle also argues that the mind (only the agent intellect) is immaterial, able to exist without the body, and
immortal. His arguments are notoriously concise. This
has caused much confusion over the centuries, causing a
rivalry between dierent schools of interpretation, most
notably, between the Arabian commentator Averroes and
St Thomas Aquinas. One argument for its immaterial existence runs like this: if the mind were material, then it
would have to possess a corresponding thinking-organ.
And since all the senses have their corresponding senseorgans, thinking would then be like sensing. But sensing
can never be false, and therefore thinking could never be
false. And this is of course untrue. Therefore, Aristotle
concludes, the mind is immaterial.
Perhaps the most important but obscure argument in the
whole book is Aristotle's demonstration of the immortality of the thinking part of the human soul, also in Chapter
V. Taking a premise from his Physics, that as a thing acts,
so it is, he argues that since the mind acts with no bodily organ, it exists without the body. And if it exists apart
from matter, it therefore cannot be corrupted. And therefore the human mind is immortal.
Adelaide
Google Books
Classics in the History of Psychology
UVa EText Center
Georgetown
R. D. Hicks, Aristotle De Anima with Translation, Introduction, and Notes (Cambridge University
Press, 1907).
Archive.org
Audiobook (Public Domain) of De Anima at
Archive.org
Edwin Wallace, Aristotle's Psychology in Greek and
English, with Introduction and Notes by Edwin Wallace (Cambridge University Press, 1882).
Archive.org
Thomas Taylor, On the Soul (Prometheus Trust,
2003, 1808). ISBN 1-898910-23-5
191
Chapter 50
On Things Heard
On Things Heard (Greek , Latin De
audibilibus) is a work which was formerly attributed to
Aristotle, but is now generally believed to be the work of
Strato of Lampsacus. Our extant version of On Things
Heard is made up of long extracts included in Porphyry's
Commentary on Ptolemy's Harmonics, and is thus partial.
The extracts are concerned with the nature of sound production.
50.2 References
Barker, Andrew (2004). Greek Musical Writings,
Vol. 2: Harmonic and Acoustic Theory. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-61697-3.
192
Chapter 51
51.2 Notes
[1] Zeller (1883:145).
51.3 References
Zeller, Eduard (1883). A History of Eclecticism in
Greek Philosophy. Longmans, Green, and Co..
193
Chapter 52
In comparison to the rst ve treatises of the Parva Naturalia, this one and On Length and Shortness of Life, while
still dealing with natural phenomena involving the body
and the soul, are denitely biological rather than psychological.* [1] They are omitted from the Parva Naturalia commentary of Sophonias.
52.1.2
nus refers to the whole in this way), youth and old age
are important aspects of the subject, because Aristotle's
conception is not of a constant, unvarying lifebut of
a life-cycle of natural development and decay.* [2]
194
52.1.5
The life-cycle
52.2 Commentaries
Michael of Ephesus, CAG XXII.1 (Greek text)
W. D. Ross, Aristotle: Parva Naturalia, Oxford,
1955
52.3 Notes
[1] Ross, p. 52
[2] King, pp. 3840
[3] Ross, pp. 55f.
[4] Sense and Sensibilia, 438b2530, 444a9
[5] Ross, pp. 60f.
52.4 References
R.A.H. King, Aristotle on Life and Death, London:
Duckworth, 2001
195
Chapter 53
Parts of Animals
On the Parts of Animals (Greek ;
Latin De Partibus Animalium) is a text by Aristotle. It
was written around 350 BC. The whole work is roughly a
study in animal anatomy and physiology; it aims to provide a scientic understanding of the parts (organs, tissues, uids, etc.) of animals.
196
Chapter 54
Parva Naturalia
The Parva Naturalia (a conventional Latin title rst used
by Giles of Rome:short treatises on nature) are a collection of seven works by Aristotle, which discuss natural
phenomena involving the body and the soul. The individual works are as follows (with links to online English
translations):
54.1 Editions
All the Parva Naturalia
Aristote: Petits traits d'histoire naturelle (with
French translation and brief notes), ed. Ren Mugnier, Collection Bud, 1953
Aristotle: Parva Naturalia (with extensive commentary in English), ed. W. D. Ross, Oxford, 1955
(repr. 2000, ISBN 0-19-814108-4)
Aristotelis Parva Naturalia Graece et Latine (with
Latin translation and notes), ed. Paul Siwek, Rome:
Descle, 1963
Multiple treatises
David Gallop, Aristotle on Sleep and Dreams: A Text
and Translation with Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. Petersborough, Ontario: Broadview Press,
1990, ISBN 0-921149-60-3 (On Sleep, On Dreams,
and On Divination in Sleep)
Chapter 55
Physiognomonics
Physiognomonics (Greek: , Latin:
ments often prevailed on people. (trans. Pratt
Physiognomonica) is an Ancient Greek treatise on
rev. Barnes)
physiognomy casually attributed to Aristotle (and part of
the Corpus Aristotelicum) but now believed to be by an
Already in antiquity, physiognomy's pretensions to asciauthor writing approximately 300 BC.* [1]
enticfoundation were questioned and debated. It
had connections to medicine, but also to magic and
divination.* [2]
The author's systematic scheme of physiognomic relationships was not adopted by later writers on the subject;
the proliferation of incompatible teachings had the cumulative eect of undermining the authority of the profession as a whole.* [1]
55.3 Notes
[1] Brennan.
[2] Raina, Introduction.
198
55.4 References
T. Corey Brennan, review of Vogt, Classical World
99.2 (2006), pp. 202f.
Giampiera Raina (trans. and comm.), Pseudo Aristotele: Fisiognomica; Anonimo Latino: Il trattato di
siognomica, 2nd ed., Milan: Biblioteca Universale
Rizzoli, 1994.
199
Chapter 56
Posterior Analytics
The Posterior Analytics (Greek: ;
Latin: Analytica Posteriora) is a text from Aristotle's
Organon that deals with demonstration, denition, and
scientic knowledge. The demonstration is distinguished
as a syllogism productive of scientic knowledge, while the
denition marked as the statement of a thing's nature, ... a
statement of the meaning of the name, or of an equivalent
nominal formula.
nite number of middle terms between the rst principle and the conclusion.
In all demonstration, the rst principles, the conclusion, and all the intermediate propositions, must
be necessary, general and eternal truths. Of things
that happen by chance, or contingently, or which can
change, or of individual things, there is no demonstration.
Some demonstrations prove only that the things are
a certain way, rather than why they are so. The latter
are the most perfect.
56.1 Contents
In the Prior Analytics, syllogistic logic is considered in its
formal aspect; in the Posterior it is considered in respect
of its matter. Theformof a syllogism lies in the necessary connection between the premises and the conclusion.
Even where there is no fault in the form, there may be in
the matter, i.e. the propositions of which it is composed,
which may be true or false, probable or improbable.
56.2. REFERENCES
denition. He deals with denition, and how a correct
denition should be made. As an example, he gives a
denition of the number three, dening it to be the rst
odd number.
Maintaining that to know a thing's nature is to know
the reason why it isand we possess scientic knowledge of a thing only when we know its cause, Aristotle
posited four major sorts of cause as the most sought-after
middle terms of demonstration: the denable form; an
antecedent which necessitates a consequent; the ecient
cause; the nal cause.
He concludes the book with the way the human mind
comes to know the basic truths or primary premisses or
rst principles, which are not innate, because we may be
ignorant of them for much of our life. Nor can they be
deduced from any previous knowledge, or they would not
be rst principles. He states that rst principles are derived by induction, from the sense-perception implanting
the true universals in the human mind. From this idea
comes the scholastic maxim there is nothing in the understanding which was not prior in the senses.
Of all types of thinking, scientic knowing and intuition
are considered as only universally true, where the latter is
the originative source of scientic knowledge.
56.2 References
Mure, G. R. G. (translator) (2007), Posterior Analytics, The University of Adelaide: eBooks @ Adelaide.
Posterior Analytics Audio Book (Public Domain),
The Internet Archive: Librivox Audiobook.
201
Chapter 57
Problems (Aristotle)
The Problems (Greek: ; Latin: Problemata) is an Aristotelian or possibly pseudo-Aristotelian, as
its authenticity has been under questioning, collection of
problems written in a question and answer format. The
collection, gradually assembled by the peripatetic school,
reached its nal form anywhere between the third century BC to the 6th century AD. The work is divided by
topic into 38 sections, and the whole contains almost 900
problems.
Later writers of Problemata include Plutarch, Alexander
of Aphrodisias, and Cassius Iatrosophista.* [1]
57.2 Notes
[1] Ann M. Blair, The Problemata as a Natural Philosophical Genre,in Anthony Grafton and Nancy Siraisi, eds.,
Natural Particulars: Nature and the Disciplines in Renaissance Europe, p. 173
202
Chapter 58
Progression of Animals
Progression of Animals (or On the Gait of Animals;
Greek: ; Latin: De incessu animalium) is a text by Aristotle on the details of gait and movement in various species of animals.
Aristotle's approach to the subject is to ask why some
animals are footless, others bipeds, others quadrupeds,
others polypods, and why all have an even number of feet,
if they have feet at all; why in ne the points on which
progression depends are even in number.
It's a good example of the way he brought teleological
presumptions to empirical studies.
203
Chapter 59
Protrepticus (Aristotle)
Protrepticus (Greek: ) is the title of a
work by Aristotle that survives only in fragments. Since
the 19th century, when inquiry was initiated by Jakob
Bernays (1863), several scholars have attempted to reconstruct the work.* [1] Attempted reconstructions include:
A 1961 book by Ingemar Dring* [2]
A 1964 book by Anton-Hermann Chroust* [3]
59.1 References
[1] Anton-Hermann Chroust (1965). A brief account of
the reconstruction of Aristotle's Protrepticus. Classical
Philology (The University of Chicago Press) 60 (4): 229
239. doi:10.1086/365046. ISSN 0009-837X.
[2] Dring, Ingemar; Aristotle (1961). Aristotle's Protrepticus: An attempt at reconstruction. Gteborg, Sweden:
Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
[3] Chroust, Anton-Hermann; Aristotle (1964). Protrepticus:
A reconstruction. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre
Dame Press.
204
Chapter 60
Rhetoric to Alexander
The Rhetoric to Alexander (also widely known by its title in Latin: Rhetorica ad Alexandrum; Ancient Greek:
) is a treatise traditionally attributed
to Aristotle. It was written by a Pseudo-Aristotle instead and is now generally believed to be the work of
Anaximenes of Lampsacus.* [1]
60.1 Authorship
it is sometimes thought to have stood in the tradition surrounding the person of Isocrates, but there is no clear evidence for this. The treatise Rhetoric to Alexander does
not seem to have made a big impact on rhetorical studies
at the time and is not often heard of afterwards. It only
survived because it was thought to have been written by
Aristotle.* [5]
Rhetoric (Aristotle)
Rhetorica ad Herennium
60.4 References
60.2 Content
As a complete Greek manual on rhetoric still extant from
the fourth century BCE, Rhetoric to Alexander gives us
an invaluable look into the rhetorical theory of the time.
Aristotle did in fact write a work On Rhetoric at much the
same time. The author claims to have based this treatise
on the Techne of Corax and the Theodectea of Aristotle
which may in fact refer to On Rhetoric seeing that Aristotle's work was not published until 83 BCE. The teaching of Aristotle on the matter was made available during
his lectures and his lecturing notes was preserved after
his death by his pupil, Theophrastus.* [3] The structure
of Rhetoric to Alexander is quite similar to that of Aristotle's work.* [4] Chapters 1-5 deal with arguments specic
to each of the species of rhetoric corresponding to the
rst book of Aristotle's work. Chapters 6-22 are about
useswhat Aristotle callstopics, discussing them in
the latter part of his second book. Chapters 23-28 discuss
style which Aristotle discusses in the rst half of his third
book. And chapters 29-37 nally treat arrangement as
discussed by Aristotle in the latter part of his third book.
From this it is clear that both the Rhetoric to Alexander
and Aristotle's On Rhetoric were using a structure common to rhetorical handbooks of the fourth century. In
contrast to Aristotle the author of Rhetoric for Alexander does not use examples illustrating his precepts. Because this treatise diers from Aristotle in some details
205
Chapter 61
61.1 Commentaries
Alexander of Aphrodisias (Greek text)
Averroes (Latin translation, Venice, 1562, beginning on p. 455 of the PDF le)
Thomas Aquinas (Latin text (Parma 1866), Latin
text (HTML), English translation)
G.R.T. Ross, 1906 (Greek text, English translation,
and commentary)
61.2 Notes
[1] Kevin White, Translator's Introduction, in Aquinas,
Commentaries on Aristotle's On Sense and What Is
SensedandOn Memory and Recollection, trans. Kevin
White and Edward M. Macierowski, Washington, D.C.:
CUA Press, 2005, p. 6.
Chapter 62
62.2 Notes
[1] Ross (1995:7).
62.3 References
Ross, David (1995). Aristotle. Routledge. ISBN 0415-12068-3
207
Chapter 63
Sophistical Refutations
Sophistical Refutations (Greek: ;
Latin: De Sophisticis Elenchis) is a text in Aristotle's
Organon in which he identied thirteen fallacies, as follows:
Translated by W. A. Pickard-Cambridge
ChangingMinds.org: Aristotle's 13 fallacies
1. Equivocation
2. Amphibology
3. Composition
4. Division
5. Accent
6. Figure of speech or form of expression
Fallacies not in the language
1. Accident
2. Secundum quid
3. Irrelevant conclusion
4. Begging the question
5. False cause
6. Arming the consequent
7. Fallacy of many questions
63.1 References
Parry, William T.; Hacker, Edward A. (1991),
Aristotelian Logic, SUNY Press, p. 435, ISBN 9780-7914-0690-8
208
Chapter 64
Topics (Aristotle)
The Topics (Greek: ; Latin: Topica) is the name low from these..* [7] Dialectical reasoning is thereafter digiven to one of Aristotle's six works on logic collectively vided by Aristotle into inductive and deductive parts. The
known as the Organon:
endoxa themselves are sometimes, but not always, set out
in a propositional form, i.e. an express major or minor
The Topics constitutes Aristotle's treatise on the art of
dialecticthe invention and discovery of arguments in proposition, from which the complete syllogism may be
constructed. Often, such propositional construction is left
which the propositions rest upon commonly held opin*
ions or endoxa ( in Greek). [1] Topoi () are as a task to the practitioner of the dialectic art; in these
instances Aristotle gives only the general strategy for arplacesfrom which such arguments can be discovered
gument, leaving the provision of propositionsto the
or invented.
ingenuity of the disputant.
Book I of the Topics is introductory, laying down a number of preliminary principles upon which dialectical argumentation proceeds. After dening dialectical reasoning (syllogism) and distinguishing it from demonstrative,
contentious, and (one might say) pseudo-scientic* [8]
syllogism, Aristotle notes the utility of the art of dialectic, then sets out four bases (accident, property, genus,
denition) from which invention of such reasoning proceeds. He next elucidates various senses ofsameness,
as bearing directly upon the usual character of such arguments. Dialectical propositions and dialectical problems
are characterized. Then, the (rgana) or means
by which arguments may be obtained are described, in a
four-fold summary, as:
1. the provision of propositions
209
210
Book III concerns commonplaces from which things can [4] Rhet. 1403a18-19
be discussed with respect to whether they are better
[5] E.g. as houses along a street one knows by heart
or worse.
Book IV deals with genushow it is discovered and
what are the sources of argument for and against attribution of a genus.
Book V discusses the base ofpropertythat which is
attributable only to a particular subject and is not an essential attribute. Property is subdivided into essential* [9]
and permanent, versus relative and temporary.
Book VI describesdenitionand the numerous means
that may be used to attack and defend a denition.
Book VII is a short recapitulation of denitionand
sameness, and compares the various diculties involved in forming arguments, both pro and con, about the
other bases of dialectical disputation.
64.6.2
Critical studies
211
Chapter 65
Aristotelianism
accordance with Christian theology.
After retreating under criticism from modern natural philosophers, the distinctively Aristotelian idea of
teleology was transmitted through Wol and Kant to
Hegel, who applied it to history as a totality. Although
this project was criticized by Trendelenburg and Brentano
as non-Aristotelian, Hegel's inuence is now often said
to be responsible for an important Aristotelian inuence
upon Marx. Postmodernists, in contrast, reject Aristotelianism's claim to reveal important theoretical truths.
In this, they follow Heidegger's critique of Aristotle as the
greatest source of the entire tradition of Western philosophy.
Recent Aristotelian ethical and 'practical' philosophy,
such as that of Gadamer and McDowell, is often
premissed upon a rejection of Aristotelianism's traditional metaphysical or theoretical philosophy. From
this viewpoint, the early modern tradition of political
republicanism, which views the res publica, public sphere
or state as constituted by its citizens' virtuous activity, can
appear thoroughly Aristotelian.
Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez
Aristotelianism (/rsttilinzm/ ARR-i-st-TEE-li-niz-m) is a tradition of philosophy that takes its dening inspiration from the work of Aristotle. The works of
Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the
Peripatetic school, and, later on, by the Neoplatonists,
who produced many commentaries on Aristotle's writings. In the Islamic world, the works of Aristotle were
translated into Arabic, and under philosophers such as AlKindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes, Aristotelianism became a major part of early Islamic philosophy.
Moses Maimonides adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his famous Guide for the Perplexed on it; and that became the basis of Jewish Scholastic Philosophy. Although some knowledge of Aristotle's
logical works was known to western Europe, it wasn't until the Latin translations of the 12th century that the works
of Aristotle and his Arabic commentators became widely
available. Scholars such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas
Aquinas interpreted and systematized Aristotle's works in
212
65.1. HISTORY
65.1 History
65.1.1
Ancient Greece
65.1.2
Islamic world
In the Abbasid Empire, many foreign works were translated into Arabic, large libraries were constructed, and
scholars were welcomed.* [2] Under the caliphs Harun alRashid and his son Al-Ma'mun, the House of Wisdom in
Baghdad ourished. Christian scholar Hunayn ibn Ishaq
(809873) was placed in charge of the translation work
by the caliph. In his lifetime, Ishaq translated 116 writings, including works by Plato and Aristotle, into Syriac
and Arabic.* [3]* [4] Al-Kindi (801873) was the rst of
the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for
his eorts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy
to the Arab world.* [5] He incorporated Aristotelian and
Neoplatonist thought into an Islamic philosophical framework. This was an important factor in the introduction
and popularization of Greek philosophy in the Muslim
intellectual world.* [6]
213
work, and some 38 commentaries by Averroes on the
works of Aristotle have been identied.* [10] Although
his writings had only marginal impact in Islamic countries, his works would eventually have a huge impact in
the Latin West,* [10] and would lead to the school of
thought known as Averroism.
65.1.3 Europe
Although some knowledge of Aristotle seems to have
lingered on in the ecclesiastical centres of western Europe after the fall of the Roman empire, by the ninth
century nearly all that was known of Aristotle consisted
of Boethius's commentaries on the Organon, and a few
abridgments made by Latin authors of the declining empire, Isidore of Seville and Martianus Capella.* [11] From
that time until the end of the eleventh century, little
progress is apparent in Aristotelian knowledge.* [11]
The renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search
by European scholars for new learning. James of Venice,
who probably spent some years in Constantinople, translated Aristotle's Posterior Analytics from Greek into Latin
in the mid-twelfth century,* [12] thus making the complete Aristotelian logical corpus, the Organon, available
in Latin for the rst time. Scholars travelled to areas of
Europe that once had been under Muslim rule and still
had substantial Arabic-speaking populations. From central Spain, which had come under Christian rule in the
eleventh century, scholars produced many of the Latin
translations of the 12th century. The most productive of
these translators was Gerard of Cremona,* [13] (c. 1114
1187), who translated 87 books,* [14] which included
many of the works of Aristotle such as his Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology. Michael Scot (c. 11751232)
translated Averroes' commentaries on the scientic works
of Aristotle.* [15]
The philosopher Al-Farabi (872950) had great inuence on science and philosophy for several centuries, and
in his time was widely thought second only to Aristotle
in knowledge (alluded to by his title of the Second
Teacher). His work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and Susm, paved the way for the work of Avicenna
(9801037).* [7] Avicenna was one of the main interpreters of Aristotle.* [8] The school of thought he founded
became known as Avicennism, which was built on ingredients and conceptual building blocks that are largely
Aristotelian and Neoplatonist.* [9]
William of Moerbeke (c. 12151286) undertook a complete translation of the works of Aristotle or, for some
portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the
rst translator of the Politics (c. 1260) from Greek into
Latin. Many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation were assumed to have been inuenced by Averroes,
who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and
214
theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Such claims were without merit, however, as the
Alexandrian Aristotelianism of Averroes followed the
strict study of the text of Aristotle, which was introduced
by Avicenna, [because] a large amount of traditional
Neoplatonism was incorporated with the body of traditional Aristotelianism.* [18] Albertus Magnus (c. 1200
1280) was among the rst among medieval scholars to apply Aristotle's philosophy to Christian thought. He produced paraphrases of most of the works of Aristotle available to him.* [19] He digested, interpreted and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the
Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. His eorts resulted in the formation of a Christian reception of Aristotle in the Western Europe.* [19] Thomas Aquinas (1225
1274), the pupil of Albertus Magnus, wrote a dozen commentaries on the works of Aristotle.* [20] Thomas was
emphatically Aristotelian, he adopted Aristotle's analysis of physical objects, his view of place, time and motion, his proof of the prime mover, his cosmology, his
account of sense perception and intellectual knowledge,
and even parts of his moral philosophy.* [20] The philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work of
Thomas Aquinas was known as Thomism, and was especially inuential among the Dominicans, and later, the
Jesuits.* [20]
65.2 Criticism
65.1.4
Modern era
Bertrand Russell criticizes Aristotle's logic on the followAfter retreating under criticism from modern natu- ing points:* [28]
ral philosophers, the distinctively Aristotelian idea of
teleology was transmitted through Wol and Kant to
1. The Aristotelian system allows formal defects leadHegel, who applied it to history as a totality. Although
ing tobad metaphysics. For example, the followthis project was criticized by Trendelenburg and Brentano
ing syllogism is permitted: All golden mountains
as un-Aristotelian, Hegel's inuence is now often said
are mountains, all golden mountains are golden,
to be responsible for an important Aristotelian inutherefore some mountains are golden, which inence upon Marx.* [21] Postmodernists, in contrast, resinuates the existence of at least one golden mounject Aristotelianism's claim to reveal important theorettain.* [29] Furthermore, according to Russell, a
*
ical truths. [22] In this, they follow Heidegger's critique
predicate of a predicate can be a predicate of the
of Aristotle as the greatest source of the entire tradition
original subject, which blurs the distinction between
of Western philosophy.
names and predicates with disastrous consequences;
for example, a class with only one member is erroneously identied with that one member, making
65.1.5 Contemporary Aristotelianism
impossible to have a correct theory of the number
one.* [30]
Aristotelianism is understood by its proponents as
2. The syllogism is overvalued in comparison to other
critically developing Plato's theories.* [23] Recent
forms of deduction. For example, syllogisms are not
Aristotelian ethical and 'practical' philosophy, such as
employed in mathematics since they are less convethat of Gadamer and McDowell, is often premised upon
nient.* [30]
a rejection of Aristotelianism's traditional metaphysical
or theoretical philosophy. From this viewpoint, the early
modern tradition of political republicanism, which views In addition, Russell ends his review of the Aristotelian
the res publica, public sphere or state as constituted logic with these words:
by its citizens' virtuous activity, can appear thoroughly
Aristotelian.
I conclude that the Aristotelian doctrines
The contemporary Aristotelian philosopher Alasdair
65.4. NOTES
chapter are wholly false, with the exception of
the formal theory of the syllogism, which is
unimportant. Any person in the present day
who wishes to learn logic will be wasting his
time if he reads Aristotle or any of his disciples. None the less, Aristotle's logical writings show great ability, and would have been
useful to mankind if they had appeared at a
time when intellectual originality was still active. Unfortunately, they appeared at the very
end of the creative period of Greek thought,
and therefore came to be accepted as authoritative. By the time that logical originality revived, a reign of two thousand years had made
Aristotle very dicult to dethrone. Throughout modern times, practically every advance in
science, in logic, or in philosophy has had to be
made in the teeth of the opposition from Aristotle's disciples.* [31]
215
Hylomorphism
Phronesis
Platonism
65.4 Notes
[1] Furley, David (2003), From Aristotle to Augustine: Routledge History of Philosophy, 2, Routledge
[2] Gaston Wiet, Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid
Caliphate Retrieved 2010-04-16
[3] Opth: Azmi, Khurshid.Hunain bin Ishaq on Ophthalmic
Surgery.Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of
Medicine 26 (1996): 6974. Web. 29 Oct. 2009
[4] Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of Western Science:
Islamic Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago,
2007. Print.
[5] Klein-Frank, F. Al-Kindi. In Leaman, O & Nasr, H
(2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. p 165
[6] Felix Klein-Frank (2001) Al-Kindi, pages 166167. In
Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge.
[7] Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c.9801037)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
[17] Rubenstein, Richard E. Aristotle's Children: How Christians, Muslims, and Jews Rediscovered Ancient Wisdom and Illuminated the Middle Ages, page 215 (2004).
Houghton Miin Harcourt
[18] Schmlders, Auguste (1859). "Essai sur les Ecoles
Philosophiques chez les Arabespar Auguste Schmlders,
(Paris 1842)" [Essay on the Schools of Philosophy in
Arabia] (fulltext/pdf). In Telford, John; Barber, Benjamin Aquila; Watkinson, William Lonsdale; Davison,
William Theophilus. The London Quarterly Review 11.
J.A. Sharp. p. 60. We have said already that the most
interesting and important of the Arabian schools is that
which was the simple expression of Alexandrian Aristotelianism, the school of Avicenna and Averroes; or, as
the Arabians themselves called it par excellence, that of
the 'philosophers.' In no material point did they dier
from their master, and, therefore, an exposition of their
doctrines would be useless to those who know anything of
the history of philosophy; but, before the strict study of
the text of Aristotle, which was introduced by Avicenna,
a large amount of traditional Neo-Platonism was incorporated with the body of traditional Aristotelianism, so as to
take them sometimes far astray from their master's track.
[19] Albert the Great entry by Markus Fhrer in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[20] Saint Thomas Aquinas entry by Ralph McInerny in the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[21] For example, George E. McCarthy (ed.), Marx and Aristotle: Nineteenth-Century German Social Theory and Classical Antiquity, Although many disagree Rowman & Littleeld, 1992.
216
Russell, Bertrand (1967), A History of Western Philosophy, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0671201581
Riedel, Manfred (ed.), Rehabilitierung der praktischen Philosophie, Rombach, volume 1, 1972; volume 2, 1974.
Chappell, Timothy (ed.), Values and Virtues: Aristotelianism in Contemporary Ethics, Oxford University Press, 2006.
Schrenk, Lawrence P. (ed.), Aristotle in Late Antiquity, Catholic University of America Press, 1994.
Kenny, Anthony, Essays on the Aristotelian Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2001.
Knight, Kelvin & Paul Blackledge (eds.), Revolutionary Aristotelianism: Ethics, Resistance and
Utopia, Lucius & Lucius (Stuttgart, Germany),
2008.
217
Chapter 66
218
Chapter 67
219
Chapter 68
Commentaries on Aristotle
Commentaries on Aristotle refers to the great mass of
literature produced, especially in the ancient and medieval world, to explain and clarify the works of Aristotle. The pupils of Aristotle were the rst to comment on his writings, a tradition which was continued
by the Peripatetic school throughout the Hellenistic period and the Roman era. The Neoplatonists of the late
Roman empire wrote many commentaries on Aristotle,
attempting to incorporate him into their philosophy. Although Ancient Greek commentaries are considered the
most useful, commentaries continued to be written by the
Christian scholars of the Byzantine Empire, and by the
many Islamic philosophers and Western scholastics who
had inherited his texts.
The rst pupils of Aristotle commentated on his writings, but often with a view to expand his work. Thus
Theophrastus invented ve moods of syllogism in the rst
gure, in addition to the four invented by Aristotle, and
stated with additional accuracy the rules of hypothetical
syllogisms. He also often diered with his master,* [1]
including in collecting much information concerning an- In the 6th century, Boethius, whose commentaries on
the logical works of Aristotle became the only commenimals and natural events, which Aristotle had omitted.
taries in Latin available to the West, entertained the deDuring the early Roman empire we nd few celebrated sign of translating into Latin the whole of Aristotle's and
names among the Peripatetic philosophers. Nicolaus of Plato's works, and of showing their agreement; a giganDamascus wrote several treatises on the philosophy of tic plan, which he never executed.* [1] Others employed
Aristotle; and Alexander of Aegae also wrote commen- themselves in disentangling the confusion which such attaries on Aristotle.* [2] The earliest commentaries which tempts produced, as John Philoponus, who, in the sixth
survive, are those written in the 2nd century by Adrastus century, maintained that Aristotle was entirely misunderand Aspasius.* [3] Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200) was stood by Porphyry and Proclus in incorporating his docregarded by subsequent Aristotelians among the Greeks, trines into those of the Neoplatonists, or even in reconcilLatins, and Muslims, as the best interpreter of Aristotle. ing him with Plato himself on the subject of ideas, oerOn account of the number and value of his commentaries, ing instead a Christian interpretation of the Aristotelian
he was called, by way of distinction, The Commenta- corpus.* [1] Others, again, wrote epitomes, compounds,
tor. Several of his works are still extant, among which abstracts; and tried to throw the works of Aristotle into
is a treatise On Fate, wherein he supports the doctrine of some simpler and more obviously regular form, as John
divine providence.* [2]
of Damascus, in the middle of the 8th century, who made
Many of the Neoplatonists undertook to explain and il- abstracts of some of Aristotle's works, and introduced the
lustrate the writings of Aristotle, particularly on the sub- study of the author into theological education. John of
ject of dialectics, which Plato had left imperfect.* [2] Damascus lived under the patronage of the Arabs, and
Porphyry (3rd century) wrote a book on the Categories, was at rst secretary to the Caliph, but afterwards with220
221
Al-Kindi, who wrote a commentary on Aristotelian 68.5 Lists and indices of commenlogic, lived in the 9th century, under Al-Ma'mun. Altaries on Aristotle
Farabi (10th century) wrote commentaries on Aristotle's Organon, which were made diligent use of by the
Scholastics. It is related of him that he read through A list of Medieval and Renaissance commentaries on all
Aristotle's treatise On Hearing forty times, and his of Aristotle's works has been compiled by Charles H.
Rhetoric two hundred times, without getting at all tired Lohr:* [6]
of them.* [4] The physicians made a study of philosophy,
and formulated theories; among them was Avicenna (c.
1967:Medieval Aristotle Commentaries: Authors
980-1037), who came from Bukhara, to the east of the
A-F, Traditio, 23, 313-413.
Caspian Sea; he wrote a commentary on Aristotle. AlGhazali (10581111) wrote compendiums of logic and
1968:Medieval Aristotle Commentaries: Authors
metaphysics. Averroes (11261198) was especially disG-I, Traditio, 24, 149-245.
tinguished as a commentator of Aristotle.* [4] He often
1970:Medieval Aristotle Commentaries: Authors
wrote two or three dierent commentaries on the same
Jacobus-Johannes Ju, Traditio, 26, 135-216.
work, and some 38 commentaries by Averroes on the
*
works of Aristotle have been identied. [5] Although his
1971:Medieval Aristotle Commentaries: Authors
writings had only marginal impact in Islamic countries,
Johannes de KanthiMyngodus, Traditio, 27, 251his works had a huge impact in the Latin West following
351.
the Latin translations of the 12th and 13th centuries.* [5]
1972:Medieval Aristotle Commentaries: Authors
NarcissusRichardus, Traditio, 28, 281-396.
222
1979:Renaissance Latin Aristotle Commentaries:
Authors N-Ph, Renaissance Quarterly, 32, 529580.
1980:Renaissance Latin Aristotle Commentaries:
Authors Pi-Sm, Renaissance Quarterly, 33, 623374.
1982:Renaissance Latin Aristotle Commentaries:
Authors So-Z, Renaissance Quarterly, 35, 164256.
1988: Latin Aristotle CommentariesII: Renaissance
Authors, Firenze: Leo S. Olschki.
68.7 References
68.10 External links
[1] Brucker 1837, pages 349-53
[2] Whewell 1837, pages 271-5
[3] Sorabji 1998, pages 435-7
[4] Hegel 1896, pages 34-5
[5] Grant 1996, page 30
[6] Heinrich Kuhn, "Aristotelianism in the Renaissance,
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy accessed September
22, 2009.
68.8 Sources
Johann Jakob Brucker, (1837), The History of Philosophy, from the Earliest Periods, pages 349-53
Edward Grant, (1996), The foundations of modern
science in the Middle Ages: their religious, page 30.
Cambridge University Press
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, (1896), Lectures on
the History of Philosophy, Part Two. Philosophy of
the Middle Ages, pages 3435
Chapter 69
Hexis
For other uses, see Hexis (disambiguation).
Hexis () is a relatively stable arrangement or disposition, for example a person's health or knowledge or character. It is a Greek word, important in the philosophy
of Aristotle, and because of this it has become a traditional word of philosophy. It stems from a verb related
to possession or having, and Jacob Klein, for example, translates it as possession. It is more typically
translated in modern texts occasionally as state(e.g.,
H. Rackham), but more often as "disposition". Joe Sachs
translates it asactive condition, in order to make sure
that hexis is not confused with passive conditions of the
soul, such as feelings and impulses or mere capacities that
belong to us by nature. Sachs points to Aristotle's own
distinction, explained for example in categories 8b, which
distinguishes the word diathesis, normally uncontroversially translated as disposition. In this passage, diathesis
only applies to passive and shallow dispositions that are
easy to remove and change, such as being hot or cold,
while hexis is reserved for deeper and more active dispo- So according to Aristotle, a "hexis" is a type of dispositions, such as properly getting to know something in a sition(diathesis) which he in turn describes in the same
way that it will not be easily forgotten. Another common as follows...
example of a human hexis in Aristotle is health (hugieia,
or sometimes euhexia, in Greek) and in cases where hexis
Dispositionmeans arrangement (taxis) of
is discussed in the context of health, it is sometimes transthat which has parts, either in space (topos) or
lated as constitution.
in potentiality (dunamis) or in form (eidos). It
must be a kind of position (thesis) , as indeed is
Apart from needing to be relatively stable or permaclear
from the word,disposition(diathesis).
nent, in contexts concerning humans (such as knowledge,
Aristot.
Met. 5.1022b* [4]
health, and good character) hexis is also generally understood to be contrasted from other dispositions, conditions
and habits, by beingacquiredby some sort of training And specically it is the type of dispositionin virtue of
or other habituation.* [1]
which (kath' ho) the thing which is disposed is disposed
Other uses also occur, for example it is sometimes trans- well or badly, and either independently or in relation to
lated as habit, based upon the classical translation something else.
from Greek to Latin "habitus", which also comes from a
verb indicating having.
That in virtue of whichhas various meanings. (a) The form or essence of each individual thing; e.g., that in virtue of which a man is
good is goodness itself.(b) The immediate substrate in which a thing is naturally produced; as, e.g., color is produced in the surface
224
Happiness then, is an energeia, but virtue of character (often translated as moral virtue) is made up of hexeis.
Happiness is said to deserve honoring like the divine if it
actually achieved, while virtue of character, being only a
potential achievement, deserves praise but is lower.* [8]
Now with those who pronounce happiness to be virtue, or some particular virtue,
our denition is in agreement; for activity
() in conformity with virtue(aret)
involves virtue. But no doubt it makes a great
dierence whether we conceive the Supreme
Good to depend on possessing virtue or on
displaying iton disposition (), or on the
manifestation of a disposition in action. For
a man may possess the disposition without its
producing any good result, as for instance when
he is asleep, or has ceased to function from
some other cause; but virtue in active exercise cannot be inoperative it will of necessity act (praxis), and act well (eu praxei). And
just as at the Olympic games the wreaths of
victory are not bestowed upon the handsomest
and strongest persons present, but on men who
enter for the competitionssince it is among
these that the winners are found,so it is those
who act rightly who carry o the prizes and
good things of life.
Aristot. Nic. Eth. 1098b* [7]
69.3. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[20] :
,
,
.
, :
.
[6] http://www.classicallibrary.org/aristotle/categories/2.
htm#8
[7] Greek from Perseus Project:
:
.
, .
,
,
: ,
.
,
.
[8] Aristot. Nic. Eth. Book I Ch.12 1101b-1102a
[9] Strong, J. (1996). The exhaustive concordance of the
Bible : Showing every word of the test of the common English version of the canonical books, and every occurrence
of each word in regular order. (electronic ed.) (G1838).
Ontario: Woodside Bible Fellowship.
69.3 Bibliography
A Commentary on Plato's Meno (University of North
Carolina Press, 1965)
Sachs, Joe (1995), Aristotle's physics: a guided study
Sachs, Joe (1999), Introduction by Joe Sachs
, Aristotle's Metaphysics, a new translation by Joe
Sachs, Santa Fe, NM: Green Lion Books, ISBN 1888009-03-9
225
Chapter 70
Hyle
In philosophy, hyle (/hali/; from Ancient Greek: )
refers to matter or stu. It can also be the material cause
underlying a change in Aristotelian philosophy. The
Greeks originally had no word for matter in general, as
opposed to raw material suitable for some specic purpose or other, so Aristotle adapted the word for wood
to this purpose.* [1] The idea that everything physical is
made of the same basic substance holds up well under
modern science, although it may be thought of more in
terms of energy or matter/energy.* [2]
in order to explain what is observed, that is a valid indirect demonstration (by abductive reasoning). Moreover,
something like a prime substance is posited by physics in
the form of matter/energy.
70.1 Substance
Hylomorphism
Hylopathism
Hylozoism
Matter
Materialism
Noumenon
Prima materia
Substance theory
70.3 References
226
Denition
Chapter 71
Instantiation principle
The principle of instantiation or principle of exemplication is the concept in metaphysics and logic that there
can be no uninstantiated or unexemplied properties (or
universals). In other words, it is impossible for a property
to exist which is not had by some object. Aristotle is well
known for endorsing the principle and Plato for denying
it.
Consider a chair. Presumably chairs did not exist 150,000
years ago. Thus, according to the Principle of Instantiation, the property of being a chair did not exist 150,000
years ago either. Similarly (and assuming objects are colored), if all red objects were to suddenly go out of existence, then the property of being red would likewise go
out of existence.
To make the Principle of Instantiation more plausible in
the light of these examples, the existence of properties or
universals is not tied to their actual existence now, but to
their existence in space-time considered as a whole.* [1]
Thus, any property which is instantiated, has been instantiated, or will be instantiated exists. The property of being red would exist even if all red things were to be destroyed, because it has been instantiated. This broadens
the range of properties which exist if the principle is true.
Those who endorse the principle of instantiation are
known as in re realists or immanent realists.* [2]
71.1 References
[1] Armstrong, David (1989). Universals: An Opinionated
Introduction (paperback) (book). Colorado: Westview
Press.
[2] Loux, Michael (2006). Aristotle's Constituent Ontology. In Zimmerman, Dean W. Oxford Studies in Metaphysics (paperback) (book). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-929058-1. Retrieved 2012-06-25.
227
Chapter 72
229
72.5 Collaborations
The Kitsch Movement has collaborated with The Florence Academy in a 2009 exhibition Immortal Works
.* [12] Every two years, World Wide Kitsch* [13] hosts the
Kitsch Biennale,* [14]* [15]* [16]* [17]* [18]* [19]* [20] a
traveling exhibition which includes painters from around
the world.
230
Jan-Ove Tuv* [22]
Roberto Ferri
Rose Freymuth-Frazier
Helene Knoop* [23]
Per Lundgren* [24]
Richard T. Scott
72.10 References
[1] E.J. Pettinger The Kitsch Campaign[Boise Weekly],
December 29, 2004.
[2] Dag Solhjell and Odd NerdrumOn KitschKagge Publishing, August 2001.
[3] Signy Norendal, Interview with Robert Dale Williams
[Aktuell Kunst] September 5, 2007
[4] Richard Scott The Philosophy of Kitsch.
[5] Jan-Ove Tuv
72.8 Exhibitions
2002 Kitsch Katakomben, Haugar Vestfold KunstMuseum, Tonsberg, Norway
2002 Raugland Atelier, Stavern, Norway
2002 Larvik Kunstforening, Larvik, Norway
2004 Kitsch, Telemark Museum, Skien, Norway
2005 Kitsch Annuale, Krutthuset, Fredricksvern
Verft, Stavern, Norway
2006 Kitsch Annuale, Stavern, Norway
2008 Kitsch Biennale Pasinger Fabrik, Munich,
Germany
2009 Kitsch, Krapperup Castle, Sweden
[20]
Aesthetics
Classical Realism
Empiricism
Metamodernism
New Sincerity
Objectivity (philosophy)
Positivism
Post-postmodernism
Reconstructivism
Chapter 73
George E. McCarthy
George E. McCarthy is a professor of sociology at
Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio.
73.1 Education
Romancing Antiquity: German Critique of the Enlightenment from Weber to Habermas (Lanham,
MD: Rowman and Littleeld Publishers, 1997)
73.2 Career
George E. McCarthy became National Endowment for
the Humanities Distinguished Teaching Professor of Sociology in 2000. He has been a research fellow at
the University of Frankfurt am Main, a guest professor at the Institute for Political Science at the University
of Munich, and a Senior Fulbright Research Fellow in
philosophy and sociology at the University of Kassel,
Germany. He has received a Deutscher Akademischer
Austauschdienst (DAAD), Fulbright Research Fellowship, and an NEH Research Fellowship. McCarthy's
courses at Kenyon College focus on ethics and social justice, political and social theory, philosophy and sociology of science, German social thought and Greek philosophy/literature, and American political economy. His
major area of concentration is nineteenth- and twentiethcentury German social theory: Karl Marx, Max Weber,
Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Martin Heidegger,
Hans-Georg Gadamer, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, and Juergen Habermas.
Chapter 74
Alexander III demanded recognition of their religious authority over all Christians everywhere, and wished themselves to reach superiority over the Byzantine Emperor;
they were not at all willing to fall into a state of dependence from one emperor to the other.* [4] Manuel, on
the other side, wanted an ocial recognition of his secular authority over both East and West.* [5] Such conditions would not be accepted by either side. Even if a
pro-western Emperor such as Manuel agreed to it, the
Greek citizens of the Empire would have rejected outright any union of this sort, as they did almost three hundred years later when the Orthodox and Catholic churches
were briey united under the Pope. In existing correspondence Michael presents a deeply courteous but unbending
position on the authority of his Church. The correspondence also show a good working relationship with the Emperor.
Some of Michael III's correspondence with Manuel I survive,* [6] as does his inaugural address as hpatos.* [7]
Other documents including correspondence with Pope
Alexander III have been attributed to him, though they
are more likely later apocryphal creations of the 13th century.* [8] Michael III can also take credit for acting as patron to the young Michael Choniates, who composed an
encomium in his honour, still extant.* [9]
74.1 References
74.2. SOURCES
74.2 Sources
J.M. Hussey. The Orthodoox Church in the Byzantine Empire. Oxford: University Press, 1986.
Kurtz, Johann Heinrich (1860). Dogmatic Controversies, 12th and 14th Centuries. History of the
Christian Church to the Reformation. T. & T. Clark.
Paul Magdalino. The Empire of Manuel Komnenos.
Cambridge: University Press, 1993.
Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary
of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780-19-504652-6
233
Chapter 75
Mimesis
Mimeticredirects here. For the mimetic muscles, see Luce Irigaray, Jacques Derrida, Ren Girard, Nikolas
Facial muscles. For other uses of the word Mimesis, see Kompridis, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Michael Taussig,
Mimesis (disambiguation).
Merlin Donald, and Homi Bhabha.
Not to be confused with Memetics.
Mimesis (Ancient Greek: (mmsis), from 75.1 Classical denitions
(mmeisthai), to imitate,from (mimos), imitator, actor) is a critical and philosophical
term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include 75.1.1 Plato
imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity,
nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of Both Plato and Aristotle saw in mimesis the
representation of nature. Plato wrote about mimeexpression, and the presentation of the self.* [1]
sis in both Ion and The Republic (Books II, III, and
In ancient Greece, mimesis was an idea that governed the
X). In Ion, he states that poetry is the art of divine
creation of works of art, in particular, with corresponmadness, or inspiration. Because the poet is subject
dence to the physical world understood as a model for
to this divine madness, instead of possessing art
beauty, truth, and the good. Plato contrasted mimesis,
or knowledge(techne) of the subject (532c), the
or imitation, with diegesis, or narrative. After Plato, the
poet does not speak truth (as characterized by Plato's
meaning of mimesis eventually shifted toward a specifaccount of the Forms). As Plato has it, only truth is the
ically literary function in ancient Greek society, and its
concern of the philosopher. As culture in those days
use has changed and been reinterpreted many times since
did not consist in the solitary reading of books, but in
then.
the listening to performances, the recitals of orators
One of the best-known modern studies of mimesis, un- (and poets), or the acting out by classical actors of
derstood as a form of realism in literature, is Erich Auer- tragedy, Plato maintained in his critique that theatre
bach's Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in West- was not sucient in conveying the truth (540c). He
ern Literature, which opens with a famous comparison was concerned that actors or orators were thus able to
between the way the world is represented in Homer's persuade an audience by rhetoric rather than by telling
Odyssey and the way it appears in the Bible. From these the truth (535b).
two seminal Western texts, Auerbach builds the foundaIn Book II of The Republic, Plato describes Socrates' diation for a unied theory of representation that spans the
logue with his pupils. Socrates warns we should not serientire history of Western literature, including the Modously regard poetry as being capable of attaining the truth
ernist novels being written at the time Auerbach began
and that we who listen to poetry should be on our guard
his study. In art history, mimesis, realismand
against its seductions, since the poet has no place in our
naturalismare used, often interchangeably, as terms for
idea of God.* [3]
the accurate, even illusionistic, representation of the
In developing this in Book X, Plato told of Socrates'
visual appearance of things.
metaphor of the three beds: one bed exists as an idea
The Frankfurt school critical theorist T. W. Adorno made
made by God (the Platonic ideal); one is made by the
use of mimesis as a central philosophical term, interpretcarpenter, in imitation of God's idea; one is made by the
ing it as a way in which works of art embodied a form of
artist in imitation of the carpenter's.* [4]
*
reason that was non-repressive and non-violent. [2]
So the artist's bed is twice removed from the truth. The
Mimesis has been theorised by thinkers as diverse
copiers only touch on a small part of things as they reas Plato, Aristotle, Philip Sidney, Samuel Taylor Coally are, where a bed may appear dierently from various
leridge, Adam Smith, Sigmund Freud, Walter Benpoints of view, looked at obliquely or directly, or dierjamin, Paul Ross, Theodor Adorno, Erich Auerbach,
ently again in a mirror. So painters or poets, though they
234
235
75.1.2
Contrast to diegesis
Aristotle
236
Dionysian imitatio
Mimesis, or imitation, as he referred to it, was a crucial concept for Samuel Taylor Coleridge's theory of the
imagination. Coleridge begins his thoughts on imitation and poetry from Plato, Aristotle, and Philip Sidney,
adopting their concept of imitation of nature instead of
other writers. His middling departure from the earlier
thinkers lies in his arguing that art does not reveal a unity
of essence through its ability to achieve sameness with
nature. Coleridge claims:
[T]he composition of a poem is among the
imitative arts; and that imitation, as opposed to
copying, consists either in the interfusion of the
SAME throughout the radically DIFFERENT,
or the dierent throughout a base radically the
same.* [13]
Here, Coleridge opposes imitation to copying, the latter referring to William Wordsworth's notion that poetry
should duplicate nature by capturing actual speech. Coleridge instead argues that the unity of essence is revealed
precisely through dierent materialities and media. Imitation, therefore, reveals the sameness of processes in
nature.
75.6 Notes
[1] Gebauer and Wulf (1992, 1).
[2] Karla L. Schultz (1990) Mimesis on the move: Theodor
W. Adorno's concept of imitation, Peter Lang AG, ISBN
3-261-04208-7
[3] The Republic, 377.
[4] The Republic, 596599.
[5] Plato. Book X. The Republic.
[6] Davis (1993, 3).
75.7. REFERENCES
237
Coleridge, S.T. 1983. Biographia Literaria. v.1 eds.
James Engell and W. Jackson Bate. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-09874-3.
Davis, Michael. 1999. The Poetry of Philosophy:
On Aristotle's Poetics. South Bend, Indiana: St Augustine's P. ISBN 1-890318-62-0.
Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and
Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York:
Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9.
Gebauer, Gunter, and Christoph Wulf. 1992.
Mimesis: Culture Art Society. Trans. Don Reneau. Berkeley and London: U of California P,
1995. ISBN 0-520-08459-4.
Ren Girard. 2008. Mimesis and Theory: Essays on
Literature and Criticism, 19532005. Ed. by Robert
Doran. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN
978-0-8047-5580-1.
Halliwell, Stephen, The Aesthetics of Mimesis. Ancient Texts and Modern Problems, Princeton 2002.
ISBN 0-691-09258-3.
Kaufmann, Walter. 1992. Tragedy and Philosophy.
Princeton: Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-02005-1.
Miller, Gregg Daniel. 2011. Mimesis and Reason: Habermas's Political Philosophy. Albany, NY:
SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-3740-8
Pster, Manfred. 1977. The Theory and Analysis
of Drama. Trans. John Halliday. European Studies
in English Literature Ser. Cambridige: Cambridge
UP, 1988. ISBN 0-521-42383-X.
Prang, Christoph. 2010. Semiomimesis: The inuence of semiotics on the creation of literary texts. Peter Bichsel's Ein Tisch ist ein Tisch and Joseph Roth's
Hotel Savoy. In: Semiotica. Vol. 2010, Issue 182,
S. 37596.
75.7 References
Auerbach, Erich. 1953. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton:
Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-11336-X.
Snow, Kim; Crethar, Hugh; Robey, Patricia & Carlson, John. 2005. Theories of Family Therapy
(Part 1)". As cited in Family Therapy Review:
Preparing for Comprehensive Licensing Examination.2005. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN
0-8058-4312-4.
Sen, R. K., Mimesis, Calcutta: Syamaprasad College, 2001
Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in
Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of
Calcutta, 1966.
Tatarkiewicz, Wadysaw. 1980. A History of Six
Ideas: An Essay in Aesthetics. Trans. Christopher
Kasparek. The Hague: Martinus Nijho. ISBN 90247-2233-0.
238
Taussig, Michael. 1993. Mimesis and Alterity: A
Particular History of the Senses. London and New
York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-90686-5.
Tsitsiridis, Stavros, Mimesis and Understanding.
An Interpretation of Aristotles Poetics 4.1448b419, In: Classical Quarterly 55 (2005) 435-46.
Chapter 76
Minima naturalia
Moreover, "[s]ince every body must diminish in size
when something is taken from it, and esh is quantitatively denite in respect both of greatness and
smallness, it is clear that from the minimum quantity of esh no body can be separated out; for the
esh left would be less than the minimum of esh.
*
[3]
Minima naturalia (natural minima)* [n 1] were theorized by Aristotle as the smallest parts into which a homogeneous natural substance (e.g., esh, bone, or wood)
could be divided and still retain its essential character. In
this context, "nature" means formal nature. Thus,natural minimummay be taken to meanformal minimum":
the minimum amount of matter necessary to instantiate a
certain form.
Speculation on minima naturalia in late Antiquity, in
the Islamic world, and by Scholastic and Renaissance
thinkers in Europe provided a conceptual bridge between the atomism of ancient Greece and the mechanistic philosophy of early modern thinkers like Descartes,
which in turn provided a background for the rigorously
mathematical and experimental atomism of modern science.* [1]* [2]
240
76.4 Notes
[1] Minima naturalia is the conventional Latin translation
of Greek (elachista,singular ,
elachiston), which means minima.
[2] Not to be confused with Marsilius of Inghen* [1]
76.5 References
[1] John Emery Murdoch; Christoph Herbert Lthy, William
Royall Newman (1 January 2001). The Medieval and
Renaissance Tradition of Minima Naturalia. Late Medieval and Early Modern Corpuscular Matter Theories.
BRILL. pp. 91133. ISBN 90-04-11516-1.
Chapter 77
Peripatetic school
losophy, which would play a large part in the revival of
Aristotle's doctrines in Europe in the Middle Ages and
the Renaissance.
77.1 Background
Aristotle's School, a painting from the 1880s by Gustav Adolph
Spangenberg
242
of Rhodes, Clytus of Miletus, Aristoxenus, and
Dicaearchus.* [12] Much like Plato's Academy, there
were in Aristotle's school junior and senior members, the
junior members generally serving as pupils or assistants
to the senior members who directed research and lectured.* [12] The aim of the school, at least in Aristotle's
time, was not to further a specic doctrine, but rather to
explore philosophical and scientic theories; those who
ran the school worked rather as equal partners.* [12]
Sometime shortly after Alexander's death in June 323
BC, Aristotle left Athens to avoid persecution by antiMacedonian factions in Athens due to his ties to
Macedonia.* [13]
77.4. INFLUENCE
243
dronicus the school concentrated on preserving and defending his work.* [24] The most important gure in the
Aristo of Ceos (225 c. 190)
Roman era is Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 CE)
who commentated on Aristotle's writings. With the rise
Critolaus (c. 190 155)
of Neoplatonism (and Christianity) in the 3rd century,
Diodorus of Tyre (c. 140)
Peripateticism as an independent philosophy came to an
end, but the Neoplatonists sought to incorporate Aristo Erymneus (c. 110)
tle's philosophy within their own system, and produced
There are some uncertainties in this list. It is not certain many commentaries on Aristotle's works. In the 5th cenwhether Aristo of Ceos was the head of the school, but tury, Olympiodorus the Elder is sometimes described as
since he was a close pupil of Lyco and the most impor- a Peripatetic.
tant Peripatetic philosopher in the time when he lived,
it is generally assumed that he was. It is not known if
Critolaus directly succeeded Aristo, or if there were any 77.4 Inuence
leaders between them. Erymneus is known only from
a passing reference by Athenaeus.* [17] Other important Main article: Aristotelianism
Peripatetic philosophers who lived during these centuries See also: Avicennism, Averroism and Scholasticism
include Eudemus of Rhodes, Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus,
and Clearchus of Soli.
The last philosophers in classical antiquity to comment
After the time of Strato, the Peripatetic school fell into on Aristotle were Simplicius and Boethius in the 6th cena decline. Lyco was famous more for his oratory than tury. After this, although his works were mostly lost to
his philosophical skills, and Aristo is perhaps best known the west, they were maintained in the east where they
for his biographical studies;* [18] and although Crito- were incorporated into early Islamic philosophy. Some of
laus was more philosophically active, none of the Peri- the greatest Peripatetic philosophers in the Islamic philopatetic philosophers in this period seem to have con- sophical tradition were Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi
tributed anything original to philosophy.* [19] The rea- (Alpharabius), Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn
sons for the decline of the Peripatetic school are unclear. Rushd). By the 12th century, Aristotle's works began beUndoubtably Stoicism and Epicureanism provided many ing translated into Latin during the Latin translations of
answers for those people looking for dogmatic and com- the 12th century, and gradually arose Scholastic philosoprehensive philosophical systems, and the scepticism of phy under such names as Thomas Aquinas, which took its
the Middle Academy may have seemed preferable to any- tone and complexion from the writings of Aristotle, the
one who rejected dogmatism.* [20] Later tradition linked commentaries of Averroes, and The Book of Healing of
the school's decline to Neleus of Scepsis and his descen- Avicenna.
dents hiding the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus in
a cellar until their rediscovery in the 1st century BC, and
even though this story may be doubted, it is possible that
77.5 See also
Aristotle's works were not widely read.* [21]
In 86 BCE, Athens was sacked by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla, all the schools of philosophy in Athens were badly disrupted, and the Lyceum
ceased to exist as a functioning institution.* [19] Ironically, this event seems to have brought new life to the
Peripatetic school. Sulla brought the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus back to Rome, where they became the basis of a new collection of Aristotle's writings compiled by Andronicus of Rhodes which forms
the basis of the Corpus Aristotelicum which exists today.* [19] Later Neoplatonist writers describe Andronicus, who lived around 50 BCE, as the eleventh scholarch
of the Peripatetic school,* [22] which would imply that
he had two unnamed predecessors. There is considerable
uncertainty over the issue, and Andronicus' pupil Boethus
of Sidon is also described as the eleventh scholarch.* [23]
It is quite possible that Andronicus set up a new school
where he taught Boethus.
Whereas the earlier Peripatetics had sought to extend
and develop Aristotle's works, from the time of An-
Aristotelianism
Peripatetic axiom
77.6 Notes
[1] The entry peripattikos in Liddell, Henry and Robert Scott,
A Greek-English Lexicon.
[2] Furley 2003, p. 1141; Lynch 1997, p. 311
[3] Nussbaum 2003, p. 166; Furley 2003, p. 1141; Lynch
1997, p. 311
[4] Furley 1970, p. 801 citing Diogenes Laertius, Lives and
Opinions of Eminent Philosophers 5.2. Some modern
scholars discredit the legend altogether; see p. 229 & p.
229 n. 156, in Hegel 2006, p. 229
[5] Furley 2003, p. 1141
244
[6] 336 BC: Furley 2003, p. 1141; 335 BC: Lynch 1997, p.
311; 334 BC: Irwin 2003
77.7 References
Barnes, Jonathan (2000), Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford Paperbacks, ISBN 0-19-2854089.
Drozdek, Adam (2007), Greek Philosophers as Theologians: The Divine Arche, Ashgate publishing,
ISBN 0-7546-6189-X.
Furley, David (1970), Peripatetic School, in
Hammond, N. G. L.; Scullard, H. H., The Oxford
Classical Dictionary (2nd ed.), Oxford University
Press.
Furley, David (2003), Peripatetic School, in
Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860641-9.
Hegel, G. W. F. (2006), Brown, Robert F., ed.,
Lectures on the History of Philosophy 18251826:
Greek Philosophy 2, Oxford University Press, ISBN
0-19-927906-3.
Chapter 78
Substance theory
Substance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an
Aristotle, Categories 2a13, (trans. J.L.
ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a subAckrill)
stance is distinct from its properties. A thing-in-itself is a
property-bearer that must be distinguished from the propIn chapter 6 of the Physics Aristotle argues that any
erties it bears.* [1]
change must be analysed in reference to the property of
Substance is a key concept in ontology and metaphysics,
an invariant subject as it was before the change and therewhich may be classied into monist, dualist or pluralist
after. Thus, in his hylomorphic account of change, matter
varieties according to how many substances or individserves as a relative substratum of transformation, i.e., of
uals are said to populate, furnish or exist in the world.
changing form. In the Categories, properties are prediAccording to Monistic views, such as those of stoicism
cated only of substance, but in chapter 7 of the Physics,
and Spinoza, there is only one substance, pneuma or God,
Aristotle discusses substances coming to be and passing
respectively. These modes of thinking are sometimes asaway in the unqualied sensewherein a primary subsociated with the idea of immanence. Dualism sees the
stance is generated from (or perishes into) a material subworld as being composed of two fundamental substances,
stratum by having gained (or lost) the essential property
for example, the Cartesian substance dualism of mind and
that formally denes a substance of that kind (in the secmatter. Pluralist philosophies include Plato's Theory of
ondary sense). However, because an essential property
Forms and Aristotle's hylomorphic categories.
remains invariant during an accidental change in form,
by identifying the substance with its formal essence, substance may thereby serve as the relative subject matter or
78.1 Ancient Greek philosophy
property-bearer of change in a qualied sense (i.e., barring matters of life or death).
Aristotle used the term in a secondary sense for genera Neither the bare particularsnor property bundles
and species understood as hylomorphic forms. Primar- of modern theory have their antecedent in Aristotle, acily, however, he used it with regard to his category of cording to whom, all matter exists in some form. There is
substance, the specimen (this personor this horse no prime matter or pure elements, there is always a mix) or individual, qua individual, who survives accidental ture: a ratio weighing the four potential combinations of
change and in whom the essential properties inhere that primary and secondary properties and analysed into disdene those universals. In contrast, Plato and later crete one-step and two-step abstract transmutations beNeoplatonism, spoke of the objective reality of a thing tween the elements.
or its inner reality (as opposed to outer appearance or
However, according to Aristotle's theology, a form of inillusion).
variant form exists without matter, beyond the cosmos,
powerless and oblivious, in the eternal substance of the
A substance that which is called a
unmoved movers.
substance most strictly, primarily, and most of
allis that which is neither said of a subject
nor in a subject, e.g. the individual man or
78.2 Early Western philosophy
the individual horse. The species in which
the things primarily called substances are, are
Descartes means bysubstancean entity which exists in
called secondary substances, as also are the
such a way that it needs no other entity in order to exist.
genera of these species. For example, the
Therefore, only God is a substance is the strict sense. But
individual man belongs in a species, man, and
he extends the term to created things, which need only
animal is a genus of the species; so these
the concurrence of God to exist. Of these there are two
both man and animal are called secondary
and only two: mind and matter, each being distinct from
substances.* [2]
245
246
78.4.2 Inherence
Another primitive concept in substance theory is the
inherence the properties within a substance. For example, in the sentence,The apple is red,substance theory
says that red inheres in the apple. Substance theory takes
the meaning of an apple having the property of redness
to be understood, and likewise that of a property's inherence in substance, which is similar to, but not identical
with, being part of the substance.
78.7. STOICISM
78.5.1
247
78.7 Stoicism
The Stoics rejected the idea that incorporeal beings inhere in matter, as taught by Plato. They believed that
all being is corporeal infused with a creative re called
pneuma. Thus they developed a scheme of categories different from Aristotle's based on the ideas of Anaxagoras
and Timaeus.
248
Chapter 79
Substantial form
Formsredirects here.
(disambiguation).
79.1.2
Aristotelian forms
250
79.2 Criticism
Descartes, referring to substantial forms, says:
79.4 References
[1] David Banach. What Killed Substantial Form?
[2] Benjamin Hill. Substantial Forms and the Rise of Modern
Science
[3] This article incorporates text from a publication now in
the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Form".
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[4] Descartes. Letter to Regius,January 1642, in Oeuvres
de Descartes.
[5] Adams, Robert Merrihew. Leibniz: Determinist, Theist,
Idealist, February 1999, pp. 308-341 (34)
[6] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Chapter 80
80.1 Antiquity
Sophonias (commentator)
Stephen of Alexandria
Plotinus
80.1.1
Greek commentators
Adrastus of Aphrodisias
Avicenna
Alexander of Aegae
Al-Farabi
Alexander of Aphrodisias
Al-Kindi
Al-Ghazali
Ammonius Hermiae
Al-Biruni
David Anhaght
Aspasius
Damascius
Albertus Magnus
Dexippus (philosopher)
Thomas Aquinas
John Philoponus
Jean Buridan
Porphyry (philosopher)
Gilbert de la Porre
Giles of Rome
Simplicius of Cilicia
John Hennon
Syrianus
Lambertus de Monte
Themistius
William of Ockham
Gerardus Odonis
Peter of Auvergne
Duns Scotus
Al-Jahiz
Guido Terrena
Maimonides
Walter Burley
251
252
80.3 Modern
Francis Bacon
Aristotelianism
Franco Burgersdijck
Peripatetic school
Nicolaus Copernicus
Commentaries on Aristotle
Ren Descartes
Scholasticism
G.W.F. Hegel
Thomas Hobbes
Immanuel Kant
Karl Marx
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Baruch Spinoza
80.3.1
Latin commentators
Robert Balfour
Domingo Bez
Niccol Cabeo
John Case
Conimbricenses
Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)
Domingo de Soto
Philip Faber
Pedro da Fonseca (philosopher)
Sebastin Fox Morcillo
John Mair
Pietro Pomponazzi
Francis Robortello
Franciscus Toletus
Cuthbert Tunstall
Jacopo Zabarella
Mortimer Adler, Hannah Arendt, Giannina Braschi,
Philippa Foot, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Martin Heidegger, Muhammad Iqbal, James Joyce, Alasdair MacIntyre, Jacques Maritain, Martha Nussbaum, Ayn Rand,
Leo Strauss, Michael Sandel, Olavo de Carvalho
80.5 References
Chapter 81
J. L. Ackrill
John Lloyd Ackrill FBA (30 December 1921 30
November 2007) was a philosopher and classicist who
specialized in Ancient Greek philosophy, especially the
philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Ackrill has been said
to be, along with Gregory Vlastos and G. E. L. Owen,
one of the most important scholars of Greek philosophy
in the English-speaking world in the latter half of the 20th
century.* [1]
Books
81.2.2
81.3 References
[1] Owen Goldin J. L. Ackrill, Essays on Plato and Aristotle.
in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 98.4.01.
[2] Institute for Advanced Study: A Community of Scholars
[3] Professor J.L. Ackrill. Obituary. London: Times
Newspapers. 2007-12-20. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
253
Times Obituary
Chapter 82
Adrastus of Aphrodisias
Adrastus (Greek: ; . 2nd century) of
Aphrodisias was a Peripatetic philosopher who lived in
the 2nd century AD. He was the author of a treatise on
the arrangement of Aristotle's writings and his system of
philosophy, quoted by Simplicius,* [1] and by Achilles
Tatius. Some commentaries of his on the Timaeus
of Plato are also quoted by Porphyry,* [2] and a treatise on the Categories of Aristotle by Galen. None of
these have come down to us.* [3] He was a competent
mathematician, whose writings on harmonics are frequently cited by Theon of Smyrna in the surviving sections of his On Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato.* [4] In the 17th century, a work by Adrastus
on harmonics, (On Harmonics),
was said by Gerhard Johann Vossius to have been preserved, in manuscript, in the Vatican Library, although
the manuscript appears to be no longer extant, if indeed
this was not an error on Vossius' part.* [5]
82.2 References
82.1 Notes
[1] Simplicius, Praefat. in viii. lib. Phys.
[2] p. 270, in Harmonica Ptolemaei
[3] Jowett, Benjamin (1867), Adrastus (3)", in Smith,
William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology 1, Boston, p. 21
[4] Andrew Barker, (1984), Greek Musical Writings, page
210. Cambridge University Press
[5] Long, George (1842),Adrastus, The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diusion of Useful Knowledge 1, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, p. 366
[6] Fragmente der griechischen Historiker Part 7, Page 51
(1999)
[7] Among the (very) few sources prepared to give Adrastus
of Philippi an independent existence is: Trevor Curnow,
254
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 83
83.1 References
[1] F. E., Peters (1968). Aristotle and the Arabs: The Aristotelian Tradition in Islam. New York University Press.
p. 159.
[2] McKinney, Robert C. (2004). The case of rhyme versus
reason: Ibn al-Rm and his poetics in context. Leiden:
Brill. p. 27. ISBN 90-04-13010-1.
255
Chapter 84
Alexander of Aegae
Alexander (Greek: ) of Aegae was a
Peripatetic philosopher who ourished in Rome in the
1st century, and was a disciple of the celebrated mathematician Sosigenes of Alexandria.* [1] He was tutor to
the emperor Nero.* [2]* [3] He wrote commentaries on the
Categories* [4] and the De Caelo* [5] of Aristotle.* [6] Attempts in the 19th century to ascribe some of the works
of Alexander of Aphrodisias to Alexander of Aegae have
been shown to be mistaken.* [7]
84.1 References
[1] Jowett, Benjamin (1867). Alexander of Aegae. In
William Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 110111.
[2] Suda,
[3] The quote attributed to Alexander in the Suda entry is
found in Suetonius (Tiberius 57), where it is attributed to
Theodorus of Gadara.
[4] Simplicius, In Cat. 10.20, 13.16
[5] Simplicius, In De Caelo, 430.29-32
[6] cf. Commentators on Aristotle entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[7] Victor Carlisle Barr Coutant, (1936), Alexander of Aphrodisias: Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's Meteorologica, page 21. Columbia University
84.2 Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
256
Chapter 85
Alexander of Aphrodisias
and Sensibilia, and Metaphysics. Several original treatises
also survive, and include a work On Fate, in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one On
the Soul. His commentaries on Aristotle were considered
so useful that he was styled, by way of pre-eminence,the
commentator( ).
Opening paragraph of the treatise On Fate (Pros tous Autokratoras) by Alexander of Aphrodisias. From an anonymous edition
published in 1658.
85.1.1 Commentaries
Alexander composed several commentaries on the works
of Aristotle, in which he sought to escape a syncretistic
tendency and to recover the pure doctrines of Aristotle.* [7] His extant commentaries are on Prior Analytics
(Book 1), Topics, Meteorology, Sense and Sensibilia, and
Metaphysics (Books 1-5).* [8] The commentary on the
Sophistical Refutations is deemed spurious, as is the commentary on the nal nine books of the Metaphysics.* [9]
The lost commentaries include works on the De Interpretatione, Posterior Analytics, Physics, On the Heavens, On
Generation and Corruption, On the Soul, and On Memory.* [9] Simplicius of Cilicia mentions that Alexander
257
258
85.1.2
Original treatises
There are also several extant original writings by Alexander. These include: On the Soul, Problems and Solutions, Ethical Problems, On Fate, and On Mixture and
Growth.* [8] Three works attributed to him are considered
spurious: Medical Questions, Physical Problems, and On
Fevers.* [8] Additional works by Alexander are preserved
in Arabic translation, these include: On the Principles of
the Universe,* [12] On Providence, and Against Galen on
Motion.* [13]
On the Soul (De anima) is a treatise on the soul written
along the lines suggested by Aristotle in his own De anima.* [14] Alexander contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (nous hulikos) and inseparable
from the body.* [7] He argued strongly against the doctrine of the soul's immortality.* [7] He identied the active intellect (nous poietikos), through whose agency the
potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God.* [7]
A second book is known as the Supplement to On the
Soul (Mantissa). The Mantissa is a series of twenty-ve
separate pieces of which the opening ve deal directly
with psychology.* [15] The remaining twenty pieces cover
problems in physics and ethics, of which the largest group
85.4. NOTES
dence is a power that emanates from the heavens to the
sublunar region, and is responsible for the generation and
destruction of earthly things, without any direct involvement in the lives of individuals.* [25]
85.2 Inuence
By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as
the commentator(Greek: ).* [26] His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the Arabs, who
translated many of them,* [7] and he is heavily quoted by
Maimonides.
In 1210, the Church Council of Paris issued a condemnation, which probably targeted the writings of Alexander
among others.* [27]
In the early Renaissance his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by Pietro Pomponazzi (against the
Thomists and the Averroists),* [7] and by his successor
Cesare Cremonini. This school is known as Alexandrists.
Alexander's band, an optical phenomenon, is named after
him.
259
85.4 Notes
[1] A. Chaniotis, 'Epigraphic evidence for the philosopher
Alexander of Aphrodisias', in Bulletin of the Institute of
Classical Studies, ISSN 0076-0730, v.47 (2004) pp. 7981
[2] J.P. Lynch, Aristotle's School, Berkeley, 1972, p. 215. See
Sosigenes the Peripatetic.
[3] See Alexander's Comm. in Arist. Meteor., p. 143.13
Hayduck ( ), Themistius,
Paraphr. in Arist. de Anima, p. 61.23 Heinze, Ps.Ammonius, Comm. in Arist. Anal. Pr. p. 39.24 Wallies,
and Philoponus, Comm. in Arist. Anal. Pr., p. 126.20-23
Wallies.
260
[18] R. W. Sharples, 1992, Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15, pages 3-4. Duckworth.
85.6 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Alexander of Aphrodisias. Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
85.7 Bibliography
85.7.1
Translations
Alexandre D'Aphrodise. De lme. Textes & Commentaires. Bergeron, M. and R. Dufour (trans.,
I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.8-13. Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-2855-0
I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.14-22. Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-2876-3
I. Mueller, 2006, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On
Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.23-31. Duckworth. ISBN
0-7156-3407-0
I. Mueller, 2006, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On
Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.32-46. Duckworth. ISBN
0-7156-3408-9
J. M. Van Ophuijsen, 2000, Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Topics 1. Duckworth. ISBN 07156-2853-4
85.7.2
Studies
261
Scripta minora, ed. Bruns
Aristotelian commentaries: Metaphysics, Prior
Analytics I, Topics, De sensu and Meteorology,
Chapter 86
Andronicus of Rhodes
Andronicus of Rhodes (Greek: ; . c. 60
BC) was a Greek philosopher from Rhodes who was also
the head (scholarch) of the Peripatetic school. He is
most famous for publishing a new edition of the works
of Aristotle which forms the basis of the texts which survive today. * [1]
86.4 References
[1] Falcon, Andrea; Zalta, Edward N. Commentators on
Aristotle. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Stanford University). Summer 2012. Retrieved 201303-03.
[2] Ammonius, In de Int. 5.24
[3] Strabo, xiv.; Ammonius, in Aristot. Categ..
86.1 Life
Attribution
Andronicus is of special interest in the history of philosophy, from the statement of Plutarch,* [4] that he published
a new edition of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus,
which formerly belonged to the library of Apellicon, and
were brought to Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apellicon's library in 84 BC. Tyrannion commenced this task,
but apparently did not do much towards it.* [5] The arrangement which Andronicus made of Aristotle's writings seems to be the one which forms the basis of our
present editions and we are probably indebted to him
for the preservation of a large number of Aristotle's
works.* [6]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed.
(1870). "Andronicus of Rhodes". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
86.5 Sources
86.3 Writings
Andronicus wrote a work upon Aristotle, the fth book of
which contained a complete list of the philosopher's writings, and he also wrote commentaries upon the Physics,
Ethics, and Categories. None of these works is extant.
Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed to
him, one On Emotions, the other a commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocapa in the 16th
century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica).* [7]
262
263
Chapter 87
87.1 Life
87.4 See also
David (commentator)
87.5 References
[1] Hacikyan, Agop J. (2000). The heritage of Armenian literature. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press. p. 288. ISBN
0814328156.
[2] Barnes, textes runis et dites par Valentina Calzolari et
Jonathan (2009). L'uvre de David l'Invincible et la transmission de la pense grecque dans la tradition armnienne
et syriaque. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004160477. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
87.2 Film
David the Invincible ( - David
Anhaght), Armenlm, 1978; Director: Levon
264
Chapter 88
Asclepius of Tralles
For other people of the same name, see Asclepius
(disambiguation).
Asclepius of Tralles (Greek: ; died c. 560
570) was a student of Ammonius Hermiae. Two works
of his survive:
Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics, books IVII (In Aristotelis metaphysicorum libros - (1 - 7)
commentaria, ed. Michael Hayduck, Commentaria
in Aristotelem Graeca, VI.2, Berin: Reiner, 1888).
Commentary on Nicomachus' Introduction to Arithmetic (Leonardo Tarn, Asclepius of Tralles, Commentary to Nicomachus' Introduction to Arithmetic,
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
(n.s.), 59: 4. Philadelphia, 1969.
Both works seem to be notes on the lectures conducted
by Ammonius.
88.1 References
Martindale, John Robert, The Prosopography of the
later Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press,
1994, vol. 3, pp. 135-136. ISBN 978-0-52120160-5
265
Chapter 89
Aspasius
This article is about the 2nd-century philosopher. For
the 3rd-century Roman rhetorician, see Aspasius of
Rome. For the 6th-century Christian saint, see Aspasius
of Auch.
Aspasius (/speis, spezis, spes/; Greek:
; c. 80 c. 150 AD) was a Peripatetic
philosopher. Boethius, who frequently refers to his
works, says that Aspasius wrote commentaries on most of
the works of Aristotle. The following commentaries are
expressly mentioned: on De Interpretatione, the Physica,
Metaphysica, Categoriae, and the Nicomachean Ethics. A
portion of the commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics
(books 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8) is extant. The Greek text of
this commentary has been published as Commentaria in
Aristotelem Graeca (CAG) vol. 19.1, and David Konstan has published an English translation. It is notable
as the earliest extant commentary on any of Aristotle's
works. From Porphyry, who also states that Aspasius
wrote commentaries on Plato, we learn that his commentaries on Aristotle were used in the school of Plotinus.
Albert the Great, in his commentary on Aristotle's Politics
also refers to a monograph on natural aections (Libellus
de naturalibus passionibus), as written by Aspasius.
89.1 References
Antonina Alberti and Robert W. Sharples, eds., Aspasius: The Earliest Extant Commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (de Gruyter, 1999) ISBN 3-11-016081-1
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed.
(1870). Aspasius (2)". Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology.
266
Chapter 90
Avempace
Avempace (c. 1085 1138) is the Latinate form of Ibn 90.2 Astronomy
Bjja (Arabic: ) , full name Ab Bakr Muammad Ibn Yay ibn a-igh at-Tjb Ibn Bjja In Islamic astronomy, Maimonides wrote the following
al-Tujibi () , a medieval An- on the planetary model proposed by Avempace:
dalusian polymath: his writings include works regarding mathematics, astronomy, physics, psychology, and
I have heard that Abu Bakr [Ibn Bajja]
music, as well as logic, philosophy, medicine, botany, and
discovered a system in which no epicycles oc*
poetry. [1]
cur, but eccentric spheres are not excluded by
him. I have not heard it from his pupils; and
He was the famous author of the Kitab al-Nabat (The
even if it be correct that he discovered such a
Book of Plants), a popular work on Botany, which dened
system, he has not gained much by it, for ecthe sex of Plants. His philosophic ideas had a clear eect
centricity is likewise contrary to the principles
on Ibn Rushd and Albertus Magnus. Most of his writings
laid down by Aristotle.... I have explained to
and book were not completed (or well organized) because
you that these diculties do not concern the asof his early death. He had a vast knowledge of Medicine,
tronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the
Mathematics and Astronomy. His main contribution to
existing properties of the spheres, but to sugIslamic Philosophy is his idea on Soul Phenomenology,
gest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which
which was never completed.
the motion of the stars and planets is uniform
Avempace was, in his time, not only a prominent gure of
and circular, and in agreement with observaphilosophy, but also of music and poetry.* [2] His diwan
tion.* [6]
(Arabic: collection of poetry) was rediscovered in 1951.
Though many of his works have not survived, his theories
on astronomy and physics were preserved by Maimonides
and Averroes respectively, which had a subsequent inuence on later astronomers and physicists in the Islamic
civilization and Renaissance Europe, including Galileo
Galilei.* [3]
90.1 Biography
He was born in Zaragoza in what is today Aragon, Spain,
around 1085* [4] and died in Fes, Morocco, in 1138.
Avempace worked as vizir for Abu Bakr ibn Ibrahim Ibn
Tlwt, the Almoravid governor of Zaragoza. Avempace
also wrote poems (panegyrics and muwasshahat) for him.
Avempace joined in poetic competitions with the poet alTutili. He later worked, for some twenty years, as the
vizir of Yahy ibn Ysuf Ibn Tashun, another brother
of the Almoravid Sultan Yusuf Ibn Tashun (died 1143)
in Morocco.* [5] Among his many teachers was Abu Jafar
ibn Harun of Trujillo a physician in Seville, Al-Andalus.
267
268
90.3 Physics
Text 71 of Averroes' commentary on Aristotle's Physics
contains a discussion on Avempace's theory of motion, as
well as the following quotation from the seventh book of
Avempace's lost work on physics:
And this resistance which is between the
plenum and the body which is moved in it,
is that between which, and the potency of
the void, Aristotle made the proportion in his
fourth book; and what is believed to be his
opinion, is not so. For the proportion of water to air in density is not as the proportion of
the motion of the stone in water to its motion in
air; but the proportion of the cohesive power of
water to that of air is as the proportion of the retardation occurring to the moved body by reason of the medium in which it is moved, namely
water, to the retardation occurring to it when it
is moved in air.* [10]
For, if what some people have believed
were true, then natural motion would be violent; therefore, if there were no resistance
present, how could there be any motion? For
it would necessarily be instantaneous. What
then shall be said concerning the circular motion? There is no resistance there, because
there is no cleavage of a medium involved; the
place of the circle is always the same, so that
it does not leave one place and enter another;
it is therefore necessary that the circular motion should be instantaneous. Yet we observe
in it the greatest slowness, as in the case of the
xed stars, and also the greatest speed, as in the
case of the diurnal rotation. And this is caused
only by the dierence in perfection between
the mover and the moved. When therefore the
mover is of greater perfection, that which is
90.4 Psychology
In Islamic psychology, Avempace based his
psychological studies on physics.In his essay,
Recognition of the Active Intelligence, he wrote that
active intelligence is the most important ability of human
beings, and he wrote many other essays on sensations
and imaginations. He concluded that "knowledge cannot
be acquired by senses alone but by Active Intelligence,
90.7. REFERENCES
269
which is the governing intelligence of nature.He begins [9] Fred Espenak, Six Millennium Catalog of Venus Transits
his discussion of the soul with the denition thatbodies
[10] Ernest A. Moody (April 1951). Galileo and Avemare composed of matter and form and intelligence is
pace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment
the most important part of man sound knowledge is
(I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193
obtained through intelligence, which alone enables one
[185].
to attain prosperity and build character.He viewed
the unity of the rational soul as the principle of the [11] Ernest A. Moody (April 1951). Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment
individual identity, and that by its contact with the Active
(I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193
Intelligence, it becomes one of those lights that gives
[184-185].
glory to God.His denition of freedom is that when
one can think and act rationally. He also writes that [12] Ernest A. Moody (April 1951). Galileo and Avemthe aim of life should be to seek spiritual knowledge
pace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment
(I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193
and make contact with Active Intelligence and thus with
[185-186].
the Divine.* [13]
[13] (Haque 2004, p. 368)
90.5 Music
Recently, the web page Webislam of Spanish converts
to Islam, reported that the score of the Nuba al-Istihll
of Avempace (11th century), arranged by Omar Metiou
and Eduardo Paniagua, save almost complete similarity
with Marcha Granadera (18th century) is now the ocial
anthem of Spain. That makes it the world's oldest song
(about a thousand years old) used for the ocial anthem
of a country.* [14]
90.6 Notes
[1] Jon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology
of Sources, p. 266, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN
0-87220-871-0.
[2] D. M. Dunlop, The Dwn Attributed to Ibn Bjjah (Avempace)", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and
African Studies, University of London Vol. 14, No. 3,
Studies Presented to Vladimir Minorsky by His Colleagues and Friends (1952), pp. 463
[3] Ernest A. Moody (April 1951). Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment
(I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193.
[4] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-bajja/#LifCir
[5] Vincent Lagardre, 1989, pp. 80 and 174-178)
[6] Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy, Isis 63 (1), p. 39-47
[40-41].
[7] Josep Puig Montada (September 28, 2007). Ibn Bajja
. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 200807-11.
[8] S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002). History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the
23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical
Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 2526, 1997. Springer.
p. 137. ISBN 1-4020-0657-8.
90.7 References
Haque, Amber (2004), Psychology from Islamic
Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists, Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4):
357377, doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z
Marcinkowski, M. Ismail (April 2002), A Biographical Note on Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and an
English Translation of his Annotations to al-Farabi's
Isagoge", in Iqbal Review (Lahore, Pakistan), vol.
43, no. 2, pp. 8399.
The Diwan Attributed to Ibn Bajjah (Avempace),D.
M. Dunlop, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and
African Studies, University of London, Vol. 14, No.
3, Studies Presented to Vladimir Minorsky by His
Colleagues and Friends (1952), pp. 463477
Miquel Forcada (2005). Ibn Bajja. In Thomas
F. Glick, Steven John Livesey, and Faith Wallis.
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An
Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 243246. ISBN
0415969301.
270
Muslim Philosophy on Ibn Bajjah
Catholic Encyclopedia: Avempace
Chapter 91
Averroes
Averros (/vroiz/; April 14, 1126 December 10,
1198) is the Latinized form of Ibn Rushd (Arabic:
), full name Ab l-Wald Muammad Ibn Amad Ibn Rud () , was
a Berber medival Andalusian Muslim polymath. He
wrote on logic, Aristotelian and Islamic philosophy,
theology, the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence,
psychology, political and Andalusian classical music theory, geography, mathematics, and the medival sciences of medicine, astronomy, physics, and celestial mechanics. Averroes was born in Crdoba, Al Andalus
(present-day Spain), and died at Marrakesh in presentday Morocco. His body was interred in his family tomb at
Crdoba.* [6] The 13th-century philosophical movement
based on Averroes's work is called Averroism.
Averroes was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy
against Ash'ari theologians led by Al-Ghazali. Although
highly regarded as a legal scholar of the Maliki school of
Islamic law, Averroes's philosophical ideas were considered controversial in Ash'arite Muslim circles.* [7] Averroes had a greater impact on Christian Europe: he has
been described as thefounding father of secular thought
in Western Europe* [7]* [8]* [9] and was known by the
sobriquet the Commentator for his detailed emendations to Aristotle. Latin translations of Averroes's work
led the way to the popularization of Aristotle.* [10]
91.1 Name
See also: Latinization of names
Averroes's name is the Medieval Latin form of the
Hebrew translation Aben Rois or Rosh of the Arabic Ibn
Rushd. It is also seen as Averros, Averrhos, or Averros to mark that the o and e are separate vowels and not
an or diphthong.* [11] Other forms of the name include
Ibin-Ros-din, Filius Rosadis, Ibn-Rusid, Ben-Raxid, IbnRuschod, Den-Resched, Aben-Rassad, Aben-Rasd, AbenRust, Avenrosdy Avenryz, Adveroys, Benroist, Avenroyth,
and Averroysta.* [12]
91.2 Biography
271
272
91.3 Works
91.4. SCIENCE
273
the original Arabic. The fullest version of his works is in
Latin, and forms part of the multi-volume Juntine edition
of Aristotle published in Venice 1562-1574.
91.4 Science
91.4.1 Medicine
274
91.4.3
Astronomy
91.4.4
Psychology
Commentarium magnum Averrois in Aristotelis De Anima libros. French Manuscript, third quarter of the 13th century.
Averroes also made some studies regarding Active intellect and Passive intellect, both of the following were formerly regarded subjects of Psychology.* [7]* [28]* [29]
91.5 Philosophy
Averroes wrote commentaries on most of the surviving
91.5.1
The tradition of Islamic philosophy works of Aristotle working from Arabic translations. He
wrote three types of commentaries. The short commenAverroes furthered the tradition of Greek philosophy in tary (jami) is generally an epitome; the middle commentary (talkhis) is a paraphrase; the long commentary
the Islamic world (falsafa). His commentaries removed
the whole text with a detailed analysis of
*
the neo-Platonic bias of his predecessors. [2] Criticizing (tafsir) includes
each line.* [37]
al-Farabi's attempt to merge Plato and Aristotle's ideas,
Averroes argued that Aristotle's philosophy diverged in Not having access to Aristotle's Politics, Averroes subsignicant ways from Plato's.* [30] Averroes rejected stituted Plato's Republic. Averroes, following Plato's paAvicenna's Neoplatonism* [31] which was partly based on ternalistic model, advances an authoritarian ideal. Abthe works of neo-Platonic philosophers, Plotinus and Pro- solute monarchy, led by a philosopher-king, creates a
clus, that were mistakenly attributed to Aristotle.* [32]
justly ordered society. This requires extensive use of co*
and is posIn metaphysics, or more exactly ontology, Averroes re- ercion, [38] although persuasion is preferred
*
sible
if
the
young
are
properly
raised.
[39]
Rhetoric,
not
jects the view advanced by Avicenna that existence is
logic,
is
the
appropriate
road
to
truth
for
the
common
merely accidental. Avicenna holds that essence is ontologically prior to existence. The accidental, i. e. at- man. Demonstrative knowledge via philosophy and logic
study. Rhetoric aids religion in reaching
tributes that are not essential, are additional contingent requires special
*
[40]
the
masses.
characteristics. Averroes, following Aristotle, holds that
individual existing substances are primary. One may separate them mentally; however, ontologically speaking, existence and essence are one.* [33]* [34]* [35] According to
Fakhry,* [36] this represents a change from Plato's theory
of Ideas, where ideas precede particulars, to Aristotle's
theory where particulars come rst and the essence isarrived at by a process of abstraction. "
91.5.3
275
91.5.4
System of philosophy
91.6 Signicance
Averroes is most famous for his commentaries of Aristotle's works, which had been mostly forgotten in the
West. Before 1150, only a few of Aristotle's works existed in translation in Latin Europe (i. e. excluding Greek
Byzantium). It was in large part through the Latin translations of Averroes's work beginning in the thirteenth century, that the legacy of Aristotle was recovered in the
Latin West.
276
91.8 Legacy
91.10 References
The Muslim pop musician Kareem Salama composed and performed a song in 2007 titled Aristotle and Averroes.
Averroes is the subject of the lm Al Massir (Destiny) by Youssef Chahine.
The Ibn Rushd Price for Freedom of Thought,
awarded since 1999, is named after Averroes.
277
[21] http://www.wdl.org/ar/item/10673/
[22] http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/
acprof:
oso/9780199567737.001.0001/acprof9780199567737
[23] IBN RUSHD: AVERROES PB - Urvoy - Google Books.
Books.google.com.pk. 1991-04-25. Retrieved 2012-1013.
[24] Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
Rushd Rshid, Rgis Morelon Google Books.
Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved 2012-10-13.
[25] Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries - Abdus
Salam, H. R. Dala, Mohamed Hassan Google Books.
Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved 2012-10-13.
[26] Hseyin Gazi Topdemir, Kamal Al-Din Al-Farisi's Explanation of the Rainbow, , Humanity & Social Sciences
Journal 2 (1): 7585, 2007,p77
[27] Ibn Rushd (Averroes) [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]". Iep.utm.edu. 2010-01-05. Retrieved 2012-10-13.
278
Works of Averroes
DARE, the Digital Averroes Research Environment, an ongoing eort to collect digital images of
all Averroes manuscripts and full texts of all three
language traditions.
Averroes, Islamic Philosophy Online (links to works
by and about Averroes in several languages)
The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes: Tractata translated from the Arabic, trans. Mohammad
Jamil-ur-Rehman, 1921
The Incoherence of the Incoherence translation by
Simon van den Bergh. [N. B. : This also contains
a translation of most of the tahafut as the refutations are mostly commentary of al-Ghazali statements that were quoted verbatim.] There is also
an Italian translation by Massimo Campanini, Averro, L'incoerenza dell'incoerenza dei loso, Turin,
Utet, 1997.
SIEPM Virtual Library, including scanned copies
(PDF) of the Editio Juntina of Averroes' works in
Latin (Venice 15501562)
Information about Averroes
Forcada, Miquel (2007).Ibn Rushd: Ab alWald
Muammad ibn Amad ibn Muammad ibn Rushd
alafd. In Thomas Hockey et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York:
Springer. pp. 5645. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0.
(PDF version)
Iskandar, Albert Z. (2008) [1970-80].Ibn Rushd,
Ab'L-Wald Muammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muammad. Complete Dictionary of Scientic Biography.
Encyclopedia.com.
Fouad Ben Ahmed. Ibn Rud: Knowledge, pleasures and analogy, in: Philosophia: E-Journal of
Philosophy and Culture, 4/2013. ISSN: 13145606
Chapter 92
Avicenna
Avicennais the Latinate form of Ibn Sn. For the of the Islamic world.* [26]
mountain peak known by this name, see Ibn Sn Peak. The study of the Quran and the Hadith thrived in such
a scholarly atmosphere. Philosophy, Fiqh and theolAvicenna (/vsn/; Latinate form of Ibn-Sn ogy (kalaam) were further developed, most noticeably
(Persian: / ; Arabic: ) , full name Ab by Avicenna and his opponents. Al-Razi and Al-Farabi
Al al-usayn ibn Abd Allh ibn Al-Hasan ibn Ali had provided methodology and knowledge in medicine
ibn Sn* [4] (Arabic: ; c. and philosophy. Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarezm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and
980 June 1037) was a Persian* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8] polymath
Hamadan. Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahwho is regarded as one of the most signicant thinkers
manyar) show that he debated philosophical points with
*
and writers of the Islamic Golden Age. [9] He has been
the greatest scholars of the time. Aruzi Samarqandi dedescribed as the Father of Early Modern Medicine
scribes how before Avicenna left Khwarezm he had met
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Of the 450
Rayhan Biruni (a famous scientist and astronomer), Abu
works he is known to have written, around 240 have
Nasr Iraqi (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl Masihi
survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on
(a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a
*
medicine. [18]
great physician).
His most famous works are The Book of Healing a
vast philosophical and scientic encyclopedia and The
Canon of Medicine,* [19] an overview of all aspects of
92.2 Biography
medicine* [20]* [21] that became a standard medical text
*
at many medieval universities [22] and remained in use
92.2.1 Early life
as late as 1650.* [23]
As well as philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corThe only source of information for the rst part of Avipus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography
cenna's life is his autobiography, as written down by his
and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic,
student Jzjn. In the absence of any other sources it
*
mathematics, physics and poetry. [24]
is impossible to be certain how much of the autobiography is accurate. It has been noted that he uses his autobiography to advance his theory of knowledge (that it
was possible for an individual to acquire knowledge and
92.1 Circumstances
understand the Aristotelian philosophical sciences withAvicenna created an extensive corpus of works during out a teacher), and it has been questioned whether the
what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in order of events described was adjusted to t more closely
which the translations of Greco-Roman, Persian, and In- with the Aristotelian model; in other words, whether Avidian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Mid- cenna described himself as studying things in the 'corand Neo-Platonic, and Aristotelian) texts by the Kindi rect' order. However given the absence of any other evaccount essentially has to be taken at
school were commented, redacted and developed sub- idence, Avicenna's
*
[27]
face
value.
stantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon
Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy,
algebra, trigonometry and medicine.* [25] The Samanid
dynasty in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan
and Central Asia as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the
Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad as a cultural capital
279
280
Afghanistan. His father was at the time of his son's birth quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for
the governor in one of the Samanid Nuh ibn Mansur's es- payment.
tates. He had his son very carefully educated at Bukhara.
Ibn Sina's independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory, which allowed him to 92.2.2 Adulthood
overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen. As he said
in his autobiography, there was nothing that he had not
learned when he reached eighteen.
A number of dierent theories have been proposed regarding Avicenna's madhab. Medieval historian ahr
al-dn al-Bayhaq (d. 1169) considered Avicenna to
be a follower of the Brethren of Purity.* [30] On the
other hand, Dimitri Gutas along with Aisha Khan and
Jules J. Janssens demonstrated that Avicenna was a Sunni
Hana.* [30]* [30]* [31] However, Shia faqih Nurullah
Shushtari and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, in addition to Henry
Corbin, have maintained that he was most likely a
Twelver Shia.* [29]* [30]* [32] Similar disagreements exist on the background of Avicenna's family, whereas
some writers considered them Sunni, more recent writers thought they were Shia.* [31]
According to his autobiography, Avicenna had memorised the entire Quran by the age of 10.* [19] He learned
Indian arithmetic from an Indian greengrocer, and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained
a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young.
He also studied Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) under the
Hana scholar Ismail al-Zahid.* [33]
As a teenager, he was greatly troubled by the Metaphysics
of Aristotle, which he could not understand until he read
al-Farabi's commentary on the work.* [29] For the next
year and a half, he studied philosophy, in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baed
inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite
ablutions, then go to the mosque, and continue in prayer
till light broke on his diculties. Deep into the night, he
would continue his studies, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty
times, it is said, he read through the Metaphysics of Aristotle, till the words were imprinted on his memory; but
their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they
found illumination, from the little commentary by Farabi,
which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three
dirhams. So great was his joy at the discovery, made with
the help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor.
He turned to medicine at 16, and not only learned medical
theory, but also by gratuitous attendance of the sick had,
according to his own account, discovered new methods
of treatment. The teenager achieved full status as a qualied physician at age 18,* [19] and found thatMedicine
is no hard and thorny science, like mathematics and
metaphysics, so I soon made great progress; I became
an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies.The youthful physician's fame spread
281
.
[34]
tured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Tajik mercenaries. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his
with the emir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves,
through the Quran every three days until his
labors. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a and read
*
[35]
He died in June 1037, in his fty-eighth year,
death.
favorite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped from the
in
the
month
of Ramadan and was buried in Hamadan,
city in the dress of a Su ascetic. After a perilous jour*
[35]
Iran.
ney, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honorable welcome from the prince.
92.2.3
282
Avicenna's consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency, and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (mumkin bi-dhatihi) has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction.
When actualized, the contingent becomes a 'necessary
existent due to what is other than itself' (wajib al-wujud
bi-ghayrihi). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external
cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of
necessity and contingency are dierent. Necessary being
due to itself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi) is true in itself,
while the contingent being is 'false in itself' and 'true due
to something else other than itself'. The necessary is the
source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is
what always exists.* [39]* [40]
The Necessary exists 'due-to-Its-Self', and has no quiddity/essence (mahiyya) other than existence (wujud).
Furthermore, It is 'One' (wahid ahad)* [41] since there
cannot be more than one 'Necessary-Existent-due-toItself' without dierentia (fasl) to distinguish them from
each other. Yet, to require dierentia entails that they
exist 'due-to-themselves' as well as 'due to what is other
than themselves'; and this is contradictory. However, if
no dierentia distinguishes them from each other, then
there is no sense in which these 'Existents' are not one
and the same.* [42] Avicenna adds that the 'NecessaryExistent-due-to-Itself' has no genus (jins), nor a denition (hadd), nor a counterpart (nadd), nor an opposite
(did), and is detached (bari) from matter (madda), quality (kayf), quantity (kam), place (ayn), situation (wad),
92.3.2
Al-Biruni correspondence
Correspondence between Ibn Sina (with his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi) and Ab Rayhn al-Brn has
survived in which they debated Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school. Abu Rayhan began
by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were
criticisms of Aristotle's On the Heavens.* [46]
92.3.3
Theology
283
of Prophecies, in which he comments on several Quranic
verses and holds the Quran in high esteem. Avicenna
argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered
higher than philosophers.* [51]
284
.
Ibn Sina, Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul* [52]
92.4.1
The book is known for its description of contagious diseases and sexually transmitted diseases,* [58] quarantine
to limit the spread of infectious diseases, and testing
of medicines. Like the Greeks, Ibn Sn supported the
miasma theory of disease, which postulates that vapors
in the air are the cause of epidemics.* [59] It classies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed
causes. Hygiene, simple and complex medicines, and
functions of parts of the body are also covered. The
Canon agrees with Aristotle (and disagrees with Hippocrates) that tuberculosis was contagious, a fact which
was not universally accepted in Europe until centuries
later. It also describes the symptoms and complications
of diabetes. Both forms of facial paralysis were described
in-depth.
285
the Medicamenta Cordialia, Canticum de Medicina, and
the Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso.
It was mainly accident which determined that from the
12th to the 17th century, Ibn Sn should be the guide of
medical study in European universities, and eclipse the
names of Rhazes, Ali ibn al-Abbas and Averroes. His
work is not essentially dierent from that of his predecessor Rhazes, because he presented the doctrine of Galen,
and through Galen the doctrine of Hippocrates, modied
by the system of Aristotle. But the Canon of Ibn Sn
is distinguished from the Al-Hawi (Continence) or Summary of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the
logical studies of the former.
286
287
able to receive nutriment, in being free from
accumulated eate matters. Hence it renders
the members light and the humidities attenuated, and it dilates the pores of the skin.
To forsake exercise would often incur the
risk ofhectic, because the instinctive drives
of the members are impaired, inasmuch as the
deprivation of movement prevents the access
to them of the innate breath. And this last is
the real instrument of life for every one of the
members."(Avicenna 1999, pp. 3789)
Massage
Before you begin to exercise it is important that you massage your muscles; as Ibn Sina says on page 385:
Massage as a preparatory to athletics. The
massage begins gently, and then becomes more
vigorous as the time approaches for the exercise."(Avicenna 1999, p. 385)
Exercises
The exercises themselves are divided into 'strenuous,
mild, vigorous and brisk'. On pages 379381; Ibn Sina
states the types of exercises under each type:
Strenuous exercises include: wrestling
contests, boxing, quick marching, running,
jumping over an object higher than one foot,
throwing the javelin, fencing, horsemanship,
swimming. Mild exercises include: shing,
sailing, being carried on camels, swinging to
and fro. Vigorous exercises include: those performed by soldiers in camp, in military sports;
eld running, long jumping, high jumping,
polo, stone throwing, lifting heavy stones or
weights, various forms of wrestling. Brisk exercises include: involves interchanging places
with a partner as swiftly as possible, each
jumping to and fro, either in time [to music]
or irregularly."(Avicenna 1999, pp. 37981)
There are certain important things to note once you start
exercising, one is the amount, the other consistency; Ibn
Sina states about the amount:
"(1) the color - as long as the skin goes on
becoming orid, the exercise may be continued. After it ceases to do so, the exercise must
be discontinued."(Avicenna 1999, p. 384)
On being consistent with exercise Ibn Sina states (on the
importance of having a regimen):
At the conclusion of the rst day's exercise, you will know the degree of exercise allowable and when you know the amount of
288
On the side note those who think themselves to be elderly, and thus think of shunning exercise, Ibn Sina write
a complete chapter titled Concerning the Elderlyin
the Qanun, and states the same regimen for them, as he
does for others. He states on page 433
For if, towards the end of life, the body
is still equable, it will be right to allow attempered exercises. If one part of the body should
not be in a rst-rate condition, then that part
should not be exercised until the others have
been exercised. ... On the other hand, if the ailment were in the feet, then the exercise should
employ the upper limbs: for instance, rowing,
throwing weights, lifting weights."(Avicenna
1999, p. 433)
A person should not go into the bath immediately after exercise. He should rest properly rst."(Avicenna 1999, p. 387)
289
ence and described an early scientic method of inquiry.
He discusses Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and signicantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientic
inquiry and the question of How does one acquire the
rst principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist
would arrive at the initial axioms or hypotheses of
a deductive science without inferring them from some
more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a relation holds between
the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty.Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the rst principles: the ancient Aristotelian method
of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination
and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that it does not lead to the
absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports
to provide.In its place, he develops a method of experimentation as a means for scientic inquiry.* [66]
92.5.3 Logic
An early formal system of temporal logic was studied
by Avicenna.* [19] Although he did not develop a real
theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication.* [67]
Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dn
al-Qazwn al-Ktib and became the dominant system
of Islamic logic until modern times.* [68]* [69] Avicennian logic also inuenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus* [70] and William of Ock*
*
The oldest copies of Ibn Sina's second volume of Canon Of ham. [71] [72]
Medicinefrom the year 1030.
92.5.4 Physics
In mechanics, Ibn Sn, in The Book of Healing, developed an elaborate theory of motion, in which he made a
Ibn Sn wrote on Earth sciences such as geology in The distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion)
Book of Healing.* [65] While discussing the formation of and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was
a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projecmountains, he explained:
tile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum
would not cease.* [73] He viewed inclination as a permaEither they are the eects of upheavals of
nent force whose eect is dissipated by external forces
the crust of the earth, such as might occur dursuch as air resistance.* [74]
ing a violent earthquake, or they are the ef-
92.5.1
Earth sciences
92.5.2
Philosophy of science
290
material and immaterial interact through the Active Intellect, which is a divine lightcontaining the intelligible forms.* [80] The Active Intellect reveals the universals
concealed in material objects much like the sun makes
color available to our eyes.
92.5.5
Psychology
92.6.2 Chemistry
Ibn Sn used distillation to produce essential oils such
as rose essence, forming the foundation of what later became aromatherapy.* [87]
92.7. LEGACY
291
92.6.3
Poetry
92.7 Legacy
As early as the 14th century when Dante Alighieri depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian
thinkers in his Divine Comedy such as Virgil, Averroes,
Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato, and
Saladin, Avicenna has been recognized by both East and
West, as one of the great gures in intellectual history.
George Sarton, the author of The History of Science, described Ibn Sn asone of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history* [58] and called him the most
famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of
all races, places, and times.He was one of the Islamic
world's leading writers in the eld of medicine. Along
with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nas, and al-Ibadi, Ibn
Sn is considered an important compiler of early Muslim
medicine. He is remembered in the Western history of
medicine as a major historical gure who made important
contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance.
His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy
existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with
Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position
to take into account post-Aristotilian advances in anatomical knowledge.* [93] Aristotle's dominant intellectual inuence among medieval European scholars meant that
Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the Canon of Medicine
(along with its comprehensive and logical organisation
of knowledge) signicantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic
writers on medicine. His inuence following translation
of the Canon was such that from the early fourteenth
to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, princeps medicorum (prince of physicians).* [94]
In Iran, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians to have ever lived.
Many portraits and statues remain in Iran today. An impressive monument to the life and works of the man who
is known as the doctor of doctorsstill stands outside
the Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the Hall
of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the University
of Paris. There is also a crater on the Moon named
Avicenna and a plant genus Avicennia. Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran), the ibn Sn Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences at Aligarh, India, Avicenna
School in Karachi and Avicenna Medical College in
Lahore, Pakistan* [95] Ibne Sina Balkh Medical School
in his native province of Balkh in Afghanistan, Ibni
Sina Faculty Of Medicine of Ankara University Ankara,
Turkey and Ibn Sina Integrated School in Marawi City
(Philippines) are all named in his honour.
292
The statue of Avicenna in Persian Scholars Pavilion, United Nations Oce in Vienna, Austria
92.8.1
List of works
293
I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987.
(Encyclopedia of
medicine.)* [100] 1597 manuscript,* [102] Latin
translation, Flores Avicenne, Michael de Capella,
1508,* [103] Modern text. Ahmed Shawkat AlShatti, Jibran Jabbur.* [104]
Risalah sirr al-qadar (Essay on the Secret of Destiny), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in
Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1985.* [100]
Danishnama-i 'ala'i (The Book of Scientic Knowledge), ed. and trans. P Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1973.* [100]
Kitab al-Shifa' (The Book of Healing). (Ibn Sina's
major work on philosophy. He probably began
to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in
1020.) Critical editions of the Arabic text have been
published in Cairo, 195283, originally under the
supervision of I. Madkour.* [100]
Kitab al-Najat (The Book of Salvation), trans. F.
Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with
Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The psychology of al-Shifa'.)
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan a Persian myth. A novel called
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, based on Avicenna's story, was
later written by Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) in the 12th
century and translated into Latin and English as
Philosophus Autodidactus in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively. In the 13th century, Ibn al-Nas
wrote his own novel Fadil ibn Natiq, known as Theologus Autodidactus in the West, as a critical response
to Hayy ibn Yaqdhan.* [105]
Al-Isharat wa-'l-tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated
by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One:
Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism,
Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan
Paul International, 1996.* [100]
294
92.9.2
Andar Danesh-e-Rag
92.9.3
Persian poetry
Mumijo
Philosophy
Eastern philosophy
92.10.1
The Physician
92.10.3
92.10.2
Iranian philosophy
Youth of Genius
92.12 References
[1] In Bukhara (19 years) then Gurgnj, Khwrazm (13
years).
[2] In Gorgn, 101214.
[3] In Ray (1 year), Hamadn (9 years) and Isfahn (13 years).
D. Gutas, 1987, ''AVICENNA ii. Biography'', Encyclopdia Iranica. Iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 201201-07.
[4] (Goichon 1999)
[5] Paul Strathern (2005). A brief history of medicine: from
Hippocrates to gene therapy. Running Press. p. 58. ISBN
978-0-7867-1525-1.
[6] Brian Duignan (2010). Medieval Philosophy. The Rosen
Publishing Group. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-61530-244-4.
[7] Michael Kort (2004). Central Asian republics. Infobase
Publishing. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8160-5074-1.
[8]
92.12. REFERENCES
Avicenna was the greatest of all Persian thinkers;
as physician and metaphysician...(excerpt from
A.J. Arberry, Avicenna on Theology, KAZI PUBN
INC, 1995).
Whereas the name of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died
1037) is generally listed as chronologically rst
among noteworthy Iranian philosophers, recent evidence has revealed previous existence of Ismaili
philosophical systems with a structure no less complete than of Avicenna(from p. 74 of Henry
Corbin, The Voyage and the messenger: Iran and
philosophy, North Atlantic Books, 1998.
[9] Avicenna (Persian philosopher and scientist) - Britannica
Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved 201201-07.
[10] Colgan, Richard. Advice to the Healer: On the Art of Caring. Springer, 2013, p. 37.(ISBN 978-1-4614-5169-3)
[11] Juergensmeyer M., Kitts M., Jerryson M. The Oxford
Handbook of Religion and Violence'. OUP USA, 2013, p.
625.(ISBN 9780199759996)
[12] Paul E. The Emperor Is Buck Naked: Why Medical
Evidence Is Not Necessarily ProofAbbott Press, 2014,
p 12. (ISBN 9781458216410)
[13] Herlihy J. Islam for Our Time: Inside the Traditional
World of Islamic SpiritualityXlibris Corporation, 2012,
p 108.(ISBN 9781479709953)
[14] Ma'oz M.The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and JewishSussex Academic Press, 2009, p 243.
(ISBN 9781845193959)
[15] Ganchy S. Islam and Science, Medicine, and TechnologyThe Rosen Publishing Group, 2009, p 30. (ISBN
9781435850668)
[16] Galvin T. Come from the Shadows: The Long and
Lonely Struggle for Peace in AfghanistanDouglas &
McIntyre, 2011, p 34. (ISBN 9781553657828)
[17] Ishiyama J., Breuning M. 21st Century Political Science: A Reference HandbookSAGE Publications, 2010,
p 573. (ISBN 9781452266367)
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
295
[31] Aisha Khan (2006). Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim physician and philosopher of the eleventh century. The Rosen
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-0509-3.
[32] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An introduction to Islamic cosmological doctrines,Published by State University of New
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., Avicenna
York press, ISBN 0-7914-1515-5 Page 183
, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of
[33] Jorge J. E. Gracia and Timothy B. Noone (2003), A ComSt Andrews.
panion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, p. 196, Blackwell
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). Avicenna. EncyclopPublishing, ISBN 0-631-21673-1.
dia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 31
October 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-05.
[34] Aisha Khan. Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim Physician And
Philosopher of the Eleventh Century. The Rosen PublishEdwin Clarke, Charles Donald O'Malley (1996), The huing Group. p. 85.
man brain and spinal cord: a historical study illustrated by
writings from antiquity to the twentieth century, Norman
[35] Osler, William (2004). The Evolution Of Modern
Publishing, p. 20 (ISBN 0-930405-25-0).
Medicine. Kessinger Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 1-41916153-9.
Iris Bruijn (2009), Ship's Surgeons of the Dutch East India Company: Commerce and the progress of medicine in
the eighteenth century, Amsterdam University Press, p. 26
(ISBN 90-8728-051-3).
[36] Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 8081,Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine,
Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafs (d.
1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of
Notre Dame.
296
Parviz
[42] Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)
[59] Joseph Patrick Byrne (2008). "Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M". ABC-CLIO. p.33.
ISBN 0-313-34102-8.
Muhammad 'Abdu
92.12. REFERENCES
[69] Street, Tony (2005-01-01). Logic. In Peter Adamson and Richard C. Taylor. The Cambridge Companion to
Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 247,
250. ISBN 978-0-521-52069-0.
[70] Richard F. Washell (1973),Logic, Language, and Albert
the Great, Journal of the History of Ideas 34 (3), p. 445
450 [445].
[71] Kneale p. 229
[72] Kneale: p. 266; Ockham: Summa Logicae i. 14; Avicenna: Avicennae Opera Venice 1508 f87rb
[73] Fernando Espinoza (2005).An analysis of the historical
development of ideas about motion and its implications
for teaching, Physics Education 40 (2), p. 141.
[74] A. Sayili (1987), Ibn Sn and Buridan on the Motion
of the Projectile, Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences 500 (1), p. 477 482:
It was a permanent force whose eect got
dissipated only as a result of external agents
such as air resistance. He is apparently the
rst to conceive such a permanent type of impressed virtue for non-natural motion.
[75] Buridan. Plato.stanford.edu. 2011-08-25. Retrieved
2012-01-07.
[76] George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol.
1, p. 710.
[77] Carl Benjamin Boyer (1954)."Robert Grosseteste on the
Rainbow, Osiris 11, p. 247258 [248].
[78] Gutman, Oliver (1997). On the Fringes of the Corpus Aristotelicum: the Pseudo-Avicenna Liber Celi Et
Mundi. Early Science and Medicine (Brill Publishers)
2 (2): 10928. doi:10.1163/157338297X00087.
[79] Avicenna (1952). F. Rahman, ed. Avicenna's Psychology.
An English translation of Kitb al-Najt, Book II, Chapter VI, with Historico-Philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo edition. London: Oxford University Press, Georey Cumberlege. p. 41.
[80] Avicenna (1952). F. Rahman, ed. Avicenna's Psychology.
An English translation of Kitb al-Najt, Book II, Chapter VI, with Historico-Philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo edition. London: Oxford University Press, Georey Cumberlege. pp. 6869.
[81] George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy:
Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, p. 60,
67-69. New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-80237.
[82] George Saliba, Avicenna: 'viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences'. Encyclopdia Iranica, Online Edition,
2011, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/
avicenna-viii
297
[99] http://parseed.ir/?ez=8002
[83] Sally P. Ragep (2007). Thomas Hockey, ed. Ibn Sn:
Ab Al alusayn ibn Abdallh ibn Sn. The Bi- [100] Ibn Sina Abu 'Ali Al-Husayn. Muslimphilosophy.com.
Archived from the original on 2 January 2010. Retrieved
ographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers (Springer Science+Business Media). pp. 570572.
2010-01-19.
298
92.13 Sources
Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911).
"Avicenna".
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press.
Encyclopedic articles
299
CCRIH, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; (Second
edition 1981) Central Council for Research in Unani
Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi; (Fourth edition 1999), Central Council for Research in Unani
Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (1996). AI-Advia alQalbia of Ibn Sina. Publication Division, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh.
Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman. Ilmul Amraz of Ibn
Sina (First edition 1969), Tibbi Academy, Delhi
(Second edition 1990), (Third edition 1994), Tibbi
Academy, Aligarh.
Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (1986). Qanoon lbn
Sina Aur Uskey Shareheen wa Mutarjemeen. Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (1986), Qnn-i ibni Sn aur us ke shrn va mutarajimn, Algah:
Pablkeshan Dvzan, Muslim Ynvarsi
Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (2004). Qanun Ibn
Sina and its Translation and Commentators (Persian
Translation; 203pp). Society for the Appreciation
of Cultural Works and Dignitaries, Tehran, Iran.
Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958
59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India.
92.14.4 Medicine
Browne, Edward G.. Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick
Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919-1920, reprint: New Delhi: Goodword
Books, 2001. ISBN 81-87570-19-9
Pormann, Peter & Savage-Smith, Emilie. Medieval
Islamic Medicine, Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.
300
Dimitri Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and
expanded edition (rst edition: 1988), including an
inventory of Avicenna' Authentic Works.
Jon Mc Ginnis and D. C. Reisman (eds.) Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval
Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the
Avicenna Study Group, Leiden: Brill, 2004.
.
,
1985)
Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp. 243
261.
Zavadovsky N. Abu Ali Ibn Sina: Life and Work.
- Dushanbe, 1980. ( ..
Reisman, David C. (ed.), Before and After Avicenna:
: . ,
Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna
1980)
Study Group, Leiden: Brill, 2003.
92.14.6
In Russian
Publication of works:
Ibn Sina. Danish-name. Book of knowledge.
- Stalinabad, 1957. ( . -.
. , 1957.)
Luther I.O. Metaphysics of Ibn Sina: angle - attitude, quality, position or is it more? // Historical and
mathematical studies. - 2003. - 8 (43). - P. 278302. ( .. :
, , ? // -
. 2003. 8(43). . 278
302)
Ibn Sina.
Mathematical chapter books of
knowledge.- Dushanbe, 1967. ( .
.
, 1967.
301
Chapter 93
Benedict of Norwich
Benedict of Norwich (. 1340) was an Augustinian
monk who ourished in the reign of Edward III. According to John Bale he was distinguished for his linguistic, his
scientic, and his theological skill. However, Bale nds
great fault with the tendency of Benedict's teaching, accusing him of a leaning towards Novatianism, Arianism,
and other heresies, and also of trusting too much to Gentile authority, 'when he should have known that the divine
wisdom has no need of human inventions.'* [1]
Benedict, who was abbot of the Austin friars at Norwich,
apparently made himself a great reputation by his popular discourses, and in this way so approved himself to
Antony Bek, bishop of Norwich (1337-1443), that this
prelate appointed him suragan in his diocese. Bale calls
him 'episcopus Cardicensis.' * [1] Benedict seems to have
ourished about the year 1340. He was buried at Norwich, but the date of his death is not known. * [1]
His writings, as enumerated by Bale, consisted of an Alphabet of Aristotle, sermons for a year, and hortatory epistles. William Stubbs thought Benedict was suragan of
both Winchester and Norwich from 1333 to 1346.* [1]
93.1 References
[1] "Benedict of Norwich". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Benedict of Norwich". Dictionary of National Biography. London:
Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
302
Chapter 94
Boethus of Sidon
For the Stoic philosopher, see Boethus of Sidon (Stoic).
Boethus of Sidon (Greek: ; c. 75 c. 10 BC)
was a Peripatetic philosopher from Sidon, who lived towards the end of the 1st century BC.* [1]
As he was a disciple of Andronicus of Rhodes,* [2] he
must have travelled at an early age to Rome and Athens, in
which cities Andronicus is known to have taught. Strabo,
who mentions him and his brother Diodotus among the
celebrated persons of Sidon, speaks of him at the same
time as his own teacher (or fellow pupil) in Peripatetic
philosophy.* [3] Among his works, all of which are now
lost, there was one on the nature of the soul, and also
a commentary on Aristotle's Categories, which is mentioned by Ammonius in his commentary on the same
work of Aristotle. Ammonius quotes also an opinion
of Boethus concerning the study of the works of Aristotle, viz. that the student should begin with the Physics,
whereas Andronicus had maintained that the beginning
should be made with the Logic writings of Aristotle.
94.1 Notes
[1]Commentators on Aristotle, A. Falcon, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, August 2005, webpage: UVAAristotle.
[2] Ammonius Hermiae, Comment, in Aristotle's Categories.
[3] Strabo, Geographica, 16.2.24
94.2 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
303
Chapter 95
Zarmanochegas
Zarmanochegas (Zarmarus) () was a
gymnosophist (naked philosopher), a monk of the
Sramana tradition (possibly, but not necessarily a Buddhist) who, according to ancient historians such as Strabo
and Dio Cassius, met Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch
while Augustus (died 14 CE) was ruling the Roman Emprire, and shortly thereafter proceeded to Athens where
he burnt himself to death.* [1]* [2]
the date would be the winter of 22/21 BCE when Augustus crossed from Sicily to Greece to visit Athens (Dio
Cassius LIV,7, 2-3).* [6] In support of this Priaulx notes
that the poet Horace alludes to an Indian mission (Carmen Seculare 55, 56 (written 17BCE), Ode 14, L.iv (13
BCE) and Ode 12, L. i (22BCE)). Priaulx also notes that
later writers such as Florus (110 CE) (Hist. Rome IV C
12) and Suetonius (190 CE) (Augustus C21) refer to this
Indian mission.* [7] Augustus in his Ancyra inscription
notes that to me were sent embassies of kings from India, who had never been seen in the camp of any Roman
general.* [8]
305
tion:
ZARMANOCHEGAS,
AN
INDIAN, A NATIVE OF BARGOSA, HAVING IMMORTALIZED HIMSELF ACCORDING
TO THE CUSTOM OF HIS
COUNTRY, HERE LIES.* [11]
Dio Cassio's (died 235 CE) later account reads:
the length of the journey. The letter was written in Greek upon a skin; the import of it
was, that Porus was the writer, that although he
was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he
highly esteemed the friendship of Csar; that
he was willing to allow him a passage through
his country, in whatever part he pleased, and
to assist him in any undertaking that was just.
Eight naked servants, with girdles round their
waists, and fragrant with perfumes, presented
the gifts which were brought. The presents
were a Hermes (i. e. a man) born without
arms, whom I have seen, large snakes, a serpent
ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in length, and a partridge larger than a vulture. They were accompanied by the person, it
is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens.
This is the practice with persons in distress,
who seek escape from existing calamities, and
with others in prosperous circumstances, as
was the case with this man. For as everything
hitherto had succeeded with him, he thought
it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected
calamity should happen to him by continuing to
live; with a smile, therefore, naked, anointed,
and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped
upon the pyre. On his tomb was this inscrip-
306
wiseman' ('Indischer weiser').* [20] Priaulx translates the
name in Sanskrit as ramanakarja
( teacher of Shamans
) and addswhich points him out as of the Buddhist faith
and a priest, and, as his death proves, a priest earnest in
his faith.* [21] Clement of Alexandria (died 215AD) in
his Stromata (Bk I, Ch XV) after noting how philosophy
ourished in antiquity amongst the barbariansstates:
The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and
the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are
two classes, some of them called Sarman and others
Brahmins. And those of the Sarman who are called
Hylobiineither inhabit cities, nor have roofs over them,
but are clothed in the bark of trees, feed on nuts, and
drink water in their hands. Like those called Encratites
in the present day, they know not marriage nor begetting
of children. Some, too, of the Indians obey the precepts
of Buddha () whom, on account of his extraordinary sanctity, they have raised to divine honours.* [22]
95.4 References
[1] Strabo, xv, 1, on the immolation of the Sramana in Athens
(Paragraph 73).
[2] Dio Cassius, liv, 9.
[3] Strabo, xv, 1, on the immolation of the Sramana in Athens
(Paragraph 73).
[4] Dio Cassius, liv, 9.
[5] JW McCrindle. Ancient India as Described in Classical
Literature. Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corp. 2005
ISBN 1-4021-6154-9 p 78 fn2 http://books.google.com.
au/books?id=Hjfo-0ytFh0C&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&
dq=zarmanochegas&source=bl&ots=59GDNAecGN&
sig=Zjtiv47h2iFeAQe9QsBGzs148qA&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=MjnRULXfMu-TiAe5m4HwCg&ved=
0CDoQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=zarmanochegas&f=
false (accessed 18 Dec 2012)
[6] Hu ML. Civil Disobedience and Unrest in Augustan
Athens Hesperia 1989; 58: 267-276.
[7] Osmond de Beauvoir Priaulx. The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana and the Indian Embassies London 1873
pp67 et seq.
[8] Evelyn Schuckburgh. Augustus. London 1903 Appendix
31.
[9] Plutarch. 'Life of Alexander' in The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans. (trans John Dryden and revised Arthur Hugh Clough) The Modern Library (Random House Inc). New York.p850
[10] Elledge CD. Life After Death in Early Judaism. Mohr
Siebeck Tilbringen 2006 ISBN 3-16-148875-X pp122125
[11] Strabo, xv, 1.73.
[12] Dio Cassius, liv, 9.
[13] KW Arafat. Pausanius' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers. Cambridge University Press. 1996 ISBN
0521553407 p 122.
[14] Gregory Hays Introduction' in Marcus Aurelius. Meditations. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. London. 2003. ISBN
1-84212-675-X p xvii
[15] Plutarch. 'Life of Alexander' in The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans. (trans John Dryden and revised Arthur Hugh Clough) The Modern Library (Random House Inc). New York. p850
[16] Charles Eliot. Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical
Sketch vol 1. Curzon Press, Richmond 1990. p 431 fn 4.
[17] McCrindle JW. The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great.
Kessinger Publishing.
Montana
http://books.google.com.au/books?
2004.
p 389.
id=ncDFRgtSysIC&pg=PA389&lpg=PA389&dq=
zarmanochegas&source=bl&ots=74bHScngFu&sig=
lSSOiLr9YGksOMiAMu2YcZdVzNI&hl=en&sa=
X&ei=GpvHUIGCNKyeiAfehIGgCg&sqi=2&ved=
0CEoQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=zarmanochegas&f=
false (accessed 12 December 2012)
[18] JW McCrindle. Ancient India as Described in Classical
Literature. Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corp. 2005
ISBN 1-4021-6154-9 p 78 fn1 http://books.google.com.
au/books?id=Hjfo-0ytFh0C&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&
dq=zarmanochegas&source=bl&ots=59GDNAecGN&
sig=Zjtiv47h2iFeAQe9QsBGzs148qA&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=MjnRULXfMu-TiAe5m4HwCg&ved=
0CDoQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=zarmanochegas&f=
false (accessed 18 Dec 2012)
[19] Elledge CD. Life After Death in Early Judaism. Mohr
Siebeck Tilbringen 2006 ISBN 3-16-148875-X p125
[20] Christoph Gottleib Groskurd. Strabons Erdbeschreibung.
Berlin und Stettin. 1833 p470
[21] Osmond de Beauvoir Priaulx. The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana and the Indian Embassies London 1873
p78.
[22] Clement of Alexandria Stromata.
BkI, Ch XV
http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.vi.iv.i.xv.html
(Accessed 19 Dec 2012)
Chapter 96
Damascius
Damascius (/dms/; Greek: , c. 458
after 538), known asthe last of the Neoplatonists,was
the last scholarch of the School of Athens. He was one
of the pagan philosophers persecuted by Justinian in the
early 6th century, and was forced for a time to seek refuge
in the Persian court, before being allowed back into the
Empire. His surviving works consist of three commentaries on the works of Plato, and a metaphysical text entitled Diculties and Solutions of First Principles.
96.1 Life
Damascius was born in Damascus in Syria, whence he
derived his name: his Syrian name is unknown. In his
early youth he went to Alexandria, where he spent twelve
years partly as a pupil of Theon, a rhetorician, and partly
as a professor of rhetoric. He then turned to philosophy
and science, and studied under Hermias and his sons,
Ammonius and Heliodorus. Later on in life he migrated
to Athens and continued his studies under Marinus, the
mathematician, Zenodotus, and Isidore, the dialectician.
He became a close friend of Isidore, succeeded him as
head of the School of Athens in ca. 515, and wrote his
biography, part of which is preserved in the Bibliotheca
of Photius.* [1]
96.2 Writings
His chief treatise is entitled Diculties and Solutions of
First Principles (
). It examines the nature and attributes of God
and the human soul. This examination is, in two respects,
in striking contrast to that of certain other Neoplatonist
writers. It is conspicuously free from Oriental mysticism,
and it contains no polemic against Christianity, to the doctrines of which, in fact, there is no allusion. Hence the
charge of impiety which Photius brings against him. In
this treatise Damascius inquires into the rst principle of
all things, which he nds to be an unfathomable and unspeakable divine depth, being all in one, but undivided.
His main result is that God is innite, and as such, incomprehensible; that his attributes of goodness, knowledge and power are credited to him only by inference
from their eects; that this inference is logically valid and
sucient for human thought. He insists throughout on
the unity and the indivisibility of God.* [1] This work is,
moreover, of great importance for the history of philosophy, because of the great number of accounts which it
contains concerning former philosophers.
308
96.4 References
[1] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text
from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm,
Hugh, ed. (1911). "Damascius". Encyclopdia Britannica 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 783
784.
[2] Agathias, Scholast. ii. 30
[3] Giovanni Reale, John R. Catan, 1989, A History of Ancient Philosophy: The Schools of the Imperial Age, page
546. SUNY Press.
[4] Simplicius, fol. 189, b., 153, a., 183, b.
[5] Photius, Cod. 242, comp. 181; in volume 6 of the edition
by Rene Henry.
[6] Polymnia Athanassiadi (ed.), Damascius. The Philosophical History. Athens: Apamea Cultural Association, 1999.
Pp. 403. ISBN 960-85325-2-3.BMCR review
[7] Photius, Cod. 130
96.5 Sources
Polymnia Athanassiadi: Persecution and Response
in late Paganism. The evidence of Damascius. In:
Journal of Hellenic Studies 113 (1993), pp. 129.
Chapter 97
David (commentator)
David (Greek: ; . 6th century) was a Greek
scholar and a commentator on Aristotle and Porphyry.
97.1 Notes
[1] Pamela M. Huby, R. W. Sharples, Dimitri Gutas, 1995,
Theophrastus of Eresus, Sources for His Life, Writings,
Thought and Inuence, page 16. BRILL.
[2] Jonathan Barnes, 2006, Porphyry Introduction, page xxi.
Oxford University Press
[3] Richard Sorabji, (1990), Aristotle transformed: the ancient
commentators and their inuence, page 36.
[4] D. N. Sedley, 2003, The Cambridge companion to Greek
and Roman philosophy, page 249.
[5] The Cambridge Ancient History: Late antiquity: empire
and successors, A.D. 425-600 page 844.
[6] Pamela M. Huby, R. W. Sharples, Dimitri Gutas, 1995,
Theophrastus of Eresus, Sources for His Life, Writings,
Thought and Inuence, page 17. BRILL.
309
Chapter 98
Dexippus (philosopher)
For the 3rd century historian, statesman and general, see
Dexippus.
Dexippus (Greek: ; . 350) was a Greek
philosopher, a pupil of the Neoplatonist Iamblichus, belonging to the middle of the 4th century AD. He wrote
commentaries on Plato and Aristotle of which one, an
explanation and defense of the Aristotelian Categories, is
partially extant. In this work Dexippus explains to one
Seleucus the Aristotelian Categories, and endeavours at
the same time to refute the objections of Plotinus. He
also advocated the harmony of the philosophies of Plato
and Aristotle.* [1]
A Latin edition edited by Flicien was published under
the title Qustionum in Categorias Libri Tres in 1549.
The Greek text was published by Leonhard von Spengel
in 1859. An English translation by John M. Dillon was
published in 1990.
98.1 Notes
[1] Gerson, L. Aristotle and Other Platonists (Cornell University Press, 2005), p. 292.
98.2 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Thurston,
H. T.; Moore, F., eds. (1905). "* article name
needed". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.).
New York: Dodd, Mead.
310
Chapter 99
Elias (commentator)
Elias (/las/; Greek: ; . 6th century) was
a Greek scholar and a commentator on Aristotle and
Porphyry.
He was a pupil of Olympiodorus in Alexandria in the
late-6th century.* [1] His name suggests that he was a
Christian.* [2] A commentary on Porphyry's Isagoge written in Greek has survived.* [1]* [3] Some fragments survive of a commentary he wrote on the Prior Analytics of
Aristotle, and he is known to have written on the De Interpretatione of Aristotle.* [4] It is also possible that the
extant Commentary on Aristotle's Categories which is attributed to David was actually written by Elias.* [5]
In addition, a second extant commentary on Porphyry's
Isagoge was falsely ascribed to Elias.* [1]* [6] The commentary was also falsely ascribed to David,* [6] and it
has been conjectured that it may have been written by
Stephen of Alexandria.* [6]
99.1 Notes
[1] Jonathan Barnes, 2006, Porphyry Introduction, page xxi.
Oxford University Press
[2] Richard Sorabji, (1990), Aristotle transformed: the ancient
commentators and their inuence, page 36.
[3] D. N. Sedley, 2003, The Cambridge companion to Greek
and Roman philosophy, page 249.
[4] Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, John Robert Martindale, J.
Morris, 1992, The prosopography of the later Roman Empire, Volumes 2-3, Elias 6, page 438. Cambridge University Press
[5] The Cambridge Ancient History: Late antiquity: empire
and successors, A.D. 425-600 page 844.
[6] Pamela M. Huby, R. W. Sharples, Dimitri Gutas, 1995,
Theophrastus of Eresus, Sources for His Life, Writings,
Thought and Inuence, page 17. BRILL.
311
Chapter 100
Eudorus of Alexandria
Eudorus of Alexandria (Greek: ; 1st century
BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, and a representative of Middle Platonism.* [1] He attempted to reconstruct Plato's philosophy in terms of Pythagoreanism.* [2]
He formulated a teleological principle for Platonism, derived from the Theaetetus: as much as we can, become
like God.* [3] In this he believed that he had found an apt
denition of the common goal of Pythagoras, Socrates,
and Plato.* [4] His metaphysics and cosmology combined
Platonist, Pythagorean and Stoic ideas.* [4]
He is mentioned by Alexander of Aphrodisias as a commentator on Aristotle's Metaphysics,* [5] which he is
said to have criticized. Simplicius refers to him as a
Peripatetic philosopher, and relates that he had written on the Aristotelian Categories. He was a native of
Alexandria, and had, like Aristo of Alexandria, written a
work on the Nile.* [6]
100.1 Notes
[1] Middle Platonism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
[2] George E. Karamanolis, 2006, Plato and Aristotle in
agreement?, pages 82-4. Oxford University Press
[3] Plato, Theaetetus, 176b
[4] Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy,
13th edition, page 306
[5] Alexander of Aphrodisias, ad Arist. Metaph. p. 26
[6] Strabo, Geographica, xvii.
312
Chapter 101
Eustratius of Nicaea
Eustratius of Nicaea (Greek:
; c.
1050/1060 c. 1120)* [1] was Metropolitan bishop of
Nicaea in the early 12th century. He wrote commentaries
to Aristotle's second book of Analytica and the Ethica
Nicomachea.
Eustratius was a pupil of John Italus, although he
had deliberately dissociated himself from John's supposed heretical views when John was condemned around
1082.* [2] A few years after the trial of Italus, he wrote a
dialogue and treatise on the use of icons directed against
Leo, the bishop of Chalcedon, who had accused the emperor Alexius Comnenus of sacrilege and iconoclasm in
the way in which he had stripped the churches of gold
to fund his wars.* [3] For this he gained the emperor
Alexios I's friendship, and this probably helped him to
become Metropolitan bishop of Nicaea. Eustratius was
said by Anna Comnena to have been wise both in mundane and in religious matters and especially expert in argument.* [4] Nevertheless he found himself accused of
heresy in 1117 and a charge was placed before the Synod
of Constantinople which narrowly succeeded despite a
defence by Patriarch John IX of Constantinople.* [2] As
a result of the condemnation Eustratius was formally suspended for life.
Two commentaries by Eustratius on the works of
Aristotle survive:* [1]
Commentary on the Posterior Analytics, book 2
Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics, books 1
and 6
101.1 Notes
[1] Donald J. Zeyl, Daniel Devereux, Phillip Mitsis, 1997,
Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, page 59. Greenwood Press
[2] Joan Mervyn Hussey, 1990, The Orthodox Church in the
Byzantine Empire, pages 150-1. Oxford University Press
[3] H. Paul F. Mercken, 1973, The Greek Commentaries on
the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle in the Latin Translation of Robert Grosseteste. Volume 1, pages vi-vii. BRILL.
313
Chapter 102
Al-Farabi
Al-Farabi (/lfrbi/; Persian:
Ab Nar Muammad ibn Muammad Frb ;* [1]
for other recorded variants of his name see below) ,
known in the West as Alpharabius* [5] (c. 872* [2] in
Frb* [3] between 14 December, 950 and 12 January,
951 in Damascus),* [3] was a renowned philosopher of
the Islamic Golden Age, who wrote in areas of political
philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and logic. He was also a
scientist, cosmologist, and a music scholar.
Al-Farabi is credited with preserving the original Greek
texts during the Middle Ages because of his commentaries and treaties, and inuencing many prominent
philosophers, like Avicenna and Maimonides. Through
his works, he became well-known in the East as well as
the West.
From incidental accounts it is known that he spent signicant time in Baghdad with Christian scholars includ102.1 Biography
ing the cleric Yuhanna ibn Haylan, Yahya ibn Adi, and
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Baghdadi. He later spent time in
The existing variations in the basic accounts of al-Farabi's Damascus, Syria and Egypt before returning to Damasorigins and pedigree indicate that they were not recorded cus where he died in 950-1.* [6]
during his lifetime or soon thereafter by anyone with
concrete information, but were based on hearsay or
guesses (as is the case with other contemporaries of 102.1.1 Name
al-Farabi).* [1] The sources for his life are scant which
makes the reconstruction of his biography beyond a mere His name was Ab Nar Muammad b. Muammad
outline nearly impossible.* [1] The earliest and more re- Farabi, as all sources, and especially the earliest and most
liable sources, i.e., those composed before the 6th/12th reliable, Al-Masudi, agree.* [1] In some manuscripts of
century, that are extant today are so few as to indicate that Frbs works, which must reect the reading of their
no one among Frbs successors and their followers, or ultimate archetypes from his time, his full name appears
even unrelated scholars, undertook to write his full biog- as Ab Nar Muammad b. Muammad al-arn, i.e.,
raphy, a neglect that has to be taken into consideration in the element arn appears in a nisba (family surname
assessing his immediate impact.* [1] The sources prior to or attributive title).* [1] Moreover, if the name of Farabi
the 6th/12th century consist of: (1) an autobiographical s grandfather was not known among his contemporaries
passage by Farabi, preserved by Ibn Ab Uaibia. In this and immediately succeeding generations, it is all the more
passage, Farabi traces the transmission of the instruction surprising to see in the later sources the appearance of yet
of logic and philosophy from antiquity to his days. (2) another name from his pedigree, Awzala.* [1] This apReports by Al-Masudi, Ibn al-Nadim and Ibn Hawqal as pears as the name of the grandfather in Ibn Ab Uaibia
well as by Said Al-Andalusi (d. 1070), who devoted a and of the great-grandfather in Ibn Khallikan. Ibn Ab
biography to him.
Uaibia is the rst source to list this name which, as Ibn
When major Arabic biographers decided to write comprehensive entries on Farabi in the 6th-7th/12th-13th
centuries, there was very little specic information on
hand; this allowed for their acceptance of invented sto-
314
102.1. BIOGRAPHY
102.1.2
315
Birthplace
102.1.3
Origin
316
102.1.4
102.2.1
Alchemy
102.2.2
Logic
Though he was mainly an Aristotelian logician, he included a number of non-Aristotelian elements in his
works. He discussed the topics of future contingents, the
number and relation of the categories, the relation between logic and grammar, and non-Aristotelian forms of
inference.* [31] He is also credited for categorizing logic
into two separate groups, the rst being ideaand the
second being "proof".
Al-Farabi also considered the theories of conditional syllogisms and analogical inference, which were part of the
Philosophy
317
plungers in water.* [39] He concluded that air's volume
can expand to ll available space, and he suggested that
the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent.* [38]
102.2.6 Psychology
Wrote Social Psychology and Principles of the Opinions of
the Citizens of the Virtuous City, which were the rst treatises to deal with social psychology. He stated that an
isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by
himself, without the aid of other individuals,and that it
is the innate disposition of every man to join another
human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform.He concluded that toachieve what he can of that
perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighborhood
of others and associate with them.* [35]
In his treatiseOn the Cause of Dreams, which appeared
as chapter 24 of his Principles of the Opinions of the Citizens of the Ideal City, he distinguished between dream
interpretation and the nature and causes of dreams.* [35]
102.2.5
Physics
102.3.1 Inuences
The main inuence on al-Farabi's philosophy was the
neo-Aristotelian tradition of Alexandria. A prolic
writer, he is credited with over one hundred works.* [40]
Amongst these are a number of prolegomena to philosophy, commentaries on important Aristotelian works (such
as the Nicomachean Ethics) as well as his own works.
His ideas are marked by their coherency, despite drawing
together of many dierent philosophical disciplines and
traditions. Some other signicant inuences on his work
were the planetary model of Ptolemy and elements of
Neo-Platonism,* [41] particularly metaphysics and practical (or political) philosophy (which bears more resemblance to Plato's Republic than Aristotle's Politics).* [42]
318
Treatise stresses the fact that Farabi is the only thinker from it. Like its predecessor, the second intellect also
mentioned therein.
thinks about itself, and thereby brings its celestial sphere
Al-Farabi as well as Ibn Sina and Averroes have been rec- (in this case, the sphere of xed stars) into being, but in
ognized as Peripatetics (al-Mashshaiyun) or rationalists addition to this it must also contemplate upon the First
(Estedlaliun) among Muslims.* [43]* [44]* [45] However, Cause, and this causes theemanationof the next intelhe tried to gather the ideas of Plato and Aristotle in his lect. The cascade of emanation continues until it reaches
bookThe gathering of the ideas of the two philosophers the tenth intellect, beneath which is the material world.
And as each intellect must contemplate both itself and
.* [46]
an increasing number of predecessors, each succeeding
According to Adamson, his work was singularly directed level of existence becomes more and more complex. It
towards the goal of simultaneously reviving and reinvent- should be noted that this process is based upon necessity
ing the Alexandrian philosophical tradition, to which his as opposed to will. In other words, God does not have a
Christian teacher, Yuhanna bin Haylan belonged. His choice whether or not to create the universe, but by virtue
success should be measured by the honoric title ofthe of His own existence, He causes it to be. This view also
second masterof philosophy (Aristotle being the rst), suggests that the universe is eternal, and both of these
by which he was known . Interestingly, Adamson also points were criticized by al-Ghazzali in his attack on the
says that he does not make any reference to the ideas of philosophers* [51]* [52]
either al-Kindi or his contemporary, Abu Bakr al-Razi,
which clearly indicates that he did not consider their ap- In his discussion of the First Cause (or God), al-Farabi relies heavily on negative theology. He says that it cannot be
proach to Philosophy as a correct or viable one.* [47]
known by intellectual means, such as dialectical division
or denition, because the terms used in these processes
to dene a thing constitute its substance. Therefore if
102.4 Thought
one was to dene the First Cause, each of the terms used
would actually constitute a part of its substance and therefore behave as a cause for its existence, which is impossi102.4.1 Metaphysics and cosmology
ble as the First Cause is uncaused; it exists without being
In contrast to al-Kindi, who considered the subject of caused. Equally, he says it cannot be known according to
metaphysics to be God, al-Farabi believed that it was con- genus and dierentia, as its substance and existence are
cerned primarily with being qua being (that is, being in dierent from all others, and therefore it has no category
and of itself), and this is related to God only to the extent to which it belongs. If this were the case, then it would not
that God is a principle of absolute being. Al-Kindi's view be the First Cause, because something would be prior in
was, however, a common misconception regarding Greek existence to it, which is also impossible. This would sugphilosophy amongst Muslim intellectuals at the time, and gest that the more philosophically simple a thing is, the
it was for this reason that Avicenna remarked that he did more perfect it is. And based on this observation, Adamnot understand Aristotle's Metaphysics properly until he son says it is possible to see the entire hierarchy of alFarabi's cosmology according to classication into genus
had read a prolegomenon written by al-Farabi.* [48]
and species. Each succeeding level in this structure has as
Al-Farabi's cosmology is essentially based upon three pil- its principal qualities multiplicity and deciency, and it is
lars: Aristotelian metaphysics of causation, highly devel- this ever-increasing complexity that typies the material
oped Plotinian emanational cosmology and the Ptolemaic world.* [53]
astronomy.* [49] In his model, the universe is viewed as
a number of concentric circles; the outermost sphere
or rst heaven, the sphere of xed stars, Saturn, 102.4.2 Epistemology and eschatology
Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and nally, the
Moon. At the centre of these concentric circles is the Human beings are unique in al-Farabi's vision of the
sub-lunar realm which contains the material world.* [50] universe because they stand between two worlds: the
Each of these circles represent the domain of the sec- higher, immaterial world of the celestial intellects and
ondary intelligences (symbolized by the celestial bodies universal intelligibles, and the lower, material world
themselves), which act as causal intermediaries between of generation and decay; they inhabit a physical body, and
the First Cause (in this case, God) and the material world. so belong to thelowerworld, but they also have a ratioFurthermore these are said to have emanated from God, nal capacity, which connects them to thehigherrealm.
who is both their formal and ecient cause.
Each level of existence in al-Farabi's cosmology is charThe process of emanation begins (metaphysically, not acterized by its movement towards perfection, which is
temporally) with the First Cause, whose principal activ- to become like the First Cause; a perfect intellect. Huity is self-contemplation. And it is this intellectual activ- man perfection (or happiness), then,* is equated with
ity that underlies its role in the creation of the universe. constant intellection and contemplation. [54]
The First Cause, by thinking of itself, overowsand Al-Farabi divides intellect into four categories: potential,
the incorporeal entity of the second intellectemanates actual, acquired and the Agent. The rst three are the
102.4. THOUGHT
dierent states of the human intellect and the fourth is
the Tenth Intellect (the moon) in his emanational cosmology. The potential intellect represents the capacity
to think, which is shared by all human beings, and the
actual intellect is an intellect engaged in the act of thinking. By thinking, al-Farabi means abstracting universal
intelligibles from the sensory forms of objects which have
been apprehended and retained in the individual's imagination.* [55]
This motion from potentiality to actuality requires the
Agent Intellect to act upon the retained sensory forms;
just as the Sun illuminates the physical world to allow
us to see, the Agent Intellect illuminates the world of intelligibles to allow us to think.* [56] This illumination removes all accident (such as time, place, quality) and physicality from them, converting them into primary intelligibles, which are logical principles such as the whole
is greater than the part. The human intellect, by its
act of intellection, passes from potentiality to actuality,
and as it gradually comprehends these intelligibles, it is
identied with them (as according to Aristotle, by knowing something, the intellect becomes like it).* [57] Because the Agent Intellect knows all of the intelligibles, this
means that when the human intellect knows all of them, it
becomes associated with the Agent Intellect's perfection
and is known as the acquired Intellect.* [58]
While this process seems mechanical, leaving little room
for human choice or volition, Reisman says that al-Farabi
is committed to human voluntarism.* [57] This takes
place when man, based on the knowledge he has acquired,
decides whether to direct himself towards virtuous or unvirtuous activities, and thereby decides whether or not to
seek true happiness. And it is by choosing what is ethical and contemplating about what constitutes the nature
of ethics, that the actual intellect can becomelikethe
active intellect, thereby attaining perfection. It is only by
this process that a human soul may survive death, and live
on in the afterlife.* [56]* [59]
According to al-Farabi, the afterlife is not the personal
experience commonly conceived of by religious traditions such as Islam and Christianity. Any individual or
distinguishing features of the soul are annihilated after
the death of the body; only the rational faculty survives
(and then, only if it has attained perfection), which becomes one with all other rational souls within the agent intellect and enters a realm of pure intelligence.* [58] Henry
Corbin compares this eschatology with that of the Ismaili Neo-Platonists, for whom this process initiated the
next grand cycle of the universe.* [60] However, Deborah Black mentions we have cause to be skeptical as to
whether this was the mature and developed view of alFarabi, as later thinkers such as Ibn Tufayl, Averroes and
Ibn Bajjah would assert that he repudiated this view in
his commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics, which has
been lost to modern experts.* [58]
319
320
. The ideal society, he says, is one directed towards the
realization of true happiness(which can be taken to
mean philosophical enlightenment) and as such, the ideal
philosopher must hone all the necessary arts of rhetoric
and poetics to communicate abstract truths to the ordinary people, as well as having achieved enlightenment
himself.* [69] Al-Farabi compares the philosopher's role
in relation to society with a physician in relation to the
body; the body's health is aected by the balance of
its humours" just as the city is determined by the moral
habits of its people. The philosopher's duty, he says, is
to establish a virtuoussociety by healing the souls of
the people, establishing justice and guiding them towards
true happiness.* [70]
Of course, al-Farabi realizes that such a society is rare and
requires a very specic set of historical circumstances to
be realized, which means very few societies could ever attain this goal. He divides thosevicioussocieties, which
have fallen short of the ideal virtuoussociety, into
three categories: ignorant, wicked and errant. Ignorant
societies have, for whatever reason, failed to comprehend
the purpose of human existence, and have supplanted the
pursuit of happiness for another (inferior) goal, whether
this be wealth, sensual gratication or power. It is interesting to note that democratic societies also fall into this
category, as they too lack any guiding principle. Both
wicked and errant societies have understood the true human end, but they have failed to follow it. The former
because they have willfully abandoned it, and the latter
because their leaders have deceived and misguided them.
Al-Farabi also makes mention ofweedsin the virtuous
society; those people who try to undermine its progress
towards the true human end.* [71] The best known Arabic source for al-Farabi's political philosophy is his work
titled, al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City).
102.6 Notes
[1] Gutas, Dimitri. Farabi. Encyclopdia Iranica. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
[2] Corbin, Henry; Hossein Nasr; Utman Yahya (2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-07103-0416-2.
[3] Dhanani, Alnoor (2007). Frb: Ab Nar Muammad ibn Muammad ibn Tarkhn alFrb". In Thomas
Hockey et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 3567. ISBN 9780-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
[4] Brague, Rmi; Brague, Remi (1998).
Athens,
Jerusalem, Mecca: Leo Strauss'sMuslimUnderstanding of Greek Philosophy. Poetics Today 19 (2): 235
259. doi:10.2307/1773441. ISSN 0333-5372. JSTOR
1773441.
102.6. NOTES
321
[11] Lessons with Texts by Alfarabi. D. Gutas, AlFarabiin Barthaolomew's World accessed Feb 18, 2010
. Bartholomew.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2012-09-19.
[12] David C. Reisman,Al-Farabi and the philosophical curriculum, in Peter Adamson and Richard C. Taylor, The
Cambridge companion to Arabic philosophy, Cambridge
University Press, 2005, p. 53.
[13] F. Abiola Irele/Biodun Jeyifo, Farabi, in The Oxford
Encyclopedia of African Thought, Vol. 1, p. 379.
[14] Ebn Abi Osaybea, Oyun al-anba tabaqat at-atebba, ed.
A. Mller, Cairo, 1299/1882.
[15] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Mehdi Amin Razavi. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, Vol. 1: From Zoroaster
to Umar Khayyam, I.B. Tauris in association with The
Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2007. Pg 134: Ibn Nadim
in his al-Fihrist, which is the rst work to mention Farabi
considers him to be of Persian origin, as does Muhammad
Shahrazuri in his Tarikh al-hukama and Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah
in his Tabaqat al-atibba. In contrast, Ibn Khallikan in his
'"Wafayat al-'ayan considers him to be of Turkish descent.
In any case, he was born in Farab in Khurasan of that day
around 257/870 in a climate of Persianate culture
[16] Arabic: in J. Mashkur, Farab and
Farabi,Tehran,1972. See also Dehkhoda Dictionary under the entry Farabi for the same exact Arabic quote.
[17] Majid Fakhry, Al-Farabi, Founder of Islamic Neoplatonism: His Life, Works and Inuence, Great Islamic
Thinkers (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2002), 157.
ISBN 9781851683024.
[18]
George Fadlo Hourani, Essays on Islamic Philosophy and Science, Suny press, 1975.
Kiki Kennedy-Day, Books of Denition in Islamic
Philosophy: The Limits of Words, Routledge, 2002,
page 32.
.
.
[22]
322
edited and translated by Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin. (2003). Classical Islam : a sourcebook of religious literature. New
[33] Ludescher, Tanyss (February 1996). The Islamic roots
York: Routledge. pp. 170. ISBN 0-415-24032-8
of the poetic syllogism. College Literature. Archived
He was of Turkish origin, was born in Turkestan
from the original on 2008-02-17. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
Ian Richard Netton. (1999). Al-Frb and his
school. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007- [34] Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Professor Mehdi Am1064-7He appears to have been born into a miliinrazavi. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, Vol.
1: From Zoroaster to Umar Khayyam, I.B. Tauris
tary family of Turkish origin in the village of Wasil,
in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2007.
Farab, in Turkestan
Pg 135: Morever, he was a master of music theory;
edited by Henrietta Moore. (1996). The future
his Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (The Great book on Music),
of anthropological knowledge. London: Routknown in the West as a book on Arabic music, is in reality
ledge. ISBN 0-415-10786-5al-Farabi (873-950),
a study of the theory of Persian music of his day as well
a scholar of Turkish origin.
as presenting certain great philosophical principle about
Dian Collinson and Robert Wilkinson. (1994).
music, its cosmic qualities, and its inuence on the soul
Thirty-Five Oriental Philosophers.. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-02935-6Al-Farabi is thought [35] Amber Haque (2004),Psychology from Islamic Perspecto be of Turkish origin. His family name suggests
tive: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Chalthat he came from the vicinity of Farab in Transoxlenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists, Journal
iana.
of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [363].
102.7. REFERENCES
323
[75] Joshua Parens, An Islamic Philosophy of Virtuous Religions: Introducing Alfarabi (New York: State University
of New York Press, 2006), 2.
[76] Mykhaylo Yakubovych. Al-Farabi's Book of Religion. Ukrainian translation, introduction and comments
/ Ukrainian Religious Studies Bulletin, 2008, Vol. 47, P.
237.
102.7 References
Al-Farabi, Le Livre du rgime politique, introduction, traduction et commentaire de Philippe Vallat,Belles Lettres, 2012
Corbin, Henry; Hossein Nasr; Utman Yahya (1993).
History of Islamic Philosophy. Keagan Paul International. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2.
Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the
Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon:
Amadeus Press. ISBN 978-0-931340-88-8
Majid Fakhry, Al-Farabi, Founder of Islamic Neoplatonism: His Life, Works, and Inuence, Oxford:
Oneworld Publications, (2002), ISBN 1-85168302-X. Trad. esp.: Alfarabi y la fundacin de la
losofa poltica islmica, trad R. Ramn Guerrero, Barcelona, Herder, 2003.
324
ALFARABI-Unesco
ALFARABI-Trinity College
Chapter 103
Hans-Georg Gadamer
Hans-Georg Gadamer (German: [adam]; February
11, 1900 March 13, 2002) was a German philosopher
of the continental tradition, best known for his 1960
magnum opus Truth and Method (Wahrheit und Methode)
on hermeneutics.
103.1 Life
Gadamer was born in Marburg, Germany,* [1] the son
of Johannes Gadamer (18671928)* [2] a pharmaceutical chemistry professor who later also served as the rector
of the university there. He resisted his father's urging to
take up the natural sciences and became more and more
interested in the humanities. His mother, Emma Karoline Johanna Geiese (18691904) died of diabetes while
Hans-Georg was four years old, and he later noted that
this may have had an eect on his decision to not pursue scientic studies. Jean Grondin describes Gadamer as
nding in his mothera poetic and almost religious counterpart to the iron st of his father.* [3] Gadamer did not
serve during World War I for reasons of ill health* [4] and
similarly was exempted from serving during World War
II due to polio.* [5]
He grew up and studied philosophy in Breslau* [6] under
Richard Hnigswald, but soon moved back to Marburg
to study with the Neo-Kantian philosophers Paul Natorp
and Nicolai Hartmann. He defended his dissertation
"The Essence of Pleasure according to Plato's Dialogues
(Das Wesen der Lust nach den Platonischen Dialogen)
in 1922.* [7]
Shortly thereafter, Gadamer moved to Freiburg University and began studying with Martin Heidegger, who
was then a promising young scholar who had not yet received a professorship. He and Heidegger became close,
and when Heidegger received a position at Marburg,
Gadamer followed him there, where he became one of
a group of students such as Leo Strauss, Karl Lwith,
and Hannah Arendt. It was Heidegger's inuence that
gave Gadamer's thought its distinctive cast and led him
away from the earlier neo-Kantian inuences of Natorp
and Hartmann. Gadamer studied Aristotle both under
Edmund Husserl and under Heidegger.* [8]
325
326
objective position from which to critique society. The debate was inconclusive, but marked the beginning of warm
relations between the two men. It was Gadamer who secured Habermas's rst professorship in Heidelberg.
In 1968, Gadamer invited Tomonobu Imamichi for lectures at Heidelberg, but their relationship became very
cool after Imamichi alleged that Heidegger had taken
his concept of Dasein out of Okakura Kakuzo's concept of das in-der-Welt-sein (to be in the being of the
world) expressed in The Book of Tea, which Imamichi's
teacher had oered to Heidegger in 1919, after having
followed lessons with him the year before.* [22] Imamichi
and Gadamer renewed contact four years later during an
In contrast to both these positions, Gadamer argued
international congress.* [22]
In 1981, Gadamer attempted to engage with Jacques Der- that people have a historically-eectedconsciousrida at a conference in Paris but it proved less enlighten- ness (wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewutsein) and that they
ing because the two thinkers had little in common. A last are embedded in the particular history and culture that
meeting between Gadamer and Derrida was held at the shaped them. These dene an interpreter's prejudices
Stift of Heidelberg in July 2001, coordinated by Derrida's that aect how he or she will make interpretations. For
students, Joseph Cohen and Raphael Zagury-Orly. This Gadamer, these prejudices are not something that hinmeeting marked, in many ways, a turn in their philosoph- ders our ability to make interpretations, but a prerequiical encounter. After Gadamer's death, Derrida called site to interpretation. He postulates that biases cannot
their failure to nd common ground one of the worst de- and should not be eliminated, but embraced in order to
understanding of a situation or arbacles of his life and expressed, in the main obituary for gain a more thorough
*
*
gument's
context.
[27]
[28] Gadamer criticised EnlightGadamer, his great personal and philosophical respect.
enment
thinkers
for
harboring
a prejudice against prejRichard J. Bernstein said that "[a] genuine dialogue be*
udices.
[29]
tween Gadamer and Derrida has never taken place. This
is a shame because there are crucial and consequential is- For Gadamer, interpreting a text involves a fusion of
sues that arise between hermeneutics and deconstruction horizons (Horizontverschmelzung) where the scholar nds
.* [23]
the ways that the text's history articulates with their own
Gadamer received honorary doctorates from the background. In doing so, the reader must acknowlUniversity of Bamberg, the University of Breslau, edge that mere exposure to alternate perspectives, reor not they are agreed with, alters
Boston College,* [24] Charles University in Prague, gardless of whether
*
one's
worldview.
[30]
Truth and Method is not meant to
Hamilton College, the University of Leipzig, the
be
a
programmatic
statement
about a new 'hermeneutic'
University of Marburg (1999) the University of Ottawa,
method
of
interpreting
texts.
Gadamer intended Truth
Saint Petersburg State University (2001), the University
and
Method
to
be
a
description
of what we always do
*
of Tbingen and University of Washington. [25]
when we interpret things (even if we do not know it):
On February 11, 2000, the University of Heidelberg cel- My real concern was and is philosophic: not what we
ebrated Gadamer's one hundredth birthday with a cere- do or what we ought to do, but what happens to us over
mony and conference. Gadamer's last academic engage- and above our wanting and doing.* [31]
ment was in the summer of 2001 at an annual symposium on hermeneutics that two of Gadamer's American Truth and Method was published twice in English, and
students had organised. On March 13, 2002, Gadamer the revised edition is now considered authoritative. The
died at Heidelberg's University Clinic. He is buried in German-language edition of Gadamer's Collected Works
includes a volume in which Gadamer elaborates his arguthe Kpfel cemetery in Ziegelhausen.* [26]
ment and discusses the critical response to the book. Finally, Gadamer's essay on Celan (entitled Who Am I
and Who Are You?") has been considered by manyin103.2 Work
cluding Heidegger and Gadamer himselfas a second
volumeor continuation of the argument in Truth and
Method.
103.2.1 Truth and Method
Gadamer's philosophical project, as explained in Truth
and Method, was to elaborate on the concept of Contributions to Communication Ethics
"philosophical hermeneutics", which Heidegger initiated
but never dealt with at length. Gadamer's goal was to Gadamer's Truth and Method has become an authoriuncover the nature of human understanding. In the book tarian work in the communication ethics eld, spawn-
103.4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
327
ing several prominent ethics theories and guidelines. The 103.4 Bibliography
most profound of these is the formulation of the dialogic
coordinates, a standard set of prerequisite communica- Primary
tion elements necessary for inciting dialogue. Adhering to Gadamer's theories regarding bias, communicators
Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies
can better initiate dialogic transaction, allowing biases to
on Plato. Trans. and ed. by P. Christopher Smith.
merge and promote mutual understanding and learning.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980.
*
[32]
The Enigma of Health: The Art of Healing in a Scientic Age. Trans. John Gaiger and Richard Walker.
103.2.2 Other works
Oxford: Polity Press, 1996.
Gadamer also added philosophical substance to the notion
of human health. In The Enigma of Health, Gadamer explored what it means to heal, as a patient and a provider.
In this work the practice and art of medicine are thoroughly examined, as is the inevitability of any cure.* [33]
In addition to his work in hermeneutics, Gadamer is also
well known for a long list of publications on Greek philosophy. Indeed, while Truth and Method became central to his later career, much of Gadamer's early life centered around studying Greek thinkers, Plato and Aristotle
specically. In the Italian introduction to Truth and
Method, Gadamer said that his work on Greek philosophy
wasthe best and most original partof his career.* [34]
His book Plato's Dialectical Ethics looks at the Philebus
dialogue through the lens of phenomenology and the philosophy of Martin Heidegger.* [33]
328
Arthos, John. The Inner Word in Gadamer's
Hermeneutics. South Bend, IN: University of Notre
Dame Press, 2009.
Cercel, Larisa (ed.), bersetzung und Hermeneutik / Traduction et hermneutique, Bucharest, Zeta
Books, 2009, ISBN 978-973-199-706-3.
Dostal, Robert L. ed. The Cambridge Companion to
Gadamer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002.
Drechsler, Wolfgang. Gadamer in Marburg. Marburg: Blaues Schloss, 2013.
Code, Lorraine. ed. Feminist Interpretations of
Hans-Georg Gadamer. University Park: Penn State
Press, 2003.
103.6 Notes
103.7 References
Grondin, Jean (2003). Hans-Georg Gadamer: A Biography.
Cesare, Donatella Di (2007). Gadamer: A Philosophical Portrait. Niall Keane (trans.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253007636.
Orozco, Teresa (1995).
Platonische Gewalt:
Gadamers politische Hermeneutik der NS-Zeit.
329
Chapter 104
David W. Hamlyn
David Walter Hamlyn (1 October 1924 - 15 July
2012)* [1] was Professor of Philosophy at Birkbeck College, London (1964-1988), and editor of Mind (19721984). His major interests were in Aristotle (whose de
Anima, II and III and parts of I, he translated with a
commentary, 1968) and in Ludwig Wittgenstein, both
of whom inuenced Hamlyn's approach to questions in
epistemology and philosophy of psychology. His central thesis, developed in Experience and the Growth of
Understanding (1978), Perception, Learning and the Self
(1983), and In and Out of the Black Box (1990), was that
in order to be a knower a being must be active and seek
to regulate its beliefs in accord with a norm of truth: this
requires membership of a community, interaction with
which involves emotional responses. In short, knowers
are social, aective agents. The other main area of Hamlyn's writing was the history of philosophy.* [2]
104.2 Notes
[1] Who's Who 1974, London : A. & C. Black, 1974, p. 1399;
http://www.bpa.ac.uk/news
[2] Haldane 2005. p. 358.
104.3 References
Haldane, John (2005). Honderich, Ted, ed. The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-926479-1.
330
Chapter 105
Ammonius Hermiae
Ammonius Hermiae (/monis/; Greek:
; c. 440 c. 520 AD) was a Greek philosopher,
and the son of the Neoplatonist philosophers Hermias and
Aedesia. He was a pupil of Proclus in Athens, and taught
at Alexandria for most of his life, writing commentaries
on Plato, Aristotle, and other philosophers.
105.1 Life
Ammonius' father, Hermias, died when he was a child,
and his mother, Aedesia, raised him and his brother,
Heliodorus, in Alexandria. When they reached adulthood, Aedesia accompanied her sons to Athens where
they studied under Proclus. Eventually, they returned to
Alexandria, where Ammonius, as head of the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, lectured on Plato and Aristotle
for the rest of his life. According to Damascius, during
the persecution of the pagans at Alexandria in the late
480's, Ammonius made concessions to the Christian authorities so that he could continue his lectures.* [1] Damascius, who scolds Ammonius for the agreement that he
made, does not say what the concessions were, but it may
have involved limitations on the doctrines he could teach
or promote. He was still teaching in 515; Olympiodorus
heard him lecture on Plato's Gorgias in that year.* [2]
He also taught Asclepius of Tralles, John Philoponus,
Damascius and Simplicius. He was also an accomplished
astronomer; he lectured on Ptolemy and is known to have
written a treatise on the astrolabe.
105.2 Writings
Of his reputedly numerous writings, only his commentary on Aristotle's De Interpretatione survives intact. A
commentary on Porphyry's Isagoge may also be his, but
it is somewhat corrupt and contains later interpolations.
In De Interpretatione, Ammonius contends that divine
foreknowledge makes void the contingent. Like Bothius
in his second Commentary and The Consolation of Philosophy, this argument maintains the eectiveness of prayer.
Ammonius cites Iamblichus who said knowledge is intermediate between the knower and the known, since it is
331
332
On Aristotle's On Generation and Corruption (written by John Philoponus)
On Aristotle's On the Soul (written by John Philoponus)
There is Greek-language work called Life of Aristotle,
which is usually ascribed to Ammonius, but is more
probable that it is the work of Joannes Philoponus, the
pupil of Ammonius, to whom it is ascribed in some
MSS.* [4]
105.4 Notes
[1] Damascius, Philosophos Historia, 118B, Athanassiadi
[2] Olympiodorus, in Gorgias, 199, 810
[3] Medieval Philosophy and the Classical Tradition, Curzon
Press, John Inglis, 2002, pg. 128.
[4] Society for the Diusion of Useful Knowledge, The biographical dictionary of the Society for the diusion of
useful knowledge, Volume 2, Part 2, Longman, Brown,
Green, and Longmans, 1843, p. 487.
105.5 References
Andron, Cosmin.Ammonios of Alexandria,The
Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Natural Scientists, eds. Georgia Irby-Massie and Paul Keyser,
New York: Routledge, 2008.
Jones, A., Martindale, J., Morris, J. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pages 7172.
Karamanolis, George E. Plato and Aristotle in agreement? : Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry, New York : Oxford University Press, 2006.
Merlan, Phillip (1970). Ammonius, Son of Hermias. Dictionary of Scientic Biography 1. New
York: CharlesScribner's Sons. p. 137. ISBN 0684-10114-9.
Seel, Gerhard (ed.), Ammonius and the Seabattle.
Texts, Commentary, and Essays, in collaboration
with Jean-Pierre Schneider and Daniel Schulthess ;
Ammonius on Aristotle: De interpretatione 9 (and
7, 1-17) Greek text established by A. Busse, philosophical commentary by Gerhard Seel; essays by
Mario Mignucci and Gerhard Seel, Berlin: Walter
de Gruyter, 2001.
Sorabji, Richard. The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200600 AD. A Sourcebook, Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 2005.
Verrycken, Koenraad. The Metaphysics of Ammonius son of Hermias, in Richard Sorabji (ed.), Aristotle Transformed. The Ancient Commentators and
their Inuence, Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1990, p. 199-231.
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press.
Chapter 106
106.2 References
Aqa Bozorg Tehrai, Azzariah about Shiite writing, vol: 9.
p. 1061
333
Chapter 107
Al-Kindi
Alkindusredirects here. For the insect (bug), see
Alkindus (genus).
For the surname, see Al-Kindi (surname).
Abu Ysuf Yaqb ibn Isq a-abb al-Kind
(Arabic: , Latin: Alkindus) (c. 801873 CE), known as the Philosopher
of the Arabs, was an Iraqi Muslim Arab philosopher,
polymath, mathematician, physician and musician. AlKindi was the rst of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the father of
Islamic or Arabic philosophy"* [2]* [3]* [4] for his synthesis, adaptation and promotion of Greek and Hellenistic
philosophy in the Muslim world.* [5]
Al-Kindi was a descendant of the Kinda tribe. He was
born and educated in Basra,* [6] before going to pursue
further studies in Baghdad. Al-Kindi became a prominent gure in the House of Wisdom, and a number of
Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientic and philosophical texts into the
Arabic language. This contact with the philosophy of
the ancients(as Greek philosophy was often referred to
by Muslim scholars) had a profound eect on his intellectual development, and led him to write hundreds of
original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to
medicine, pharmacology,* [7] mathematics, astronomy,
astrology and optics, and further aeld to more practical
topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology,
tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes.* [8]* [9]
107.1 Life
Al-Kindi was born in Kufa to an aristocratic family of
the Kinda tribe. His father was the governor of Kufa,
and al-Kindi received his preliminary education there.
He later went to complete his studies in Baghdad, where
he was patronized by the Abbasid Caliphs al-Ma'mun
and al-Mu'tasim. On account of his learning and aptitude for study, al-Ma'mun appointed him to House of
Wisdom, a recently established centre for the translation of Greek philosophical and scientic texts, in Baghdad. He was also well known for his beautiful calligraphy,
and at one point was employed as a calligrapher by alMutawakkil.* [14]
107.2. ACCOMPLISHMENTS
107.2 Accomplishments
Al-Kindi was a master of many dierent areas of thought.
And although he would eventually be eclipsed by names
such as al-Farabi and Avicenna, he was held to be one of
the greatest Islamic philosophers of his time.
The Italian Renaissance scholar Geralomo Cardano
(15011575) considered him one of the twelve greatest minds of the Middle Ages.* [16] According to Ibn
al-Nadim, al-Kindi wrote at least two hundred and
sixty books, contributing heavily to geometry (thirtytwo books), medicine and philosophy (twenty-two
books each), logic (nine books), and physics (twelve
books).* [17] His inuence in the elds of physics, mathematics, medicine, philosophy and music were farreaching and lasted for several centuries. Although most
of his books have been lost over the centuries, a few have
survived in the form of Latin translations by Gerard of
Cremona, and others have been rediscovered in Arabic
manuscripts; most importantly, twenty-four of his lost
works were located in the mid-twentieth century in a
Turkish library.* [18]
107.2.1
Philosophy
335
107.2.2 Astronomy
Al-Kindi took his view of the solar system from Ptolemy,
who placed the Earth at the centre of a series of concentric spheres, in which the known heavenly bodies (the
Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and the
stars) are embedded. In one of his treatises on the subject,
he says that these bodies are rational entities, whose circular motion is in obedience to and worship of God. Their
role, al-Kindi believes, is to act as instruments for divine
providence. He furnishes empirical evidence as proof for
this assertion; dierent seasons are marked by particular arrangements of the planets and stars (most notably
the sun); the appearance and manner of people varies according to the arrangement of heavenly bodies situated
above their homeland.* [21]
However, he is ambiguous when it comes to the actual
process by which the heavenly bodies aect the material
world. One theory he posits in his works is from Aristotle,
who conceived that the movement of these bodies causes
friction in the sub-lunar region, which stirs up the primary
elements of earth, re, air and water, and these combine
to produce everything in the material world. An alternative view found his treatise On Rays is that the planets exercise their inuence in straight lines. In each of
these, he presents two fundamentally dierent views of
physical interaction; action by contact and action at a distance. This dichotomy is duplicated in his writings on
optics.* [22]
336
107.2.6 Mathematics
Al-Kindi authored works on a number of important mathematical subjects, including arithmetic, geometry, the Indian numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring
proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation.* [10] He also wrote four volumes, On the Use of
the Indian Numerals (Ketab Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi)
which contributed greatly to diusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle-East and the West. In
geometry, among other works, he wrote on the theory of
parallels. Also related to geometry were two works on
optics. One of the ways in which he made use of mathematics as a philosopher was to attempt to disprove the
eternity of the world by demonstrating that actual innity
is a mathematical and logical absurdity.* [28]
Through the Latin version of the De Aspectibus, AlKindi partly inuenced the optical investigations of
Robert Grosseteste.* [25]
107.2.4
Medicine
107.2.5
Chemistry
The rst page of al-Kindi's manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages, containing the oldest known description of
cryptanalysis by frequency analysis.
107.2.7 Cryptography
Al-Kindi is credited with developing a method whereby
variations in the frequency of the occurrence of letters
could be analyzed and exploited to break ciphers (i.e.
cryptanalysis by frequency analysis).* [11]
Inuences
337
ary agencies are contingent upon Him.* [37] The key idea
here is that God actsthrough created intermediaries,
which in turn acton one another through a chain of
cause and eect to produce the desired result. In reality, these intermediary agents do not actat all, they
are merely a conduit for God's own action.* [34] This is
especially signicant in the development of Islamic philosophy, as it portrayed therst causeandunmoved
moverof Aristotelian philosophy as compatible with the
concept of God according to Islamic revelation.* [38]
107.3.2
Epistemology
Metaphysics
Al-Kindi theorized that there was a separate, incorporeal and universal intellect (known as the First Intellect). It was the rst of God's creation and the intermediary through which all other things came into creation.
Aside from its obvious metaphysical importance, it was
also crucial to al-Kindi's epistemology, which was inuenced by Platonic realism.* [39]
338
only potentially able to comprehend these. This potential is actualized by the First Intellect, which is perpetually thinking about all of the universals. He argues that
the external agency of this intellect is necessary by saying
that human beings cannot arrive at a universal concept
merely through perception. In other words, an intellect
cannot understand the species of a thing simply by examining one or more of its instances. According to him, this
will only yield an inferior sensible form, and not the
universal form which we desire. The universal form can
only be attained through contemplation and actualization
by the First Intellect.* [40]
The analogy he provides to explain his theory is that of
wood and re. Wood, he argues, is potentially hot (just
as a human is potentially thinking about a universal), and
therefore requires something else which is already hot
(such as re) to actualize this. This means that for the
human intellect to think about something, the First Intellect must already be thinking about it. Therefore he
says that the First Intellect must always be thinking about
everything. Once the human intellect comprehends a universal by this process, it becomes part of the individual's
acquired intellectand can be thought about whenever
he or she wishes.* [41]
107.3.4
Al-Kindi says that the soul is a simple, immaterial substance, which is related to the material world only because of its faculties which operate through the physical
body. To explain the nature of our worldly existence, he
(borrowing from Epictetus) compares it to a ship which
has, during the course of its ocean voyage, temporarily
anchored itself at an island and allowed its passengers to
disembark. The implicit warning is that those passengers
who linger too long on the island may be left behind when
the ship sets sail again. Here, al-Kindi displays a stoic
concept, that we must not become attached to material
things (represented by the island), as they will invariably
be taken away from us (when the ship sets sail again). He
then connects this with a Neo-Platonist idea, by saying
that our soul can be directed towards the pursuit of desire
or the pursuit of intellect; the former will tie it to the body,
so that when the body dies, it will also die, but the latter
will free it from the body and allow it to survive in the
light of the Creatorin a realm of pure intelligence.* [42]
107.3.5
The relationship between revela- During his life, al-Kindi was fortunate enough to enjoy
tion and philosophy
the patronage of the pro-Mutazilite Caliphs al-Ma'mun
107.4. REFERENCES
339
in atoms.* [48] But the real role of al-Kindi in the con- [23] Dykes, B., (2011) The Forty Chapters. Minnesota: Cazimi Press, 2011; pp.56
ict between philosophers and theologians would be to
prepare the ground for debate. His works, says Deborah
Black, contained all the seeds of future controversy that [24] Adamson, p45
would be fully realized in al-Ghazali's Incoherence of the
[25] Hendrix, John Shannon; Carman, Charles H., eds.
Philosophers.* [49]
(2010). Renaissance Theories of Vision. Visual Culture
in Early Modernity. Ashgate. p. 13. ISBN 1409400247.
107.4 References
[3] Abboud, Tony (2006). Al-Kindi : the father of Arab philosophy. Rosen Pub. Group. ISBN 1-4042-0511-X.
[4] Greenberg, Yudit Kornberg (2008). Encyclopedia of love
in world religions 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 405. ISBN 1-85109980-8.
[5] Klein-Frank, F. Al-Kindi. In Leaman, O & Nasr, H
(2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. p 165
[6] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-kindi/
[7] Corbin, Henry (1993). History of Islamic philosophy.
Kegan Paul International. p. 155. ISBN 0-7103-04161.
[8] Adamson, Peter (2006). Al-Kind and the reception of
Greek philosophy. In Adamson, Peter; Taylor, R. The
Cambridge companion to Arabic philosophy. Cambridge
University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-521-52069-0.
[9] Adamson, p7
[10] Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah Al-Kindi. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
[11] Simon Singh, The Code Book, pgs. 1420. New York
City: Anchor Books, 2000. ISBN 9780385495325
[46] Leaman, O. (1999). A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy Polity Press. p21. ISBN 0-7456-1961-4
340
107.5 References
Robert L. Arrington (2001) [ed.] A Companion to
the Philosophers. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-63122967-1
Peter J. King (2004) One Hundred Philosophers.
New York: Barron's. ISBN 0-7641-2791-8
Adamson, Peter; Taylor, Richard C. (10 January
2005). The Cambridge companion to Arabic philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-81743-1. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
Adamson, Peter (2007). Al-Kind . Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-518142-5. Retrieved
22 May 2011.
Felix Klein-Frank (2001) Al-Kindi. In Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr. History of Islamic Philosophy.
London: Routledge.
Henry Corbin (1993). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Keagan Paul International.
Chapter 108
108.1 References
[1] Daz, Gonzalo Daz (1991). Hombres y Documentos de la
Filosoa Espaola (in Spanish). CSIC-Dpto. de Publicaciones. p. 764. ISBN 978-84-00-07198-1. Retrieved 12
September 2012.
[2] Ignacio Lpez de Ayala (1782). Historia de Gibraltar.
341
Chapter 109
Theodore Metochites
Theodore Metochites (Greek: , monastic name Theoleptos.
12701332) was a Byzantine statesman, author, gentleman philosopher, and patron of the arts. From c. 1305 to
1328 he held the position of personal adviser (mesazn) 109.2 Works
to emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos.
Metochitesextant uvre comprises 20 Poems in
dactylic hexameter, 18 orations (Logoi), Commentaries
on Aristotles writings on natural philosophy, an intro109.1 Life
duction to the study of Ptolemaic astronomy (StoicheioMetochites was born in Constantinople as the son of the sis astronomike), and 120 essays on various subjects,
archdeacon George Metochites, a fervent supporter of the the Semeioseis gnomikai. Many of these works are still
union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. After unedited.
the Second Council of Blachernae, his father was con- Editions with English translations:
demned and exiled, and Metochites seems to have spent
Featherstone, J. M. 2000. Theodore Metochitess
his adolescence in the monastic milieux of Bithynia in
PoemsTo Himself. Introduction, Text, and TransAsia Minor. He devoted himself to studies of both seclation. Vienna. ISBN 3-7001-2853-3
ular and religious authors. When Andronicus II visited
Nicaea in 1290/1291, Metochites made such an impression on him that he was immediately called to the court Reviewed by Lazaris, S. 2002. Jerey Michael Feathand made Logothete of the Herds. Little more than a erstone (Introduction, Text and Translation), Theodore
year later, he was appointed a Senator. Besides carrying Metochitess poems to Himself[Byzantina vinout his political duties (embassies to Cilicia in 1295 and dobonensia, XXIII], Wien : Verlag der sterreichischen
to Serbia in 1299), Metochites continued to study and to Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2000, Scriptorium 56,
write. In 1312/1313, he started learning astronomy from p. 328*330*()
Manuel Bryennios; later he himself became the teacher of
Hult, K. 2002. Theodore Metochites on Ancient AuNicephorus Gregoras. He was married with ve sons and
thors and Philosophy: Semeioseis gnomikai 126 &
one daughter, Irene (spouse of John Komnenos Palaiolo71. A Critical Edition with Introduction, Translagos).
tion, Notes, and Indexes. With a Contribution by B.
Metochitespolitical career culminated in 1321, when
Bydn. Studia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia 65.
he was invested as Grand Logothete. He was then at the
Gteborg. ISBN 91-7346-434-1
summit of his power, and also one of the richest men
of his age. Some of the money was spent on restor- Editions without translation:
ing and decorating the church of the Chora monastery
in the northwest of Constantinople, where Metochites Bydn, B. 2003. Theodore Metochites' Stoicheiosis
donor portrait can still be seen in a famous mosaic in the
astronomike and the study of natural philosophy and
narthex, above the entrance to the nave.
mathematics in early Palaiologan Byzantium. 2nd
rev. ed. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. StuMetochitesfortunes were, however, linked with his emdia Graeca et Latina Gothoburgensia 66. Gteborg.
perors. After a few years of intermittent civil war, AnISBN 91-7346-459-7
dronicus II was overthrown in 1328 by his own grandson, Andronicus III Palaeologus. Metochites went down
with him. He was deprived of his possessions and forced
into exile in Didymoteichon. In 1330, he was allowed to
return to Constantinople. He then withdrew to Chora,
where he died on 13 March 1332, having adopted the
342
Gregory Palamas
109.4 References
[1] K. Staikos, The History of the Library in Western Civilization: From Constantine the Great to Cardinal Bessarion,
Oak Knoll Press, 2007, p. 427
343
Chapter 110
Michael of Ephesus
On Generation of Animals: CAG XIV.3
Michael of Ephesus or Michael Ephesius (Greek: ; . early or mid-12th century AD) wrote
important commentaries on Aristotle, including the rst
full commentary on the Sophistical Refutations, which established the regular study of that text.* [1]
110.1 Life
110.2 Work
Michael's breadth is remarkable, and his interpretive
method has been compared to that of Alexander of
Aphrodisias; the commentary on Metaphysics Books 7-14
attributed to Alexander is considered to be his work.* [5]
Michael's commentaries draw on Neoplatonist ideas and
on the exegetical tradition of Stephen of Alexandria. At
times they allude to contemporary Byzantine matters and
include criticism of the emperor and of the current state
of education.
110.2.1
110.3 Notes
110.3. NOTES
345
Chapter 111
Nicolaus of Damascus
Nicolaus of Damascus (Greek: , Nikolos Damasknos) was a Greek* [1] historian
and philosopher who lived during the Augustan age of
the Roman Empire. His name is derived from that of his
birthplace, Damascus. He was born around 64 BC.* [2]
He was an intimate friend of Herod the Great, whom he
survived by a number of years. He was also the tutor of
the children of Antony and Cleopatra (born in 40 BC), according to Sophronius.* [3] He went to Rome with Herod
Archelaus.* [4]
111.1 History
Towards the end of his life he composed a universal his- 111.3 Autobiography
tory in 144 books,* [6] although the Suda mentions only
80 books. But references to books 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, (8),
96, 103, 104, 107, 108, 110, 114, 123 and 124 are He also wrote an autobiography, the date of which is uncertain. It mentions that he wanted to retire, in 4 BC, but
known.* [7]
was persuaded to travel with Herod Archelaus to Rome.
Extensive fragments of the rst seven books are preserved
in quotation in the Excerpta compiled at the order of The fragments that remain deal mainly with Jewish hisConstantine Porphyrogenitus.* [8] These cover the history tory.* [9]
of the Assyrians, Medes, Greeks, Lydians, and Persians,
and are important also for Biblical history.
Josephus probably used this work for his history of Herod
(Ant. 15-17) because where Nicolaus stops, in the reign
of Archelaus, the account of Josephus suddenly becomes
more cursory.* [9]
For portions dealing with Greek myth and oriental history
he was dependent on other, now lost works, of variable
quality. Where he relied on Ctesias, the value of his work
is slim. Robert Drews has written:
Classical scholars are agreed that Nicolaus's
history of the East, and especially his story of
Cyrus, was taken from Ctesias's Persica, a work
written early in the fourth century B.C. This
346
111.8. REFERENCES
111.5 On plants
Main article: On Plants
An Arabic text of his work De Plantis, once attributed
to Aristotle, was discovered in Istanbul in 1923. It also
exists in a Syriac manuscript at Cambridge.
347
This is the practice with persons in distress,
who seek escape from existing calamities, and
with others in prosperous circumstances, as
was the case with this man. For as everything
hitherto had succeeded with him, he thought
it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected
calamity should happen to him by continuing to
live; with a smile, therefore, naked, anointed,
and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped
upon the pyre. On his tomb was this inscription:
Zarmanochegas, AN INDIAN,
A NATIVE OF BARGOSA,
HAVING
IMMORTALIZED
HIMSELF ACCORDING TO
THE CUSTOM OF HIS COUNTRY, HERE LIES.* [15]
This accounts suggests that it may not have been impossible to encounter an Indian religious man in the Levant
One of the most famous passages is his account of
during the time of Jesus.
an embassy sent by an Indian king named Pandion
(Pandyan kingdom) or, according to others, Porus" to The Jewish historian Josephus references the fourth book
Augustus around AD 13. He met with the embassy at of Nicolaus' history concerning Abram (Abraham).* [16]
Antioch. The embassy was bearing a diplomatic letter in
Greek, and one of its members was a sramana who burnt
himself alive in Athens to demonstrate his faith. The 111.8 References
event made a sensation and was quoted by Strabo* [13]
and Dio Cassius.* [14] A tomb was made to the sramana, [1] Burns, Ross. Damascus: A History, p. 59.
still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention " " [2] Nicolaus, Autobiography, Fr.136.8
(The sramana master from Barygaza in India"):
[3] Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 87, 3. col. 3622D; F.Jacoby,
FGrH.90.T2.
To these accounts may be added that of Nicolaus Damascenus. This writer states that at
Antioch, near Daphne, he met with ambassadors from the Indians, who were sent to
Augustus Caesar. It appeared from the letter that several persons were mentioned in it,
but three only survived, whom he says he saw.
The rest had died chiey in consequence of
the length of the journey. The letter was written in Greek upon a skin; the import of it
was, that Porus was the writer, that although he
was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he
highly esteemed the friendship of Csar; that
he was willing to allow him a passage through
his country, in whatever part he pleased, and
to assist him in any undertaking that was just.
Eight naked servants, with girdles round their
waists, and fragrant with perfumes, presented
the gifts which were brought. The presents
were a Hermes (i. e. a man) born without
arms, whom I have seen, large snakes, a serpent
ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in length, and a partridge larger than a vulture. They were accompanied by the person, it
is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens.
348
111.9 Sources
Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Harper
and Brothers, New York, 1898: Nicolaus
Lightfoot, J. B. 1875. On Some Points Connected
with the Essenes: II."Origin and Anity of the Essenes, Note
Wacholder, B. Z. 1962. Nicolaus of Damascus.
University of California Studies in History 75.
Yarrow, L. M. 2006. Historiography at the End of
the Republic. Oxford University Press, pp. 6777.
Chapter 112
112.1 Life
112.2 Writings
350
An alchemical treatise concerning Zosimus' On the
Action, called On the Book Katenergeian (On the
action or According to the action) by Zosimus and on
the Sayings of Hermes and the Philosophers (
' ,
)
On the Divine and Sacred Art of the Philosophical
Stone (
; Latin: De arte sacra lapidis philosophorum)
A commentary on Plato's Philebus now thought to
be the work of Damascius
112.4 References
Late Classical Astrology: Paulus Alexandrinus and
Olympiodorus (with the Scholia of later Latin Commentators). [Translated by Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum.] ARHAT , 2001.
Olympiodorus The Younger.Encyclopdia
Britannica from Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. <http://www.britannica.com/eb/
article-9057064> [Accessed January 4, 2006].
L.G. Westerink,Ein astrologisches Kolleg aus dem
Jahre 564,in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 64, 1971,
pp. 621.
Bruce M. Metzger, Ancient Astrological Geography and Acts 2:9-11,W. Ward Gasque & Ralph
P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel.
Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F.
Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk.
ISBN 0-85364-098-X. pp. 123133.
Harold Tarrant, Olympiodorus and history,
in Idem, From the Old Academy to Later NeoPlatonism: Studies in the History of Platonic Thought
(Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010) (Variorum Collected
Studies Series: CS964).
Harold Tarrant, Politike Eudaimonia: Olympiodorus on Plato's Republic,in Idem, From the Old
Academy to Later Neo-Platonism: Studies in the History of Platonic Thought (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010)
(Variorum Collected Studies Series: CS964).
Harold Tarrant,Restoring Olympiodorus' syllogistic,in Idem, From the Old Academy to Later NeoPlatonism: Studies in the History of Platonic Thought
(Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010) (Variorum Collected
Studies Series: CS964).
Robert Schmidt, Project Hindsight
Sebastian R. P. Gertz, Death and Immortality in Late
Neoplatonism: Studies on the Ancient Commentaries
on Plato's Phaedo, Brill: Leiden, 2011.
Chapter 113
113.1 Books
Virtue Is Knowledge: The Moral Foundations of Socratic Political Philosophy, University of Chicago
Press, 2014
The Political Philosophy of Benjamin Franklin (The
Political Philosophy of the American Founders),
Johns Hopkins, 2007
Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship, Cambridge, 2003
The Learning of Liberty: The Educational Ideas of
the American Founders (with Thomas Pangle). University Press of Kansas, 1993
113.3 References
[1] ""Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendshipreviewed
by Gabriel Richardson Lear. Ndpr.nd.edu. Retrieved
25 October 2014.
[2] American Freedom Alliance. Americanfreedomalliance.org. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
351
Chapter 114
John Philoponus
John Philoponus (/flpns/; Ancient Greek: ; Arabic: al-Naw Yay; c. 490
c. 570) also known as John the Grammarian or John
of Alexandria, was a Christian and Aristotelian commentator and the author of a considerable number of
philosophical treatises and theological works. A rigorous,
sometimes polemical writer and an original thinker who
was controversial in his own time, John Philoponus broke
from the AristotelianNeoplatonic tradition, questioning
methodology and eventually leading to empiricism in the
natural sciences.
114.1 Life
Possibly born into a Christian family, nothing is known
of his early life. Philoponus studied at the school of
Alexandria and began publishing from about 510. He
was a pupil and sometime amanuensis to the Neoplatonic philosopher Ammonius Hermiae, who had studied
at Athens under Proclus.* [2]
Philoponusearly writings are based on lectures given
by Ammonius, but gradually he established his own independent thinking in his commentaries and critiques of
Aristotles On the Soul and Physics. In the latter work
Philoponus became one of the earliest thinkers to reject
Aristotles dynamics and propose thetheory of impetus:* [3] i.e., an object moves and continues to move because of an energy imparted in it by the mover, and ceases
movement when that energy is exhausted. In this erroneous but insightful theory can be found the rst step towards the concept of inertia in modern physics, although
Philoponustheory was largely ignored at the time because he was too radical in his rejection of Aristotle.
352
114.2. WRITINGS
353
On the Eternity of the World against Aristotle (De aeternitate mundi contra Aristotelem)* [18] A refutation of Aristotle's doctrines of the fth element and
the eternity of motion and time, consisting of at least
eight books.
Around 553 Philoponus made some theological contributions to the Council of Constantinople concerning
Christology. His doctrine on Christs duality, according
to which in Christ remain two united substances, united
but divided, is analogous to the union of the soul and
body in human beings and coincides with the miaphysite
school of thought. He also produced writings on the Trinity around this time.
114.2 Writings
354
114.2.2
Theological treaties
On words with dierent meanings in virtue of a difference of accent (De vocabulis quae diversum signicatum exhibent secundum dierentiam accentus), ed. L.W. Daly, American Philosophical Society Memoirs 151, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1983.
Commentary on Aristotle's On Generation and
Corruption, ed. H. Vitelli, Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca (henceforward CAG) XIV 2, Berlin:
Reimer, 1897.
Commentary on Aristotle's De Animaed. M.
Hayduck, CAG XV, Berlin: Reimer, 1897.
Commentary on Aristotle's Categories, ed. A.
Busse, CAG XIII 1, Berlin: Reimer, 1898.
Commentary on Aristotle's Prior Analytics, ed.
M. Wallies, CAG XIII 2, Berlin: Reimer, 1905.
Commentary on Aristotle'sPosterior Analytics,
ed. M. Wallies, CAG XIII 3, Berlin: Reimer, 1909.
Commentary on Aristotle'sPhysics
, ed. H. Vitelli,
CAG XVI-XVII, Berlin: Reimer, 188788.
Commentary on Aristotle'sMeteorology, ed. M.
Hayduck, CAG XIV 1, Berlin: Reimer, 1901.
Commentary on Nicomachus' Introduction to Arithmetic, ed. R. Hoche, Part I/II Wesel: A. Bagel,
1864/65, Part III Berlin: Calvary, 1867.
On the Eternity of the World against Proclus (De
aeternitate mundi contra Proclum), ed. H. Rabe,
Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1899; repr. Hildesheim:
Olms, 1984.
On the Eternity of the World against Aristotle (De
aeternitate mundi contra Aristotelem), not extant;
fragments reconstr. and trans. C. Wildberg
On the Creation of the World (De opicio mundi),
ed. W. Reichardt, Leipzig: Teubner, 1897.
114.6. REFERENCES
Arbiter (Diaitts text with Latin trans. A. Sanda,
Opuscula monophysitica Ioannis Philoponi, Beirut:
Typographia Catholica PP.Soc.Jesu., 1930.
114.4.2
Translations
355
114.6 References
[1] Branko Mitrovi, Leon Battista Alberti and the Homogeneity of Space, The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 63, No. 4 (2004), pp. 424439.
[2] Chisholm 1911.
[3] Philoponusterm for impetus is
incorporeal motive enrgeia"; see CAG XVII,
Ioannis Philoponi in Aristotelis Physicorum Libros Quinque
Posteriores Commentaria, Walter de Gruyter, 1888, p.
642: "
[I say
that impetus (incorporeal motive energy) is transferred
from the thrower to the thrown].
[4] Morris R. Cohen and I. E. Drabkin (eds. 1958), A Source
Book in Greek Science (p. 220), with several changes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, as referenced
by David C. Lindberg (1992), The Beginnings of Western
Science: The European Scientic Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D.
1450, University of Chicago Press, p. 305, ISBN 0-22648231-6
Note the inuence of Philoponus' statement on
Galileo's Two New Sciences (1638)
[5] David C. Lindberg (15 March 1980), Science in the Middle
Ages, University of Chicago Press, p. 11, ISBN 978-0226-48233-0, retrieved 12 January 2013
[6] Ed. L.W. Daly, American Philosophical Society Memoirs
151, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society 1983
356
Attribution
Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911).
"Philoponus,
Joannes". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 115
Porphyry (philosopher)
Porphyry of Tyre (/prfri/; Greek: , Porphyrios; c. 234 c. 305 AD) was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre.* [1] He edited and published
the Enneads, the only collection of the work of his teacher
Plotinus. He also wrote many works himself on a wide
variety of topics.* [2] His Isagoge, or Introduction, is an
introduction to logic and philosophy,* [3] and in Latin
translation it was the standard textbook on logic throughout the Middle Ages.* [4] In addition, through several
of his works, most notably Philosophy from Oracles and
Against the Christians, he was involved in a controversy
with a number of early Christians,* [5] and his commentary on Euclid's Elements was used as a source by Pappus
of Alexandria.* [6]
Imaginary debate between Averroes (11261198 AD) and Porphyry (234c. 305 AD). Monfredo de Monte Imperiali Liber de
herbis, 14th century.* [9]
Porphyry is best known for his contributions to philosophy. Apart from writing the Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles ( ; Sententiae Ad Intelligibilia Ducentes), a basic summary of Neoplatonism,
he is especially appreciated for his Introduction to Categories (Introductio in Praedicamenta or Isagoge et in Aristotelis Categorias commentarium), a very short work often
considered to be a commentary on Aristotle's Categories,
hence the title.* [10] According to Barnes (2003), however, the correct title is simply Introduction (
Isagoge), and the book is an introduction not to the Categories in particular, but to logic in general, comprising as
it does the theories of predication, denition, and proof.
The Introduction describes how qualities attributed to
things may be classied, famously breaking down the
philosophical concept of substance into the ve components genus, species, dierence, property, accident.
As Porphyry's most inuential contribution to philosophy, the Introduction to Categories incorporated Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in particular the doctrine
of the categories of being interpreted in terms of entities
(in later philosophy, "universal"). Boethius' Isagoge, a
Latin translation of Porphyry'sIntroduction, became a
standard medieval textbook in European schools and universities, which set the stage for medieval philosophicaltheological developments of logic and the problem of uni-
357
358
Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day. His aim was not to
disprove the substance of Christianitys teachings but
rather the records within which the teachings are comThe Introduction was translated into Arabic by Abd-Allh municated.* [17]
Ibn al-Muqaa from a Syriac version. With the AraHis criticisms may have targeted Christians more than
bicized name Isghj ( )it long remained the Christ; he is reported to have said in another work (the
standard introductory logic text in the Muslim world and Philosophy from Oracles): The gods have proclaimed
inuenced the study of theology, philosophy, grammar, Christ to have been most pious, but the Christians are a
and jurisprudence. Besides the adaptations and epitomes confused and vicious sect.
of this work, many independent works on logic by Muslim philosophers have been entitled Isghj. Porphyry's According to Jerome, Porphyry especially attacked the
discussion of accident sparked a long-running debate on prophecy of Daniel because Jews and Christians pointed
to the historical fulllment of its prophecies as a decithe application of accident and essence.* [11]
sive argument. But these prophesies, he maintained, were
written not by Daniel but by some Jew who in the time of
Epiphanes (d. 164 B.C.) gathered up the tra115.3 Philosophy from Oracles (De Antiochus
ditions of Daniel's life and wrote a history of recent past
Philosophia ex Oraculis Hau- events but in the future tense, falsely dating them back to
Daniel's time.
rienda)
115.7. TRANSLATIONS
359
115.7 Translations
Isagoge Mediaeval Sources in Translation 16, E.
Warren, trans. (Toronto: Pontical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1975).
360
Porphyry's Introduction. Translation of the 'Isagoge'
with a Commentary by J. Barnes (Oxford, 2003).
Porphyry. On Aristotle's Categories. Translated by
Steven K. Strange (Ithaca, New York, 1992).
The Organon or Logical Treatises of Aristotle with
the Introduction of Porphyry Bohn's Classical Library 1112, Octavius Freire Owen, trans. (London: G. Bell, 19081910), 2 vols.
Five Texts on the Mediaeval Problem of Universals:
Porphyry, Boethius, Abelard, Duns Scotus, Ockham
Paul Vincent Spade, trans. (Indianapolis: Hackett,
1994).
Select Works of Porphyry. Translated by T. Taylor
(Guildford, 1994). Contains Abstinence from Eating Animal Food, the Sententiae and the Cave of the
Nymphs.
Launching-Points to the Realm of Mind. Translation of the 'Sententiae' by K. Guthrie (Grand Rapids,
Michigan, 1988).
115.9 Notes
[1] For Porphyry's dates, place of birth and philosophical
school, see Barker 2003. Sarton 1936, pp. 429-430, identies Transjordania as Porphyry's place of birth.
[2] Topics range from music to Homer to vegetarianism. For
a comprehensive list see Beutler (18941980).
[3] Barnes 2003, p. xv claries that the Isagoge "[was] not an
Introduction to the Categories, rather "[since it was] an introduction to the study of logic, [it] was... an introduction
to philosophy--and hence accidentally an introduction to
the Categories.
Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus. Translated Texts for Historians 35 (Liverpool:
Liverpool University Press, 2000).
115.10 References
Iamblichus: De mysteriis. Translated with an Introduction and Notes by Emma C. Clarke, John M.
Dillon and Jackson P. Hershbell (Society of Biblical Literature; 2003) ISBN 1-58983-058-X.
Barker, A. (2003). Porphyry,in S. Hornblower
and A. Spawforth, eds., Oxford Classical Dictionary,
revised 3rd edition, pp. 12261227.
Barnes, J. (2003). Introduction to Introduction, by
Porphyry. Clarendon Press.
Beutler, R. (18941980). Porphyrios (21)" in A.
Pauly, G. Wissowa, W. Kroll, K. Witte, K. Mittelhaus and K. Ziegler, eds., Paulys Realencyclopdie
der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 22.1.
Bidez, J. (1913). Vie de Porphyre. Ghent.
Clark, Gillian,Porphyry of Tyre on the New Barbarians,in R. Miles (ed), Constructing Identities
in Late Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1999), 112
132; = in Eadem, Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity (Farnham; Burlington, VT,
Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series,
CS978), art. XIV.
361
Clark, Gillian, Philosophic Lives and the philosophic life: Porphyry and Iamblichus,in T. Hgg
and P. Rousseau (eds), Greek Biography and Panegyric in Late Antiquity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2000), 2951;
= in Eadem, Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in
Late Antiquity (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate,
2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978),
art. XV.
Clark, Gillian, Fattening the soul: Christian asceticism and Porphyry On Abstinence,Studia Patristica, 35, 2001, 41-51; = in Eadem, Body and
Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum
collected studies series, CS978), art. XVI.
Digeser, E. D. (1998). Lactantius, Porphyry, and
the Debate over Religious Toleration,The Journal
of Roman Studies 88, pp. 129146.
Emilsson, E., Porphyry. Retrieved April 19,
2009.
Froom, LeRoy (1950). The Prophetic Faith of our
Fathers (DjVu and PDF) 1.
Girgenti, G. (1987) Porrio negli ultimi cinquant'anni: bibliograa sistematica e ragionata della
letteratura primaria e secondaria riguardante il pensiero porriano e i suoi inussi storici Milan.
O'Connor, J. and E. Robertson, Porphyry
Malchus. Retrieved April 14, 2009.
Sarton, G. (1936). The Unity and Diversity of the
Mediterranean World,Osiris 2, pp. 406463. (In
JSTOR.)
Smith, Andrew (1987) Porphyrian Studies since
1913, in W. Haase, ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang
der Rmischen Welt II.36.2, pp. 717773.
Smith, Andrew (1974) Porphyry's Place in the Neoplatonic Tradition. A Study in post-Plotinian Neoplatonism, The Hague, Nijho.
Wilken, R. (1979). Pagan Criticism of Christianity: Greek Religion and Christian Faith,in W.
Schoedel and R. Wilken, eds., Early Christian Literature and the Classical Intellectual Tradition, pp.
117134.
Zuiddam, B. A. Old Critics and Modern Theology,Dutch Reformed Theological Journal (South
Africa), xxxvi, 1995, 2.
362
Works written by or about Porphyry at Wikisource
Greek Wikisource has original text related to this
article:
Porphyry Malchus (mathematician) - entry in MacTutor History of Maths Archives.
Porphyry entry by Eyjlfur Emilsson in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
(The
Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey), original Greek
text.
(Introduction to Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos),
original Greek text.
Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book
I, translated by Thomas Taylor.
Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book
II, translated by Thomas Taylor.
Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book
III, translated by Thomas Taylor.
Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food, Book
IV, translated by Thomas Taylor.
Porphyry, On the Cave of Nymphs, translated by
Thomas Taylor.
Porphyry, Auxiliaries to the Perception of Intelligible
Natures, translated by Thomas Taylor.
Porphyry, Isagoge, translated by Octavius Freire
Owen.
The Isagoge, or Introduction of Porphyry, translated
by Thomas Taylor with an extensive preface by the
translator.
Porphyry, On the Life of Plotinus
Porphyry, Comments on the Book of Daniel.
Additional texts, edited by Roger Pearse
Chapter 116
Simplicius of Cilicia
Simplicius (/smplis/; Greek: ; c. 490
c. 560* [1]) of Cilicia,* [2] was a disciple of Ammonius
Hermiae and Damascius, and was one of the last of the
Neoplatonists. He was among the pagan philosophers
persecuted by Justinian in the early 6th century, and was
forced for a time to seek refuge in the Persian court, before being allowed back into the empire. He wrote extensively on the works of Aristotle. Although his writings are
all commentaries on Aristotle and other authors, rather
than original compositions, his intelligent and prodigious
learning makes him the last great philosopher of pagan
antiquity. His works have preserved much information
about earlier philosophers which would have otherwise
been lost.
116.1 Life
Simplicius was a disciple of Ammonius Hermiae,* [3]
and Damascius,* [4] and was consequently one of the last
members of the Neoplatonist school. The school had
its headquarters in Athens. It became the centre of the
last eorts to maintain Hellenistic religion against the encroachments of Christianity. Imperial edicts enacted in
the 5th century against paganism gave legal protection
to pagans against personal maltreatment.* [5] In the year
528 the emperor Justinian ordered that pagans should be
removed from government posts. Some were robbed of
their property, some put to death. The order specied
that if they did not within three months convert to Christianity, they were to be banished from the Empire. In
addition, it was forbidden any longer to teach philosophy and jurisprudence in Athens.* [6] Probably also the
property of the Platonist school, which in the time of
Proclus was valued at more than 1000 gold pieces,* [7]
was conscated; at least, Justinian deprived the physicians
and teachers of the liberal arts of the provision-money
which had been assigned to them by previous emperors,
and conscated funds which the citizens had provided for
spectacles and other civic purposes.* [8]
116.2 Writings
364
116.3 Notes
[1] Donald J. Zeyl, Daniel Devereux, Phillip Mitsis, (1997),
Encyclopedia of classical philosophy. Greenwood Press
365
116.4 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed.
(1870). Simplicius. Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology.
Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers [Revised Edition]. London & New York:
Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-41505079-0.
366
116.5.3
On Aristotle's Physics
116.5.4
Simplicius: On Aristotle, On the Soul 1.1-2.4, translated by James O. Urmson (1995). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3160-3, and Duckworth,
London: ISBN 0-7156-2614-0
Priscian: On Theophrastus on Sense-Perception, with
Simplicius": On Aristotle, On the Soul 2.5-12, translated by Carlos Steel (1997). Cornell University
Press: ISBN 0-8014-3282-0, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2752-X
Simplicius": On Aristotle, On the Soul 3.1-5, translated by Henry J. Blumenthal (2000). Cornell University Press: ISBN 0-8014-3687-7, and Duckworth, London: ISBN 0-7156-2896-8
367
Chapter 117
Sophonias (commentator)
Sophonias (Greek: ; 13th14th century) was a
Byzantine monk who wrote commentaries or paraphrases
of the works of Aristotle including De Anima, Sophistici
Elenchi, Prior Analytics, and the Parva Naturalia,* [1]
which are still extant.
Little is known about Sophonias, except that he was probably the monk sent by Michael IX Palaiologos on an
abortive mission to arrange a marriage between Michael
and a western princess around 1295.* [2]* [3]
In his works Sophonias has interwoven the statements of
Aristotle with the scholia of Michael of Ephesus. Some
later manuscripts of the Parva Naturalia commentary ascribe the work to Themistius, but Sophonias' authorship,
rst proposed by Valentin Rose, may be regarded as certain, and the method of composition does not resemble
Themistius' at all.* [4] Sophonias wrote paraphrases of
Aristotle's Categories, Prior Analytics, Sophistici Elenchi,
De Anima, De Memoria and De Somno.* [5] He considered innovative his practice of writing a running explanatory account of every passage in Aristotle, incorporating
amplications of Aristotle's paraphrasers or those critical
remarks of the commentators that he thought necessary
to understand the text.* [6] The value of the works of Sophonias is that they contain excerpts from the best of the
earlier commentators.* [5]
117.1 Notes
[1] Byzantine Philosophy entry by Katerina Ierodiakonou in
the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[2] Sten Ebbesen, 1981, Commentators and Commentaries on
Aristotle's Sophistici Elenchi, page 333. BRILL
[3] Edmund Fryde, 2000, The Early Palaeologan Renaissance
(1261c. 1360), pages 1989. BRILL
[4] Paul Wendland,Praefatio,Commentaria in Aristotelem
Graeca, vol. VI, part VI (Berlin 1903), pp. vx.
[5] John Edwin Sandys, 1903, A history of classical scholarship from the sixth century B.C. to the end of the Middle
Ages, page 421. Cambridge University Press
[6] Nicholas J. Moutafakis, 2003, Byzantine Philosophy, page
203
368
Chapter 118
Stephen of Alexandria
Stephen of Alexandria (Stephanus Alexandrinus, (On how to make gold) is extant in two manuscripts,
Stephanos of Alexandria) was a 7th-century Byzantine Venice Cod. Marcianus 299 and Paris BNF 2327.
philosopher, astronomer and teacher. He was a public Editions:
lecturer in the court of Heraclius (610-641 AD). In the
manuscripts he is called the Universal Philosopher.
De magna et sacra arte, Ed. Julius Ludwig Ideler
He taught on Plato and Aristotle, and on Geometry,
in Physici et medici Graeci minores II, Berlin 1842
Arithmetic, Alchemy, Astronomy and Music.
(Reprinted Hakkert, Amsterdam 1963) p. 199-253.
(Ideler used a faulty copy of the Marcianus)
118.1 Works
Bibliography
Julius Ludwig Ideler, Physici et medici Graeci minores II, Berlin 1842 (Reprinted by Hakkert, Amsterdam 1963) p. 199-253. Greek text (only) in full
online at Google books here
F. Sherwood Taylor, The Alchemical Works of
Stephanos of Alexandria, in Ambix(1937).
Vol. 1, pp. 11639; Vol 2, pp. 3949. Greek text
and facing English translation of 3 of the 9 lectures
of the work.
370
Albert Ehrhard Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur von Justinian bis zum Ende des
Ostrmischen Reiches, 2nd Ed. (1897). Vol. 2 at
google books in full, pp. 480f, 614, 621 *, 625, 633.
(Vol.1 here).
Articles and studies:
Hermann Usener, De Stephano Alexandrino Bonn
(1880)
Alb. Jahn, Chemica graeca ex codicibus Monacensi 112 et Bernensi 579, Revue de Philologie
15 (1891) 101-115. Short intro to his alchemical
works.
F. Sherwood Taylor, The Origins of Greek
Alchemy, Ambix, I, May 1937, pp. 3047.
Maria Papathanassiou, (1992), Stephanos von
Alexandreia und sein alchemistisches Werk, Ph.
D. Thesis, Humboldt Universitt zur Berlin, Berln.
Maria Papathanassiou, (19901991)Stephanus of
Alexandria: Pharmaceutical notions and cosmology
in his alchemical work, Ambix, n 37, pp.
121133; n 38, p. 112 [addenda].
R. Werner Soukup, (1992), Natur, du himmlische! Die alchemistischen Traktate des Stephanos
von Alexandria. Eine Studie zur Alchemie des
7. Jahrhunderts, Mitteilungen der sterreichischen Gesellschaft fr Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften 12, 1992, 1-93
Maria Papathanassiou, (1996), Stephanus of
Alexandria: On the structure and date of his alchemical work, in Medicina nei Secoli 8, 2, pp.
247266.
Wanda Wolska-Conus, Stphanos d'Athnes et
Stphanos d'Alexandrie. Essai d'identitication et
de biographie,Revue des tudes Byzantines 47
(1989), p. 5-89.
118.3 Notes
[1] Linden, Stanton J. (2003). The Alchemy Reader: from
Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. p. 54.
Chapter 119
Syrianus
Syrianus (Ancient Greek: , Syrianos; died c.
437) was a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, and head
of Plato's Academy in Athens, succeeding his teacher
Plutarch of Athens in 431/432. He is important as the
teacher of Proclus, and, like Plutarch and Proclus, as a
commentator on Plato and Aristotle. His best-known extant work is a commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle. He is said to have written also on the De Caelo and the
De Interpretatione of Aristotle and on Plato's Timaeus.
119.3 Philosophy
119.1 Life
He was a native of Alexandria, and the son of Philoxenus. We know little of his personal history, but that
he came to Athens, and studied with great zeal under
Plutarch of Athens, the head of the Neoplatonist school,
who regarded him with great admiration and aection,
and appointed him as his successor. He is important as
the teacher of Proclus and Hermias. Proclus regarded
him with the greatest veneration, and gave directions that
at his death he should be buried in the same tomb with
Themistius.
The most valuable remains that we possess are the commentaries on the Metaphysics of Aristotle. In explaining
the propositions of Aristotle, he appends the views held
by the Neoplatonist school on the subject in hand, and endeavours to establish the latter against the former. In his
Metaphysics commentary Syrianus explains his view of
the Monad and the Dyad in a number of places. The One
is immediately followed by a supreme monad and dyad.
119.2 Writings
Syrianus describes the monad as masculine and the dyad
Only a little remains of the writings of Syrianus, the sur- as feminine. He employs the doctrine of the two cosmic
principles to explain the origin of evil. He denies that
viving works are:
there are Platonic forms of things which are evil or base.
The dyad is indirectly responsible for evil. Syrianus at A Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics.
tributes the existence of evil to otherness and plurality,
Commentaries on two rhetorical works by which* he believes the dyad is directly responsible for creating. [2]
Hermogenes.
One of his fundamental principles is that it is a propopreserved by sition of general applicability that the same cannot be
both armed and denied at the same time of the same
thing; but that in any sense involving the truth of either
Among the lost works, Syrianus wrote commentaries on the armation or the denial of a proposition, it applies
Aristotle's De Caelo and De Interpretatione. We learn only to existing things, but not to that which transcends
from the commentary of Proclus on the Timaeus of Plato speech and knowledge, for this admits neither of armathat Syrianus also wrote a commentary on the same tion nor of denial, since every assertion respecting it must
book. Syrianus also wrote works on The Theology of be false.* [3] On the whole, the doctrines laid down in this
Orpheus, and On the Harmony of Orpheus, Pythagoras work are those of the Neoplatonist school.
Lectures on Plato's Phaedrus,
Hermias.
371
372
119.4 Editions
J. Dillon, D. O'Meara, (2006), Syrianus: On Aristotle Metaphysics 13-14. Duckworth.
D. O'Meara, J. Dillon, (2008), Syrianus: On Aristotle Metaphysics 3-4. Duckworth.
119.5 Notes
[1] Suda, Proklos.
[2] Monad And Dyad As Cosmic Principles In Syrianus, Soul
And The Structure Of Being In Late Neoplatonism, H.J.
Blumenthal and A.C. Lloyd, Liverpool University Press,
1982, pp. 1 - 10.
[3] Syrianus, In Met. ii. fol. 13, b.
119.6 Sources
Angela Longo (ed.), Syrianus et la mtaphysique
de l'antiquit tardive: actes du colloque international, Universit de Gneve, 29 septembre-1er octobre 2006. (Napoli, Bibliopolis, 2009) (Elenchos,
51).
Sarah Klitenic Wear, The Teachings of Syrianus on
Plato's Timaeus and Parmenides. Ancient Mediterranean and Medieval Texts and Contexts (Leiden;
Boston: Brill, 2011) (Studies in Platonism, Neoplatonism and the Platonic tradition, 10).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 120
Themistius
Themistius (Greek: , Themistios; 317,
Paphlagonia c. 390 AD, Constantinople), named
(eloquent),* [1] was a statesman, rhetorician,
and philosopher.
He ourished in the reigns of
Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and
Theodosius I; and he enjoyed the favour of all those emperors, notwithstanding their many dierences, and the
fact that he himself was not a Christian. He was admitted
to the senate by Constantius in 355, and he was prefect
of Constantinople in 384 on the nomination of Theodosius. Of his many works, thirty-three orations of his have
come down to us, as well as various commentaries and
epitomes of the works of Aristotle.
120.1 Life
He was born in Paphlagonia and taught at Phasis.* [2]
Apart from a short sojourn in Rome, he resided in
Constantinople during the rest of his life. He was the son
of Eugenius, who was also a distinguished philosopher,
and who is more than once mentioned in the orations
of Themistius. Themistius was instructed by his father
in philosophy, and devoted himself chiey to Aristotle,
though he also studied Pythagoreanism and Platonism.
While still a youth he wrote commentaries on Aristotle, which were made public without his consent, and obtained for him a high reputation. He passed his youth
in Asia Minor and Syria. He rst met with Constantius
II when the emperor visited Ancyra in Galatia in the
eleventh year of his reign, 347, on which occasion
Themistius delivered the rst of his extant orations, Peri
Philanthropias. It was not long after that he moved to
Constantinople, where he taught philosophy for twenty
years. In 355 he was made a senator; and the letter is still
extant, in which Constantius recommends him to the senate, and speaks in the highest terms both of Themistius
himself and of his father. We also possess the oration
of thanks which Themistius addressed to the senate of
Constantinople early in 356, in reply to the emperor's letter.* [3] In 357 he recited in the senate of Constantinople two orations in honour of Constantius, which were
intended to have been delivered before the emperor himself, who was then at Rome.* [4] As a reward, Constantius conferred upon him the honour of a bronze statue;
373
374
In 377 we nd him at Rome, where he appears to have
gone on an embassy to Gratian, to whom he there delivered his oration entitled Erotikos.* [17] On the association
of Theodosius I in the empire by Gratian, at Sirmium, in
379, Themistius delivered an elegant oration, congratulating the new emperor on his elevation.* [18] Of his remaining orations some are public and some private; but
few of them demand special notice as connected with the
events of his life. In 384, (about the rst of September), he was made prefect of Constantinople,* [19] an ofce which had been oered to him, but declined, several times before.* [20] He only held the prefecture a few
months, as we learn from an oration delivered after he
had laid down the oce,* [21] in which he mentions, as
he had done even six years earlier,* [18] and more than
once in the interval,* [22] his old age and ill-health. From
the thirty-fourth oration we also learn that he had previously held the oces of princeps senatus and praefectus
annonae, besides his embassy to Rome; in another oration he mentions ten embassies on which he had been
sent before his prefecture;* [23] and in another, composed probably about 387, he says that he has been engaged for nearly forty years in public business and in embassies.* [24] So great was the condence placed in him
by Theodosius, that, though Themistius was not a Christian, the emperor, when departing for the West to oppose Magnus Maximus, entrusted his son Arcadius to the
tutorship of the philosopher, 387-388.* [25] Nothing is
known about Themistius after this time; and he may have
died around 390. Besides the emperors, he numbered
among his friends the chief orators and philosophers of
the age, Christian and non-Christian. Not only Libanius,
but Gregory of Nazianzus also was his friend and correspondent, and the latter, in an epistle still extant, calls him
the king of arguments.* [26]
375
120.5.1 Translations
[15] Socrat. Hist. Ev. iv. 32; Sozom. Hist. Ev. vi. 36
[16] Themistius, Orat. xxxi.
[17] Themistius, Orat. xiii.
[18] Themistius, Orat. xiv.
[19] Themistius, Orat. xvii,
[20] Themistius, Orat. xxxiv. 13
[21] Themistius, Orat. xxxiv.
[22] Themistius, Orat. xv. xvi.
[23] Themistius, Orat. xvii.
[24] Themistius, Orat. xxi.
[25] Socrat. Hist. Ev. iv. 32; Sozom. Hist. Ev. vi. 36; Niceph.
Hist. Ev. xi. 46.
[26] Greg. Naz. Epist. 140
[27] Photius, Bibl. Cod. 74
[28] Robert J. Penella, 2000, The private orations of
Themistius, page 5. University of California Press
[29] Paul Oskar Kristeller, Virginia Brown, James Hankins,
(2003), Catalogus translationum et commentariorum: Mediaeval and Renaissance Latin translations and commentaries, page 59. CUA Press.
[30] Boethius, De dierentiis topicis, Patrologia Latina edition
120.4 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Commentaire sur le trait de lme dAristote, traduction de Guillaume de Moerbeke (Latin). Louvain,
1957
Themistius on Aristotle On the Soul, trans. Robert B.
Todd. London and Ithaca, 1996 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle)
Themistius on Aristotle Physics 1-3, trans. Robert B.
Todd. London and Ithaca, 2011 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle)
Themistius on Aristotle's Physics 4, trans. Robert B.
Todd. London and Ithaca, 2003 (Ancient Commentators on Aristotle)
Themistius on Aristotle Physics 5-8, trans. Robert
B. Todd. London, 2008 (Ancient Commentators on
Aristotle)
The Private Orations of Themistius, trans.
Penella. Berkeley, 2000
R.
Chapter 121
121.1 References
[1] s.v. 'Gaetano da Thiene' in Wilmott, Michael J.; Schmitt,
Charles B. (1990). Biobibliographies. In Charles B.
Schmitt, Quentin Skinner (eds.). The Cambridge History
of Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 818819. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3.
[2] Kessler, Eckhard (1990). The Intellective Soul. In
Charles B. Schmitt, Quentin Skinner (ed.). The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 490492. ISBN 978-0-521-397483.
[3] s.v. 'Vernia, Nicoletto' in Wilmott, Michael J.; Schmitt,
Charles B. (1990). Biobibliographies. In Charles B.
Schmitt, Quentin Skinner (eds.). The Cambridge History
of Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
p. 839. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3.
376
Chapter 122
Diego Mateo Zapata (1664-1745) was a Spanish physician and philosopher. In 1724, he and Juan Muoz y Peralta were both denounced to the Spanish Inquisition as
judaisers.* [1]
122.2 References
Chapter 123
123.2 Philosophy
Albert was a pupil of Jean Buridan and was very much inuenced by Buridan's teachings on physics and logic. As
a natural philosopher, he worked in the tradition of John
Buridan and contributed to the spread of Parisian natural
philosophy throughout Italy and central Europe. Similar to Buridan, Albert combined critical analysis of language with epistemological realism. Albert distinguishes,
as Buridan did, between what is absolutely impossible or
contradictory and what is impossible in the common
course of natureand considers hypotheses under cir-
D
Three stage Theory of impetus according to Albert von Sachsen
378
123.3. WORKS
379
1. Initial stage. Motion is in a straight line in direc- is true and that it is false.
tion of impetus which is dominant while gravity is Albert also authored commentaries on Ars Vetus
insignicant
[ca.1356], a set of twenty-ve Quaestiones logicales [ca.
2. Intermediate stage. Path begins to deviate down- 1356] that involved semantical problems and the status
wards from straight line as part of a great circle as of logic, and Quaestiones on the Posterior Analytics. Alair resistance slows projectile and gravity recovers. bert explored in a series of disputed questions the status
of logic and semantics, as well as the theory of reference
3. Last stage. Gravity alone draws projectile down- and truth. Albert was inuenced by English logicians and
was inuential in the diusion of terminist logic in cenwards vertically as all impetus is spent.
tral Europe. Albert is considered a major contributor in
This theory was a precursor to the modern theory of his theory of consequences, found in his Perutilis Logica.
Albert took a major step forward in the medieval theory
inertia.
of logical deduction.
Although Buridan remained the predominant gure in
logic, Albert's Perutilis logica[ca. 1360] was destined to But it was his commentary on Aristotle's Physics that was
serve as a popular text because of its systematic nature especially widely read. Many manuscripts of it can be
and also because it takes up and develops essential aspects found in France and Italy, in Erfurt and Prague. Alof the Ockhamist position. Albert accepted Ockhams bert's Physics basically guaranteed the transmission of the
conception of the nature of a sign. Albert believed that Parisian tradition in Italy, where it was authoritative along
signication rests on a referential relation of the sign to with the works of Heytesbury and John Dumbleton. His
the individual thing, and that the spoken sign depends for commentary on Aristotle's De caelo was also inuential,
its signication on the conceptual sign. Albert followed eventually eclipsing Buridan's commentary on this text.
Ockham in his conception of universals and in his theory Blasius of Parma read it in Bologna between 1379 and
of supposition. Specically, Albert preserved Ockham 1382. A little later, it enjoyed a wide audience at Vis notion of simple supposition: the direct reference of a enna. His Treatise on Proportions was often quoted in
term to the concept on which it depends when it signies Italy where, in addition to the texts of Bradwardine and
an extra-mental thing. Albert followed Ockham in his Oresme, it inuenced the application of the theory of protheory of categories and contrary to Buridan, refused to portions to motion.
treat quantity as a feature of reality in its own right, but Alberts commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics and
rather reduced it to a disposition of substance and quality. the Economics also survive (both unedited), as well as sevAlbert established signication through a referential rela- eral short mathematical texts, most notably Tractatus protion to a singular thing dening the relation of the spoken portionum [ca. 1353]. Although Albert studied theology
to conceptual signs as a relation of subordination. Albert in Paris, no theological writing survived.
s treatment of relation was highly original. Although, like
Albert played an essential role in the diusion throughout
Ockham, he refused to make relations into things distinct
Italy and central Europe of Parisian ideas which bore the
from absolute entities, he clearly ascribed them to an act
mark of Buridan's teachings, but which were also clearly
of the soul by which absolute entities are compared and
shaped by Albert's own grasp of English innovations. At
placed in relation to each other. He therefore completely
the same time, Albert was not merely a compiler of the
rejected certain propositions Ockham had admitted reawork of others. He knew how to construct proofs of unsonable, even if he did not construe them in the same way.
deniable originality on many topics in logic and physics.
Alberts voluminous collection of Sophismata [ca. 1359]
examined various sentences that raise diculties of interpretation due to the presence of syncategorematic words- 123.3 Works
terms such as quantiers and certain prepositions, which,
according to medieval logicians, do not have a proper and
Perutilis Logica Magistri Alberti de Saxonia (Very
determinate signication but rather modify the signicaUseful Logic), Venice 1522 and Hildesheim 1974
tion of the other terms in the propositions in which they
(reproduction)
occur. In his Sophismata, he followed William Heytesbury. In his analysis of epistemic verbs or of innity, Al Albert of Saxony's twenty-ve disputed questions on
bert admitted that a proposition has its own signication,
logic. A critical edition of his Quaestiones circa logiwhich is not that of its terms: just like a syncategorematic
cam / by Michael J. Fitzgerald, Leiden: Brill, 2002
word, a proposition signies amode of a thing.Albert
Quaestiones in artem veterem critical edition by Anmade use of the idea of the distinguishable signication
gel Muoz Garcia, Maracaibo, Venezuela: Univerof the proposition in dening truth and in dealing with
sidad del Zulia,1988
insolublesor paradoxes of self-reference. In this work
he shows that since every proposition, by its very form,
Quaestiones on the Posterior Analytics
signies that it is true, an insoluble proposition will turn
Quaestiones logicales (Logical Questions)
out to be false because it will signify at once both that it
380
De consequentiis (On Consequences) - attributed
De locis dialecticis (On Dialectical Topics) - attributed
Sophismata et Insolubilia et Obligationes, Paris 1489
and Hildesheim 1975 (reproduction)
Expositio et quaestiones in Aristotelis Physicam ad
Albertum de Saxonia attributae critical edition by
Benoit Patar, Leuven, Peeters Publishers, 1999
Questiones subtilissime in libros Aristotelis de caelo et
mundo, Venetiis, 1492. Questiones subtilissime super
libros posteriorum, Venetiis 1497 Hildesheim 1986
(reproduction)
Alberti de Saxonia Qustiones in Aristotelis De clo
critical edition by Benoit Patar, Leuven, Peeters
Publishers, 2008
De latudinibus, Padua 1505
De latitudinibus formarum
De maximo et minimo
De quadratura circuli - Question on the Squaring of
the Circle
Tractatus proportionum, Venice 1496 and Vienna
1971: editor Hubertus L. Busard
123.6 References
[1] Michael McCloskey: Impetustheorie und Intuition in der
Physik.. In: Spektrum der Wissenschaft: Newtons Universum, Heidelberg 1990, ISBN 3-89330-750-8, S.18
Chapter 124
Albertus Magnus
Albertusredirects here. For others with the same Albert became master of theology under Gueric of
given name, see Albertus (given name). For the typeface, Saint-Quentin, the rst German Dominican to achieve
see Albertus (typeface).
this distinction. Following this turn of events, Albert
was able to teach theology at the University of Paris as
a full-time professor, holding the seat of the Chair of
Albertus Magnus, O.P. (before 1200 November 15,
*
*
1280), also known as Albert the Great and Albert of Theology at the College of St. James. [6] [7] During *this
time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus. [3]
Cologne, is a Catholic saint. He was a German Dominican friar and a Catholic bishop. He was known during his lifetime as doctor universalis and doctor expertus and, late in his life, the term magnus was appended
to his name.* [1] Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl
and Joachim R. Sder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle
Ages.* [2] The Catholic Church honours him as a Doctor
of the Church, one of only 35 so honoured.
124.1 Biography
Albert was eldest son of the Count of Bollstdt.* [3] It
seems likely that Albert was born sometime before 1200,
given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on
his death in 1280; more than one source says that Albert
was 87 on his death, which has led 1193 to be commonly
given as the date of Albert's birth.* [4] Albert was probably born in Lauingen in Bavaria, since he called himself
'Albert of Lauingen', but this might simply be a family
name.* [4]
Albert was the rst to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle, thus making them accessible to wider
academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him
to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notably Avicenna and Averroes, and this would
Albert was probably educated principally at the bring him into the heart of academic debate.
University of Padua, where he received instruction
Albert was made provincial of the Dominican
in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph In 1254
*
Order,
[3]
and fullled the duties of the oce with great
de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the
care
and
eciency.
During his tenure he publicly deBlessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy
fended
the
Dominicans
against attacks by the secular and
*
Orders. In 1223 (or 1229) [5] he became a member
regular
faculty
of
the
University
of Paris, commented on
of the Dominican Order, against the wishes of his
St.
John,
and
answered
what
he
perceived
as errors of the
family, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere.
Islamic
philosopher
Averroes.
Selected to ll the position of lecturer at Cologne,
Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught In 1259 Albert took part in the General Chapter of
for several years there, and at Regensburg, Freiburg, the Dominicans at Valenciennes together with Thomas
Strasbourg, and Hildesheim. During his rst tenure as Aquinas, masters Bonushomo Britto,* [8] Florentius,* [9]
lecturer at Cologne, Albert wrote his Summa de bono and Peter (later Pope Innocent V) establishing a ratio stuafter discussion with Philip the Chancellor concerning diorum or program of studies for the Dominicans* [10]
the transcendental properties of being.* [6] In 1245, that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for
381
382
those not suciently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order's studium provinciale at the convent of Santa Sabina
in Rome, out of which would develop the Pontical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, theAngelicum* [11]
124.2 Writings
In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg, an oce from which he resigned after three years.
During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse, in accord with the dictates of the Order, instead traversing
his huge diocese on foot. This earned him the aectionate sobriquet boots the bishopfrom his parishioners. In 1263 Pope Urban IV relieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preached the eighth Crusade in German-speaking countries.* [12] After this, he
was especially known for acting as a mediator between
conicting parties. In Cologne he is not only known for
being the founder of Germany's oldest university there,
but also for the big verdict(der Groe Schied) of
1258, which brought an end to the conict between the
citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last
of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved
Albert (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be conrmed).
Albertus Magnus monument at the University of Cologne.
124.4. ASTROLOGY
383
Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa Theologiae in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more
didactic repetition of the former.
Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than
theological (see Scholasticism).
The philosophical
works, occupying the rst six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian
scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and
condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosAlbertus Magnus, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat
ophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a
Company Trading Card, 1929
*
Christian philosophical view of the natural order. [12]
Albert's knowledge of physical science was considerable
and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great, and though we nd in his system many gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, his protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great
power of systematic thought and exposition. An exception to this general tendency is his Latin treatiseDe falconibus(later inserted in the larger work, De Animalibus,
as book 23, chapter 40), in which he displays impressive
actual knowledge of a) the dierences between the birds
of prey and the other kinds of birds; b) the dierent kinds
of falcons; c) the way of preparing them for the hunt; and
d) the cures for sick and wounded falcons.* [15] His scholarly legacy justies his contemporaries' bestowing upon
him the honourable surname Doctor Universalis.
124.3 Alchemy
384
124.6 Music
Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's Poetics.
He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is
incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on
proportions in music, and on the three dierent subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human
soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part
of music.
modern period astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on
earth is eectively a microcosm within the macrocosm
(the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that
correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus
the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous
to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict
the probable future of a human being. Albert made this
a central component of his philosophical system, arguing that an understanding of the celestial inuences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord
with Christian precepts. The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in a work
he authored around 1260, now known as the Speculum astronomiae. However, details of these beliefs can be found
in almost everything he wrote, from his early Summa de
bono to his last work, the Summa theologiae.
385
124.9 Friendship
tioned, along with Agrippa and Paracelsus, in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, in which his writings inuence a young
Albert mentions friendship in his work, De bono, as well Victor Frankenstein.
as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the In The Concept of Anxiety, Sren Kierkegaard wrote
very beginning of Tractatus II. Later in his life he pub- that Albert, arrogantly boasted of his speculation belishes Super Ethica.* [27] With his development of friend- fore the deity and suddenly became stupid.Kierkegaard
ship throughout his work this is evident that friendship cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as sayideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Al- ing "Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex
bert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a philosopho asinus" [Albert was suddenly transformed
quote from Cicero, who writes, friendship is nothing from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher
other than the harmony between things divine and human, into an ass].* [32]
with goodwill and love. Albert agrees with this commenIn Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s post-apocalyptic novel A Cantary but he also adds in harmony or agreement.* [28] Alticle for Leibowitz there is an order of monks devoted
bert calls this harmony, consensiom, itself a certain kind
to saving knowledge named the Albertian Order of Leiof movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees
bowitz in reference to Albert.
with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes
several levels of goodness; the useful (utile), the pleasur- 124.11 Inuence and tribute
able (delectabile) and the authentic or unqualied good
(honestum). Then in turn there are three levels of friend- A number of schools have been named after Albert,
ship based on each of those levels. Friendship based on including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia,
usefulness (amicitia utilis), friendship based on pleasure New York;* [33] Albertus Magnus Lyceum in River
(amicitia delectabilis), and friendship rooted in unqual- Forest, Illinois; and Albertus Magnus College in New
ied goodness (amicitia honesti; amicitia quae fundatur Haven, Connecticut.* [34] The main science building
super honestum).* [29]
at Providence College is named in honor of Albert.
In Managua, Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.
386
Numerous Catholic elementary and secondary schools [12] Fhrer, Markus, Albert the Great, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition), Edward
are named for him, including schools in Toronto; CalN. Zalta (ed.),
gary; Cologne; and Dayton, Ohio.
The Albertus typeface is named after him.
Brazen Head
Christian mysticism
Incorruptibles
List of Catholic saints
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
River Forest Thomism
Science in the Middle Ages
124.13 References
[1] Weisheipl, James A. (1980), The Life and Works of
St. Albert the Great, in Weisheipl, James A., Albertus
Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studies
and texts 49, Toronto: Pontical Institute of Mediaeval
Studies, p. 46, ISBN 0-88844-049-9
[2] Joachim R. Sder, Albert der Grosse ein staunen- erregendes Wunder,Wort und Antwort 41 (2000): 145;
J.A. Weisheipl, Albertus Magnus,Joseph Strayer ed.,
Dictionary of the Middle Ages 1 (New York: Scribner,
1982) 129.
[3] Kennedy, Daniel. St. Albertus Magnus.The Catholic
Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 10 Sept. 2014
[4] Tugwell, Simon. Albert and Thomas, New York Paulist
Press, 1988, p. 3, 967
[5] Tugwell, p. 4-5.
[6] Kovach, Francs, and Rober Shahan. Albert the Great:
Commemorative Essays . Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980, p.X
[7] Hampden, The Life, p. 33.
[8] Histoire literaire de la France: XIIIe sicle 19. p. 103.
Retrieved October 27, 2012.
[9] Probably Florentius de Hidinio, a.k.a. Florentius Gallicus,
Histoire literaire de la France: XIIIe sicle, Volume 19, p.
104, Accessed October 27, 2012
[10] Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 10, p. 701.
Accessed 9 June 2011
[11] Weisheipl O.P., J. A., The Place of Study In the Ideal
of St. Dominic, 1960. Accessed 19 March 2013
124.14 Sources
Tugwell, Simon. Albert and Thomas, Paulist Press,
New York, 1988
124.15 Translations
On the causes of the properties of the elements, translated by Irven M. Resnick, (Milwaukee: Marquette
University Press, 2010) [translation of Liber de causis proprietatum elementorum]
Questions concerning Aristotle's on animals, translated by Irven M Resnick and Kenneth F Kitchell,
Jr, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2008) [translation of Quaestiones super De
animalibus]
The cardinal virtues: Aquinas, Albert, and Philip
the Chancellor, translated by RE Houser, (Toronto:
Pontical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2004)
[contains translations of Parisian summa, part six:
On the good and Commentary on the Sentences of
Peter Lombard, book 3, dist. 33 & 36]
The commentary of Albertus Magnus on book 1 of
Euclid's Elements of geometry, edited by Anthony Lo
Bello, (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003)
[translation of Priumus Euclidis cum commento Alberti]
On animals: a medieval summa zoologica, translated by Kenneth F Kitchell, Jr. and Irven Michael
Resnick, (Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999) [translation of De animalibus]
387
Paola Zambelli, The Speculum astronomiae and its
enigma: astrology, theology, and science in Albertus Magnus and his contemporaries, (Dordrecht;
Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992) [includes Latin text and English translation of Speculum astronomiae]
Albert & Thomas: selected writings, translated by
Simon Tugwell, Classics of Western Spirituality,
(New York: Paulist Press, (1988) [contains translation of Super Dionysii Mysticam theologiam]
On union with God, translated by a Benedictine
of Princethorpe Priory, (London: Burns Oates &
Washbourne, 1911) [reprinted as (Felinfach: Llanerch Enterprises, 1991) and (London: Continuum,
2000)] [translation of De adherendo Deo]
388
Chapter 125
125.1 Works
His great work is his Commentarii in Organum Logicum
Aristotelis (Bordeaux, 1618); the copy in the British Museum contains a number of highly eulogistic poems in
honour of Balfour, who is described as Graium aemulus
acer. Balfour was one of the scholars who contributed
to spread over Europe the fame of the praefervidum ingenium Scotorum. His contemporary, Thomas Dempster,
called him the phoenix of his age, a philosopher profoundly skilled in the Greek and Latin languages, and a
mathematician worthy of being compared with the ancients.
His Cleomedis meteora, with notes and Latin translation,
was reprinted at Leiden as late as 1820.
125.2 References
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Balfour, Robert".
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. which in turn cites:
Dempster, Historia Ecclesiastica Gent. Scotorum.
Irving, Lives of the Scottish Writers.
Anderson, Scottish Nation, i. 217.
Andrew Pyle (editor), Dictionary of Seventeenth
Century British Philosophers (2000), article pp. 54
5.
389
Chapter 126
Domingo Bez
Domingo Bez* [1] (29 February 1528, Valladolid
22 October 1604, Medina del Campo) was a Spanish
Dominican and Scholastic theologian. The qualifying
Mondragonensis sometimes attached to his name seems
to refer to the birthplace of his father, Juan Bez, at
Mondragn in Guipzcoa.
126.1 Life
126.1.1
390
126.2. WORKS
391
reiro, and dedicated to the Inquisitor General of Portuthe same subject-matter, always holding, howgal, Cardinal Albert of Austria; but a sentiment against
ever, to sound Catholic doctrine.* [5]
its appearance in Spain was aroused on the ground of
its favouring some of the interdicted propositions. The This pronouncement practically ended whatever personal
cardinal, advised of this, stopped its sale, and requested participation Bez had in the famous controversy.* [6]
Bez and probably some others to examine it. Three
months later, Bez gave his opinion that six of the 11
forbidden propositions appeared in the Concordia.* [4]
126.2 Works
392
Reformers. The predeterminationand predenitionof Bez and his contemporaries, who included
others besides Dominicans, emphasized, on the part of
God's knowledge and providence, a priority to, and independence of future free acts, which, in the CatharinoMolinistic theories, seemed to them less clearly to fall under God's causal action. These terms, however, are used
by St. Thomas himself.* [23] The words physical premotionwere meant to exclude, rst a merely moral impulse and, secondly, a concurrence of the Divine causality
and free will, without the latter's subordination to the First
Cause. That such terms, far from doing violence to the
teachings of their great leader, are their true expression,
has, of course, been an unvaried tenet of the Thomistic
school. One of the presiding ocers of the Congregatio
de Auxiliis, Cardinal Madruzzi, speaking of Bez in this
connection, said: 'His teaching seems to be deduced from
the principles of St. Thomas and to ow wholly from St.
Thomas's doctrine, although he diers somewhat in his
mode of speaking.'* [24]"* [25]
126.3 References
[1] Originally and more properly Vez and sometimes, but
erroneously, Ibez.
[2] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02247a.htm
[3] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02247a.htm
[4] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02247a.htm
[5] Serry, Hist. Cong. de Aux., I, XXVI.
[6] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02247a.htm
[7] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02247a.htm
[8] Controversiarum de divin grati liberique arbitrii Concordi initiae progressus, Freiburg im Br., 1881.
[9] Baez et Molina, Paris, 1883.
[10] In the Revue des Sciences Ecclsiastiques, Amiens, 1887,
p. 153.
[11] Op. omn., XI, ed Vives, Paris, 1886, Opusc., I, Lib. III,
De Auxiliis vii.
[12] Op. omn., XI, 50; Opusc. I, Lib. I, De Conc.-Dei, xi, n
6.
[13] Comment. in 8 Lib. Aristotelis, Venice, 1573, Lib. II, c.
iii, q.8.
[14] Pref. to Disquisit. Magicarum Lib. VI, I Ed.
[15] For Delrio see Goudin, Philosophia (Civita Vecchia,
1860), IV pt. IV, 392, Disp. 2, q. 3, 2.
[16] S. Thom Aq. O.P. doctrina de Cooperatione Dei cum
omni natur creat prsertim liber, Responsio ad R.P.
Dummermuth O.P., Paris, 1893.
Chapter 127
Bartholomaeus of Bruges
Bartholomaeus of Bruges (Barthlemy de Bruges)
(died 1356) was a Flemish physician and natural philosopher.
127.1 Life
He graduated M.A. at the University of Paris in 1307,
and became a master of medicine. He came under the
inuence of Radulphus Brito.* [1]
127.2 Works
*
127.3 Notes
[1] Benot Patar (2006). Dictionnaire des Philosophes Mdivaux (in French). Les Editions Fides. pp. 956. ISBN
978-2-7621-2741-6. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
393
WorldCat page
Chapter 128
Boethius
For other people of the same name, see Boethius pher Ammonius Hermiae. However, Moorhead observes
(disambiguation).
that the evidence supporting Boethius having studied in
Alexandria is not as strong as it may appear, and
Anicius Manlius Severinus Bothius,* [1]* [2] com- concludes Perhaps Boethius was able* to acquire his
monly called Boethius* [3] (/boiis/; also Boetius formidable learning without travelling. [9]
/bois/; c. 480524 AD), was a philosopher of the
early 6th century. He was born in Rome to the ancient
and prominent Anicia family, which included emperors
Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls.* [2]
His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in
487 after Odoacer deposed the last Roman Emperor.
Boethius himself entered public life at a young age and
was already a senator by the age of 25.* [4] He was consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. In 522
he saw his two sons become consuls.* [5] Boethius was
imprisoned and eventually executed by King Theodoric
the Great,* [6] who suspected him of conspiring with the
Byzantine Empire. While jailed, Boethius composed his
Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues. The Consolation became
one of the most popular and inuential works of the Middle Ages.
In 522, the same year his two sons were appointed joint
Boethius was born around 480 AD, [7] but his ex- consuls, Boethius accepted the appointment to the posithe head of all the governact birth date is unknown.* [2] Boethius was born to a tion of magister ociorum,
*
ment
and
court
services.
[12]
patrician family; his father Manlius Boethius was appointed consul in 487. However, his father died when
Boethius was young, and he was adopted by another
patrician, Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus.* [8] 128.2 Fall and death
Memmius Symmachus raised him and instilled in him a
love for literature and philosophy. Both Memmius Symmachus and Boethius were uent in Greek, an increas- In 520, Boethius was working to revitalize the relationingly rare skill at the time in the Western Empire, which ship between the Roman See and the Constantinopalian
has led some scholars to think that Boethius was edu- See; though still both a part of the same Church, sericated in the East. According to John Moorhead, the tra- ous disagreements had begun to emerge between them.
ditional view is that Boethius studied in Athens based This may have set in place* a course of events that would
on Cassiodorus's rhetoric describing Boethius' learning in lead to loss of royal favour. [12] Five-hundred years later,
one of his letters, but this appears to be a misreading and this led to the East-West Schism, in which the Roman
his studying in Athens is more likely a legend.* [7] The Catholic Church separated itself from the Eastern OrthoFrench scholar Pierre Courcelle has argued that Boethius dox Church.
studied at Alexandria with the Neo-Platonist philoso- In 523 Boethius fell from power. After a period of
*
394
128.3. WORKS
395
had become king of the Vandals and had put Theodoric's
sister Amalafrida to death,* [19] and Arian Christians in
the East were being persecuted.* [20] Then there was the
matter that with his previous ties to Theodahad, Boethius
apparently found himself on the wrong side in the succession dispute following the untimely death of Eutharic,
Theodoric's announced heir.
The method of Boethius' execution varies in the sources.
Perhaps he was killed with an axe or a sword, or, possibly,
he was clubbed to death. According to another version a
rope was attached round his head and tightened till his
eyes bulged out; then his skull was cracked. In any case,
his remains were entombed in the church of San Pietro
in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia. In Dante's Paradise of The Divine Comedy, the spirit of Boethius is pointed out by Saint
Thomas Aquinas:
Now if thy mental eye conducted be
imprisonment in Pavia for what was deemed a treasonable oense, he was executed in 524.* [7]* [13] The primary sources are in general agreement over the facts
of what happened. At a meeting of the Royal Council in Verona, the referandarius Cyprianus accused the
ex-consul Caecina Decius Faustus Albinus of treasonous
correspondence with Justin I. Boethius leapt to his defense, crying, The charge of Cyprianus is false, but if
Albinus did that, so also have I and the whole senate with
one accord done it; it is false, my Lord King.* [14] Cyprianus then also accused Boethius of the same crime, and
produced three men who claimed they had witnessed the
crime. Boethius and Basilius were arrested. First the pair
were detained in the baptistery of a church, then Boethius
was exiled to the Ager Calventianus, a distant country estate, where he was put to death. Not long afterwards
Theodoric had Boethius' father-in-law Symmachus put to
death, according to Procopius, on the grounds that he and
Boethius together were planning a revolution, and conscated their property.* [15]
The basic facts in the case are not in dispute,writes
Jerey Richards. What is disputed about this sequence of events is the interpretation that should be put on
them.* [16] Boethius claims his crime was seekingthe
safety of the Senate.He describes the three witnesses
against him as dishonorable: Basilius had been dismissed
from Royal service for his debts, while Venantius Opilio
and Gaudentius had been exiled for fraud.* [17] However, other sources depict these men in far more positive
light. For example, Cassiodorus describes Cyprianus and
Opilio asutterly scrupulous, just and loyaland mentions
they are brothers and grandsons of the consul Opilio;* [18]
Theodoric was feeling threatened by international events.
The Acacian Schism had been resolved, and the Catholic
Christian aristocrats of his kingdom were seeking to renew their ties with Constantinople. The Catholic Hilderic
128.3 Works
128.3.1
De consolatione philosophiae
Boethius's best known work is the Consolation of Philosophy (De consolatione philosophiae), which he wrote
most likely while in exile under house arrest or in prison
while awaiting his execution.* [24] This work represented
an imaginary dialogue between himself and philosophy,
with philosophy personied as a woman.* [24] The book
argues that despite the apparent inequality of the world,
there is, in Platonic fashion, a higher power and everything else is secondary to that divine Providence.* [6] Several manuscripts survived and these were widely edited,
translated and printed throughout the late 15th century
and later in Europe.* [24] Beyond Consolation of Philosophy, his lifelong project was a deliberate attempt to
396
preserve ancient classical knowledge, particularly philosophy. Boethius intended to translate all the works
of Aristotle and Plato from the original Greek into
Latin.* [25]* [26]* [27]
128.3. WORKS
and no proof can be found for these.* [39] This is the basis for the idea that demonstration (or the construction of
arguments) is dependent ultimately upon ideas or proofs
that are known so well and are so fundamental to human
understanding of logic that no other proofs come before
it. They must hold true in and of themselves. According
to Stump,the role of maximal propositions in argumentation is to ensure the truth of a conclusion by ensuring the
truth of its premises either directly or indirectly.* [40]
These propositions would be used in constructing arguments through the Dierentia, which is the second part
of Boethius' theory. This is the genus of the intermediate in the argument.* [41] So maximal propositions
allow room for an argument to be founded in some sense
of logic while dierentia are critical for the demonstration and construction of arguments.
397
128.3.3
De arithmetica
Boethius intended to pass on the great Greco-Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music
and astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.* [4]
Several of Boethius' writings, which were largely inuential during the Middle Ages, drew from the thinking of Porphyry and Iamblichus.* [47] Boethius wrote
a commentary on the Isagoge by Porphyry,* [48] which
highlighted the existence of the problem of universals: whether these concepts are subsistent entities which
would exist whether anyone thought of them, or whether
they only exist as ideas. This topic concerning the
ontological nature of universal ideas was one of the most
vocal controversies in medieval philosophy.
128.3.4
De institutione musica
Boethius' De institutione musica was one of the rst musical works to be printed in Venice between the years of
1491 and 1492. It was written toward the beginning of
the sixth century and helped medieval authors during the
ninth century understand Greek music.* [51]
398
and logic. During the Middle Ages, his works of these from misfortune.* [58] Parts of the work are reminisdisciplines were commonly used when studying the three cent of the Socratic method of Plato's dialogues, as the
elementary arts.<ref name="a"/
spirit of philosophy questions Boethius and challenges his
An 1872 German translation of De Musicawas the emotional reactions to adversity. The work was translated into Old English by King Alfred, although Alfred's
magnum opus of Oscar Paul.* [54]
authorship of this Old English translation has recently
been questioned, and into later English by Chaucer and
Queen Elizabeth;* [55] many manuscripts survive and it
128.3.5 Opuscula sacra
was extensively edited, translated and printed throughout
*
Boethius also wrote Christian theological treatises, which Europe from the 14th century onwards. [59] Many comsupported Catholicism and condemned Arianism and mentaries on it were compiled and it has been one of the
most inuential books in European culture. No complete
other heterodox forms of Christianity.* [55]
bibliography has ever been assembled but it would run
Five theological works are known:* [7]
into thousands of items.* [58] The Boethian Wheelis
a model for Boethius' belief that history is a wheel,* [60]
De Trinitate -The Trinity, where he defends the that Boethius uses frequently in the Consolation; it reCouncil of Chalcedon Trinitarian position, that God mained very popular throughout the Middle Ages, and
is in three persons who have no dierences in nature. is still often seen today. As the wheel turns those that
He argues against the Arian view of the nature of have power and wealth will turn to dust; men may rise
God, which put him at odds with the faith of Arian from poverty and hunger to greatness, while those who
King of Italy.
are great may fall with the turn of the wheel. It was represented in the Middle Ages in many relics of art depicting
Utrum Pater et lius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitale the rise and fall of man. Descriptions of The Boethian
substantialiter praedicentur -Whether Father, Son Wheelcan be found in the literature of the Middle Ages
and Holy Spirit are Substantially Predicated of the from the Romance of the Rose to Chaucer.* [61]
Divinity,A short work where he uses reason and
Aristotelian epistemology to argue that the Catholic
faiths' views of the nature of God are correct.* [56]
Quomodo substantiae
De de catholica - On the Catholic Faith
128.5 Veneration
128.6. NOTES
128.6 Notes
[1] The name Anicius demonstrated his connection with a noble family of the Lower Empire, while Manlius claims
lineage from the Manlii Torquati of the Republic. The
name Severinus was given to him in honour of Severinus
of Noricum.
[2] Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders. London:
Adamant Media Corporation, 2001.
[3]Boethiushas four syllables in English, /boii.s/, the
o and e are pronounced separately. It is hence traditionally
written with a diresis, viz.Bothius, a spelling which
has been disappearing due to the limitations of typewriters.
[4] General Audience of Pope Benedict XVI, Boethius
and Cassiodorus.
Internet.
Available from http:
//www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/
2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080312_en.html;
accessed November 4, 2009.
[5] Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. The Theological
Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy. Translated
by H. F. Steward and E. K. Rand. Cambridge: The Project
Gutenberg, 2004.
[6] The Online Library of Liberty, Boethius. Internet. Available from http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.phpoption=
com_content&task=view&id=215&Itemid=269;
accessed November 3, 2009.
399
[26] Saint Thomas (Aquinas); Frederick Christian Bauerschmidt (1 July 2005). Holy Teaching: Introducing the
Summa Theologiae of St. Thomas Aquinas. Brazos Press.
pp. 14. ISBN 978-1-58743-035-0. Retrieved 22 March
2013.
[28] Stump, Eleanor (1988). In Ciceronis Topicis. Introduction: Cornell University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-80148933-4.
400
[37] Stump, Eleanor (1978). In Ciceronis Topica. Introduction: Cornell University Press. pp. 7, 9=8.
[38] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 180.
[39] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 33.
[40] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 181.
[41] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 198.
[42] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 48.
[43] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 204.
[44] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 205.
[45] Boethius (1978). De topicis dierentiis. Cornell University
Press. p. 35.
Opuscula
105128.
[58] Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. Consolation of Philosophy. Translated by H. R. James. Adelaide: The University of Adelaide, 2007.
[59] Richard A. Dwyer, Boethian Fictions, Narratives in the
Medieval French Versions of the Consolatio Philosophiae,
Medieval Academy of America, 1976.
[60] Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy, trans. Victor Watts
(rev. ed.), Penguin, 1999, p.24 n.1.
[61] The Middle Ages, The Wheel of Fortunes. Internet.
Available from http://www.themiddleages.net/wheel_of_
fortune.html; accessed November 4, 2009.
[62] Roman Martyrology
[63] General Audience of Pope Benedict XVI, 12 March 2008
[64] Benedictine Monks of St. Augustine's Abbey, The Book
of Saints, 6th ed., 1989, p. 507
128.7 References
128.7.1 Works available online
James, H. R. (translator) [1897] (2007), The Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius, The University of
Adelaide: eBooks @ Adelaide.
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1867).
Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo. In
Gottfried Friedlein. Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini
Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae
fertur Boetii (in Latin). in aedibus B.G. Teubneri.
pp. 1173. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1867).
Boetii De institutione musica libri quinque. In
Gottfried Friedlein. Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini
Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae
fertur Boetii (in Latin). in aedibus B.G. Teubneri.
pp. 177371. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
128.7.2 Bibliography
[55] Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. Consolation of Philosophy, translated by W. V. Cooper. London: J.M. Dent
and Company, 1902.
401
A 10th century manuscript of Institutio Arithmetica
is available online from Lund University, Sweden
The Georey Freudlin 1885 edition of the Arithmetica, from the Cornell Library Historical Mathematics Monographs
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution
images of works by Boethius in .jpg and .ti format.
Papahagi, Adrian, Boethiana Mediaevalia A Col- 128.10.3 On Boethius' logic and philosolection of Studies on the Early Medieval Fortune of
phy
BoethiusConsolation of Philosophy, Zeta Books,
2010, ISBN 978-973-199-779-7.
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius entry by John
Marenbon in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
128.9 Discography
Works
Chapter 129
Boetius of Dacia
Boetius (or Boethius) of Dacia OP (latinization forBo
of Denmark(as Dacia was often used as the Latin term
for Denmark)) was a 13th-century philosopher.
Boetius was born in the rst half of the 13th century. Not
much is known of his early life, and the attempt to connect him to known persons from Denmark or Sweden has
not been successful.* [1] All that is known is that he went
to teach philosophy at the University of Paris. There he
associated with Siger of Brabant, and with Siger (together
with such gures as Roger Bacon and Jean Buridan)
shared the unusual career path of continuing to teach for
some time as arts masters rather than quickly moving on
to study in the theology faculty or nding non-academic
employment. He was condemned by Stephen Tempier in
1277 as being a leading member of the Averroist movement. Boetius ed Paris with Siger, and appealed to Pope
Nicholas III. He was detained at the pontical curia at
Orvieto, and went on to join the Dominicans in Dacia.
Boetius was a follower of Aristotle and Averroes, and
wrote on logic, natural philosophy, metaphysics, and
ethics, though some of his works have not survived. His
central position was that philosophy had to follow the arguments where they led, regardless of their conict with
religious faith. For him, philosophy was the supreme human activity, and in this world only philosophers attained
wisdom; in his book On the Highest Good, or On the Life
of the Philosopher he oers a fervently Aristotelian description of man's highest good as the rational contemplation of truth and virtue. Among the controversial conclusions that he reached are the impossibility of creation
ex nihilo, the eternity of the world and of the human race,
and that there could be no resurrection of the dead.
Despite his radical views, Boetius remained a Christian,
and attempted to reconcile his religious beliefs with his
philosophical position by assigning the investigation of
the world and of human nature to philosophy, while to
religion he assigned supernatural revelation and divine
miracles. He was condemned for holding the doctrine of
double truth, though he was careful to avoid calling philosophical conclusions that ran contrary to religion true simpliciter; in each branch of knowledge, one must be careful to qualify one's conclusions. The conclusions that the
philosopher reaches are trueaccording to natural causes
and principles(De Aeternitate Mundi, p. 351).
402
129.3. FOOTNOTES
129.2 Bibliography
Bursill-Hall, G. L., Speculative Grammars of the
Middle Ages: The Doctrine of the partes orationis of
the Modistae, Mouton: The Hague, 1971.
John Marenbon, Later Medieval Philosophy (11501350), New York: Routledge, 1991 ISBN 0-41506807-X.
Armand A. Maurer,Boetius of Dacia, in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Paul Edwards, Collier
Macmillan, 1967.
129.3 Footnotes
[1] Boethius de Dacia, Verdens evighed, Det lille forlag, 2001,
p. 8 (in Danish)
403
Chapter 130
Adam de Buckeld
Adam de Buckeld* [1] (b. ca. 1220 d. before
1294)* [2] was an English Franciscan philosopher, who
taught at the University of Oxford in the early 1240s.* [3]
He was an early commentator on a number of Aristotle's
works, in particular those dealing with natural philosophy.
130.3 Notes
"Bocfeld, Adam". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
Chapter 131
Jean Buridan
131.1 Career
Born, most probably, in Bthune, France, Buridan studied and later taught at the University of Paris. Unusually,
he spent his academic life in the faculty of arts, rather
than obtaining the doctorate in Theology that typically
prepared the way for a career in Philosophy. He further
maintained his intellectual independence by remaining a
secular cleric, rather than joining a religious Order. By
1340, his condence had grown suciently for him to
launch an attack on his predecessor, William of Ockham.
Buridan also wrote on solutions to paradoxes such as the
liar paradox. An ordinance of Louis XI., in 1473, directed against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of
his works.
The bishop Albert of Saxony, himself renowned as a
logician, was among the most notable of his students.
Jean Buridan (French: [byid ]; Latin Johannes Buridanus; c. 1300 after 1358) was a French priest who
sowed the seeds of the Copernican revolution in Europe.* [1] He developed the concept of impetus, the rst
step toward the modern concept of inertia, and an important development in the history of medieval science.
His name is most familiar through the thought experiment
known as Buridan's ass (a thought experiment which does
not appear in his extant writings).
Jean Buridan, following in the footsteps of John Philoponus and Avicenna, proposed that motion was maintained by some property of the body, imparted when
it was set in motion. Buridan named the motionmaintaining property impetus. Moreover, he rejected the
view that the impetus dissipated spontaneously (this is the
big dierence between Buridan's theory of impetus and
his predecessors), asserting that a body would be arrested
by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be
opposing its impetus. Buridan further held that the impetus of a body increased with the speed with which it was
405
406
Translation of Book III of His Questions on Aristotle's De Anima (Third Redaction), with Commentary
and Critical and Interpretative Essays. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University.
Klima, Gyula, tr. (2001). John Buridan: 'Summulae de Dialectica'. Yale Library of Medieval Philosophy. New Haven, Conn./London: Yale University
Press.
John Buridan (2014). Treatise on Consequences,
translated, with an Introduction by Stephen Read.
New York: Fordham University Press.
131.6 Notes
[1] Kuhn, T. The Copernican Revolution, 1957, pp. 119123.
[2] T. F. Glick, S. J. Livesay, F. Wallis, Medieval Science,
Technology and Medicine:an Encyclopedia, 2005, p. 107.
407
Chapter 132
Walter Burley
For other people of the same name, see Walter Burleigh of possibly heretical statements (by 1326 there was a list
(disambiguation).
of 51 charges against him).
Walter Burley (or Burleigh) (c. 12751344/5) was
a medieval English scholastic philosopher and logician
with at least 50 works attributed to him. He received
his Master of Arts degree in 1301, and was a fellow of
Merton College Oxford until about 1310. He then spent
sixteen years in Paris, becoming a fellow of the Sorbonne
by 1324, before spending 17 years as a clerical courtier
in England and Avignon. Burley disagreed with William
of Ockham on a number of points concerning logic and
natural philosophy. He died in about 1344.
Burley's associates were all closely involved in these attempts at canonisation (none of which was successful).
One was Richard de Bury, a bibliophile and patron of
the arts and sciences, who became Burley's patron and at
whose request Bury translated some works of Aristotle
into English.* [4]
132.4 Works
132.2 Political career
Burley became a courtier during the political events that
followed the deposition of Edward II of England in 1327.
His rst assignment was to try and obtain the canonisation
of Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, who had been one
of the leaders of the baronial opposition to Edward II;
Thomas had become venerated as a martyr within a few
months of his death. Burley was sent to the papal court at
Avignon to appeal directly to Pope John XXII. By coincidence, William of Ockham was also staying at Avignon,
having been summoned there in 1324 to answer charges
Burley was one of the rst logicians to recognise the priority of the propositional calculus over the predicate calculus, despite the fact that the latter had been the main focus
of logicians until then. Burley also seems to have been the
only 14th-century logician to have taken the position that,
in line with modern views on the material conditional, the
principle that from the impossible anything follows
("ex impossibili sequitur quidlibet") is both a necessary
and sucient condition for explaining the logical relationship between antecedent and consequent.* [6] He was
also known for his commentaries on Aristotle's Physics,
which include the quodlibet De Primo et ultimo instanti
408
132.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
(around 1320) and the longer work Expositio in libros octo
de physico auditu.* [7] Burley wrote 39 Commentaries on
Aristotle and 32 Treatises and Questions (many unedited)
*
[8]
De Puritate Artis Logicae, in two versions:
Tractatus brevior (before 1324)
Tractatus longior (1325-28)
This is Burley's main work, in which he covers such topics as the truth conditions for complex sentences, both
truth-functional and modal, as well as providing rules of
inferences for dierent types of inferences. This book is
known to have been written after Ockham's Summa Logicae (c. 1323), possibly partly in response to it.* [9] Other
works include:* [lower-alpha 1]
409
132.6 Bibliography
Primary sources
132.5 References
Notes
[1] The Liber de vita et moribus philosophorum, once attributed to Burley, is by an anonymous author.
Citations
[1] Sommers, M. C. (2004), Burley, Walter (b. 1274/5, d.
in or after 1344, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, retrieved 13
April 2013 (subscription or UK public library membership required)
[2] Ottman & Wood (1999), p. 9.
[3] Ottman & Wood (1999), p. 10.
[4] Denholm-Young, N. (1937), Richard de Bury (1287
1345)", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 20
(Fourth series): 135168, JSTOR 3678596
410
Bhner, Philotheus (1952), Medieval Logic: An
Outline of Its Development from 1250 to C. 1400,
Manchester University Press
Broadie, Alexander. Introduction to Medieval Logic
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2nd Edition 1993).
Conti, Alessandro (ed.). A Companion to Walter
Burley, Leiden: Brill 2013.
Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B. A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, London 2003.
Jacobi, Klaus (1993), Argumentationstheorie:
Scholastische Forschungen Zu Den Logischen Und
Semantischen Regeln Korrekten Folgerns, BRILL,
ISBN 978-90-04-09822-0
Ottman, J.; Wood, R. (1999), Walter of Burley
his Life and Works, Vivarium: An International
Journal for the Philosophy and Intellectual Life of
the Middle Ages and Renaissance 37, Brill
Bibliographical resources
Wood, Rega, Studies on Walter Burley 1968-1988,
Bulletin de la Philosophie Mdivale, 30, 1989, pp.
233-250.
Krieger, Gerhard, Studies on Walter Burley, 1989
1997, Vivarium, 37, 1999, pp. 94100.
Chapter 133
Niccol Cabeo
Niccol Cabeo (February 26, 1586 June 30, 1650), ideas.
also known as Nicolaus Cabeus, was an Italian Jesuit Cabeo's second publication was a commentary on
philosopher, theologian, engineer and mathematician.
Aristotle's Meteorology. In this work, he carefully examined a number of ideas proposed by Galileo Galilei, including the motion of the earth and the law of falling bodies. Cabeo was opposed to Galileo's theories. Cabeo also
133.1 Biography
discussed the theory of water ow proposed by Galileo's
He was born in Ferrara in 1586, and was educated at the student, Benedetto Castelli. He and Castelli were inJesuit college in Parma beginning in 1602. He passed volved over a dispute in northern Italy about the reroutthe next two years in Padua and spent 160607 study- ing of the Reno River. The people of Ferrara were on one
ing in Piacenza before completing three years (160710) side of the dispute and Cabeo was their advocate. Castelli
of study in philosophy at Parma. He spent another four favored the other side of the dispute and was acting as an
years (16121616) studying theology in Parma and an- agent of the Pope, Urban VIII. Cabeo also discussed some
other years apprenticeship at Mantua. He then taught ideas about alchemy in this book.
theology and mathematics in Parma, then in 1622 he be- The crater Cabeus on the Moon is named after him. The
came a preacher. For a time he received patronage of the LCROSS project discovered evidence of water in Cabeus
Dukes of Mantua and the Este in Ferrara. During this crater in October 2009.
time he was involved in hydraulics projects. He would
later return to teach mathematics again in Genoa, the city
where he would die in 1650.
133.2 See also
He is noted for his contributions to physics experiments and observations. He observed the experiments of
Giovanni Battista Baliani regarding falling objects, and
he wrote about these experiments noting that two different objects fall in the same amount of time regardless of the medium. He also performed experiments with
pendulums and observed that an electrically charged body
can attract non-electried objects. He also noted that two
charged objects repelled each other.
History of geomagnetism
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
133.3 References
Heilbron, J.L., Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries. Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1979.
Maoli, Cesare, Out of Galileo, The Science of Waters 16281718. Rotterdam: Erasmus Publishing,
1994.
Sommervogel (ed), Bibliothque de la Compagnie de
Jesus. Brussels: 1960.
Gillispie, Charles Coulston (ed), Dictionary of Scientic Biography Vol. 3. New York: Scribners,
1973
Borgato, Maria Teresa, Niccol Cabeo tra teoria ed
esperimenti: le leggi del moto, in G.P. Brizzi and R.
412
Dear, Peter. Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientic Revolution. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Chapter 134
134.1 Life
Case was born between 1539 and 1546 at Woodstock,
Oxfordshire, and was a chorister at New College and
Christ Church, Oxford. He was elected to a scholarship
at St. John's in 1564. He was B.A. in 1568, M.A. in
1572, and became a fellow of his college. He had a high
reputation as a disputant. Being "popishly aected,says
Anthony Wood, he left his fellowship and marriedin
1574. His wife was Elizabeth Dobson, the widow of John
Dobson, the keeper of Bocardo prison. Case's stepdaughter Anne Dobson married Regius Professor of Medicine
(Oxford) Bartholomew Warner.
Case obtained leave from the university to read logic and
philosophy to young men, chiey Roman Catholics, in his
own house in Oxford; it became a largely attended philosophical school due to Case's reputation as a logician and
dialectician. Among his pupils was Edward Weston.* [1]
He wrote various handbooks for his students' use, which
were published and for a time popular, though they had
fallen into disrepute in Wood's day. He is described asa Title page of John Case's Sphaera Civitatis (1588)
man of an innocent, meek, religious and studious life,an
agreeable conversationalist, an enthusiastic teacher, and a
great favorite with his pupils. He was in addition an au- a large circulation during his time, and were frequently
thority on music and a distinguished physician, becoming reprinted.
M.D. in 1589.
His works include Summa veterum interpretum in uniCase made money in the practice of medicine and left versam dialecticam Aristotelis (1584, on the Organon)
various sums to St. John's College, New College, and the and Speculum moralium quaestionium in universam ethipoor of Woodstock. In 1589 he became Canon of Sarum. cen Aristotelis (1585, a commentary on the Nicomachean
He died on 23 January 1599 1600 and was buried in Ethics; verses prexed by Laurence Humphrey), which
the chapel of St. John's College. His portrait is in the was the rst book printed at the press presented to Oxford
Bodleian Library.
by their chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester,
and which had been reprinted eight times in Frankfurt by
1625.
134.2 Works
Sphaera Civitatis (1588, a commentary on Aristotle's Politics), like other books by Case, was reprinted abroad, and
Most of Case's works were commentaries on various trea- Barnes, the printer, obtained an order from the university
tises of Aristotle (Organon, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, in 1590 that every bachelor should take one copy ondeEconomics, Physics) under curious titles; they enjoyed termining.
413
414
Case's later works were Reexus Speculi Moralis (1596, a
commentary on the Magna Moralia), Thesaurus Oeconomiae (1597, a commentary on the pseudo-Aristotelian
Economics), Lapis philosophicus seu commentarius in VIII
libros Physicorum Arisotelis in quo arcana physiologiae
examinantur (1599, a commentary on Aristotle's Physics;
despite the title it bears no relation to alchemy) and Ancilla Philosophiae (1599, an epitome of the Physics).
He also wrote an Apologia Musices, tam vocalis quam instrumentalis et mixtae (1588), of which there is a copy in
the Lambeth Library. The Praise of Musicke; wherein...is
described the sober and lawful use of the same in the Congregation and Church of God (1586) is also attributed to
him. This is dedicated to Sir Walter Raleigh by the printer
Barnes, who calls itan orphan of one of Lady Musicke's
children.A contemporary, Thomas Watson, wrote some
verses, now in the Rawlinson manuscripts, to Case on the
publication called A Gratication unto Mr. John Case
for his learned book lately made on the Praizes of Musick.
There are three letters from Case in the Harleian MS
6995. He prexed a letter to Nicholas Breton's Pilgrimage to Paradise.
134.3 References
"Case, John (d.1600)". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"Case, John". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
134.4 Notes
[1] "Weston, Edward (1566-1635)". Dictionary of National
Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
Chapter 135
Conimbricenses
Conimbricenses or Collegium Conimbricenses is the
name by which Jesuits of the University of Coimbra in
Coimbra, Portugal were known. The Conimbricenses
were Jesuits who, from the end of 16th century took over
the intellectual leadership of the Roman Catholic world
from the Dominicans. Among those Jesuits were Luis de
Molina (15351600) and Francisco Surez (15481617).
In their stricter sense the Coimbra Commentaries, also
known simply as Conimbricenses, are mainly a group of
eleven books on Aristotle (of which only eight are really
commentaries). On the register of the college at various
times appeared the names of 200 Jesuits including professors and students. Toward the end of the 16th century
and the beginning of the 17th, voluminous commentaries
on the philosophical writings of Aristotle went forth from
the university. These commentaries were dictations to
the students by the professors and as such were not intended for publication. Still they were actually published,
but fraudulently. In order to interpret and disown incorrect and unauthorized editions, Father Claudius Acquaviva, the General of the Society of Jesus, assigned Father
Peter Fonseca, the provincial of the Portuguese province,
the task of supervising the revision of these commentaries
for publication. Father Fonseca was widely known as the
Aristotle of Portugal. The treatises appeared in the following order:
416
volumes, enjoyed a wide circulation, and appeared in
many editions, the best known being those of Lyon,
Lisbon, and Cologne. The Commentaries are in owing
Latin and are supplemented by reliable explanations of
the text and exhaustive discussion of the system of Aristotle. Karl Werner said that the Jesuits of Coimbra gave
the world a masterpiece, whose equal is yet to be seen and
which has received the admiration it deserves. Father de
Backer gives an exact list of all the editions. The later
ones have added the Greek text of Aristotle.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in
the public domain: Cassidy, John (1908). Conimbricenses. In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia
4. Robert Appleton Company.
135.3 Translations
The Conimbricenses. Some Questions on Signs, Milwaukee: Marquette University Press 2001 (Translation with introduction and notes by John P. Doyle of
the commentary to the rst chapter of Aristotle's De
Interpretatione).
Chapter 136
a remote writer such as Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac mentioned him asle grand Cremonin(the great Cremonin)
in his Lettres.* [11]
417
418
136.1.3
When Cremonini died in 1631 during the Paduan outbreak of the Italian Plague of 1629-1631, more than 400
students were working with him. His previous students
included, alphabetically:
Theophilos Corydalleus, graduated 1613, a Greek
philosopher, had a tremendous inuence in the
Greek-speaking world during the 17th and 18th centuries
William Harvey, graduated 1602, an English doctor
who was the rst to correctly describe the circulation
of the blood
Joachim Jung, graduated 1619, a German mathematician and naturalist popularized by John Ray
Ioannis Kottounios, an eminent Greek scholar and
his successor to the chair of philosophy at Padua
Justus Lipsius, an Italian philosopher
136.2. BIBLIOGRAPHY
136.2.2
Extended bibliography
Below are his main books (with usual short titles, original
full titles, and indication of some variants or misspellings
commonly found in literature). As was the practice of
the time, many of them are made of opuscules, separate
treatises grouped in a single binding. (Please note that
Latin title spelling can vary depending on their grammatical position in a sentence, such as atractatusbecoming
atractatumin the accusative case when inside a longer
title.)
1596: Explanatio promii librorum Aristotelis De
physico auditu [1+20+22+43+1 folios* [17]] (Explanatio promii librorum Aristotelis De physico
auditu cum introductione ad naturalem Aristotelis
philosophiam, continente tractatum de pdia,
descriptionemque univers naturalis Aristoteli
philosophi, quibus adjuncta est prfatio in libros
De physico auditu. Ad serenissimum principem
Alphonsum II Estensem Ferrari ducem augustissimum) also (Explanatio promii librorum Aristotelis De physico auditu, et in eosdem Prfatio,
una cum Tractatu de Pdia, seu, Introductione
ad philosophiam naturalem Aristotelis.* [18]) (ed.
Melchiorre Novello as Melchiorem Novellum)
Padua: Novellum
Tractatus de pdiaalias De pdia Aristotelisor sometimes De pdia Aristotelis(also as Descriptio univers naturalis Aristoteli philosophi", or erroneously
Diatyposis univers naturalis aristotelic
philosophi")
Introductio ad naturalem Aristotelis
philosophiam(sometimes
Introductio ad naturalem Aristotelis philosophiam
)
Explanatio promii librorum Aristotelis De
physico auditu(sometimes Explanatio
promii librorum De physico auditu)
1605: De formis elementorum (Disputatio De
formis quatuor corporum simplicium qu vocantur
elementa) Venice
1611: De Anima (De Anima lectiones 31, opiniones
antiquorum de anima lect. 17) student transcript
of a Cremonini lecture
1613: Disputatio de clo (Disputatio de clo : in
tres partes divisa, de natura cli, de motu cli, de
motoribus cli abstractis. Adjecta est Apologia dictorum Aristotelis, de via lactea, et de facie in orbe
lun) Venice: Thomam Balionum
De clo
De natura cli
De motu cli
419
De motoribus cli abstractis
De via lactea
De facie in orbe lun"
1616: De quinta cli substantia (Apologia dictorum Aristotelis, de quinta cli substantia adversus Xenarcum, Joannem Grammaticum, et alios)
Venice: Meiettum (second series of De clo)
1626: De calido innato (Apologia dictorum Aristotelis De calido innato adversus Galenum)
Venice: Deuchiniana (reprinted in 1634)
1627: De origine et principatu membrorum
(Apologia dictorum Aristotelis De origine et Principatu membrorum adversus Galenum) Venice: Hieronymum Piutum
De origine
De principatu membrorum
163?: De semine (Expositio in digressionem
Averrhois de semine contra Galenum pro Aristotele)* [19] (printed or reprinted in 1634)
--- Posthumous:
1634: De calido innato et semine (Tractatus de
calido innato, et semine, pro Aristotele adversus
Galenum) Leiden: Elzevir (Lugduni-Batavorum)
(expanding 1626 with 163?)
De calido innato
De semine(Apologia dictorum Aristotelis
De Semine)
1644: De sensibus et facultate appetitiva (Tractatus tres : primus est de sensibus externis, secundus
de sensibus internis, tertius de facultate appetitiva.
Opuscula haec revidit Troylus Lancetta auctoris discipulus, et adnotatiotes confecit in margine) also
(Tractatus III : de sensibus externis, de sensibus internis, de facultate appetitiva) (ed. Troilo Lancetta,
as Troilus Lancettaor Troilo de Lancettis),
Venice: Guerilios
De sensibus externis
De sensibus internis
De facultate appetitiva
1663: Dialectica (Dialectica, Logica sive dialectica) (ed. Troilo Lancetta, asTroilus Lancettaor
Troilo de Lancettis) (sometimes Dialecticum
opus posthumum) Venice: Guerilios
(Not included are poems and other personal texts.)
420
136.3 Sources
David Wootton: Unbelief in Early Modern Europe, History Workshop Journal, No. 20, 1985,
pages 83101 : Averroes, Pomponazzi, Cremonini
Pierre Bayle: Dictionaire historique et critique, volume 2, 1697, reprinted Amsterdam: 1740, pp. 224
225, article Cremonin, Csar(in French) online
John Gorton: A General Biographical Dictionary,
London: Henry G. Bohn, 1828, new edition 1851,
page 146, article Cremonini, Csaronline
Adolphe Franck:
Dictionnaire des sciences
philosophiques, volume 1, Paris:
Hachette,
1844, pp. 598599, article Crmonini, Csar
(in French) online
Ferdinand Hoefer : Nouvelle biographie gnrale,
volume XII, Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1855, second edition 1857, pp. 416419, articleCremonini, Csar
(in French) online
Pierre Larousse: Grand dictionnaire universel du
XIXe sicle, volume 5, Paris: 1869, page 489, article
Crmonini, Csar(in French) online (PDF or
TIFF plugin required)
Marie-Nicolas Bouillet, Alexis Chassang (ed.): Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de gographie, 26th
edition, Paris: Hachette, 1878, page 474, article
Cremonini, Csar(in French) online (PDF or
TIFF plugin required)
Werner Ziegenfuss: Philosophen-lexikon: Handwrterbuch der Philosophie nach Personen, Walter
de Gruyter, 1950, ISBN 3-11-002896-4, page 208,
article Cremoninus, Caesar (Cesare Cremonini)"
Various: Encyclopdia Universalis, CD-ROM edition: 1996, article Cremonini, C.(in French)
Herbert Jaumann: Handbuch Gelehrtenkultur der
Frhen Neuzeit, Walter de Gruyter, 2004, ISBN 311-016069-2, page 203, article Cremonini, Cesare
Filosoco.net: Indice alfabetico dei diloso, article
Cesare Cremonino(in Italian) online : picture and
prole
Philosophy Institute at the University of Dsseldorf: Philosophengalerie, article Caesar Cremoninus (Cesare Cremonini)" (in German) online : another picture, bibliography, literature
Philosophy
Lopold Mabilleau: tude historique sur la philosophie de la Renaissance en Italie, Paris: Hachette,
1881
136.4 References
[1] Birth in 1550 is by far the most common date, but sometimes 1552 is found (inferred by some from the assertion
that he started teaching at age 21 in 1573, see Pierre Bayle
or ). Thus, some sources will sayca. 1550, or1550
or 1552.
[2] Csar Cremoninus, ancient illustration
[3] Caesar Cremoninus, International Catalogue of Mediaeval Scientic Manuscripts, Munich University
[4] Csar Cremonius, ancient illustration
[5] Csar Cremonius, Manuscripts Catalogue of Italian
litterati, British Library
[6] Short bio of Cremonini on the Cento site
[7] Some sources say 1590, possibly a wrong inference from
his tenure ending in 1590 at Ferrara.
[8] Some sources say until 1629, possibly because the Italian
Plague of 16291631 perturbed or stopped lessons, but
it's not been sourced.
[9] Pierre Bayle, page 224
[10] Encyclopdia Universalis
[11] Pierre Bayle, page 224, note C
[12] John Addington Symonds: Renaissance in Italy, Volume
1, 1887, footnote 11, online version
[13] Michel Jeanneret:L'Italie, ferment de libert", in Atti dei
convegni lincei, La Cultura letteraria italiana e l'identit
europea (2001), Roma: Accad. Nazionale dei Lincei,
2002, pp.183193 (in French) online quoting Ren Pintard quoting Gabriel Naud
[14] Sophie Houdard: De l'ennemi public aux amitis particulires. Quelques hypothses sur le rle du Diable (15e17e sicles)", in Raisons politiques n 5, Paris: Presses de
Sciences Po, 2002/1, ISBN 2-7246-2932-9, pp. 927 (in
French) online quoting Ren Pintard quoting Naud
[15] Gottfried Leibniz: Theodicy , 1710, Open Court Publishing Company, Peru, Illinois: 1951 translation by E.M.
Huggard, ISBN 0-87548-437-9, page 81 online
[16] May 1611 entry in the online Galileo Timeline
[17] The table of content of this volume is disputed. Some see
it as two treatises, others as three with divergences about
which is the middle one. The breakdown from Lopold
Mabilleau is used here.
[18] British Museum Dept. of Printed Books, Henry Ellis, Henry Hervey Baber: Librorum impressorum qui in
Museo britannico adservantur catalogus, II. pars I. C,
1814, article Cremoninus, Csaronline
[19] According to Lopold Mabilleau, page 70 and note page
76 (reused identically in J.-Roger Charbonnel) who conates the Digressionem paper and the text added to the
1634 reprint. Mabilleau says 1624but it looks like a
typo for the 1634 edition.
421
Chapter 137
Duns Scotus
Not to be confused with Johannes Scotus Eriugena.
137.2. WORK
William Vorilong, his departure was sudden and unexpected. He was relaxing or talking with students in the
Prato clericorum or Pre-aux-Clercs an open area of the
Left Bank used by scholars for recreation when orders
arrived from the Franciscan Minister General; Scotus left
immediately, taking few or no personal belongings.* [9]
Duns Scotus died unexpectedly in Cologne in November 1308; the date of his death is traditionally given as
8 November. He is buried in the Church of the Friars
Minor there. His sarcophagus bears the Latin inscription:
423
Lombard's original text was used as a starting point for
highly original discussions on topics of theological or
philosophical interest.* [14] For example, Book II Distinction 2, about the location of angels, is a starting point
for a complex discussion about continuous motion, and
whether the same thing can be in two dierent places at
the same time (bilocation). In the same book, Distinction 3, he uses the question of how angels can be dierent
from one another, given that they have no material bodies, to investigate the dicult question of individuation
in general.
137.2 Work
Scotusgreat work is his commentary on the Sentences
of Peter Lombard, which contains nearly all the philosophical views and arguments for which he is well known,
including the univocity of being, the formal distinction,
less-than-numerical unity, individual nature or thisness' (haecceity), his critique of illuminationism and his
renowned argument for the existence of God. His commentary exists in several versions. The standard version
is the Ordinatio (also known as the Opus oxoniense), a revised version of lectures he gave as a bachelor at Oxford.
The initial revision was probably begun in the summer
of 1300 see the remarks in the Prologue, question 2,
alluding to the Third Battle of Homs in 1299, news of
which probably reached Oxford in the summer of 1300.
It was still incomplete when Scotus left for Paris in 1302.
The original lectures were also transcribed and recently
published as the Lectura.
The two other versions of the work are Scotus' notes for
the Oxford lectures, recently published as the Lectura, the
rst book of which was probably written in Oxford in the
late 1290s,* [13] and the Reportatio parisiensis (or Opus
parisiense), consisting of transcriptions of the lectures on
the Sentences given by Scotus when he was in Paris. A reportatio is a student report or transcription of the original
lecture of a master. A version that has been checked by
the master himself is known as a reportatio examinata.
By the time of Scotus, these 'commentaries' on the Sentences were no longer literal commentaries. Instead, Peter
424
137.3 Metaphysics
137.3.2
Univocity of being
He followed Aristotle in asserting that the subject matter of metaphysics is being qua being(ens inquantum ens). Being in general (ens in communi), as a univocal notion, was for him the rst object of the intellect.
Metaphysics includes the study of the transcendentals, so
called because they transcend the division of being into
nite and innite and the further division of nite being
into the ten Aristotelian categories. Being itself is a transcendental, and so are theattributesof being"one,
true,and goodwhich are coextensive with being,
but which each add something to it.
The doctrine of the univocity of being implies the denial of any real distinction between essence and existence.
Aquinas had argued that in all nite being (i.e. all except
God), the essence of a thing is distinct from its existence.
Scotus rejected the distinction. Scotus argued that we
cannot conceive of what it is to be something, without
conceiving it as existing. We should not make any distinction between whether a thing exists (si est) and what
it is (quid est), for we never know whether something exists, unless we have some concept of what we know to
exist.* [21]
137.4 Theology
137.4.1 Voluntarism
Scotus was an Augustinian theologian. He is usually associated with voluntarism, the tendency to emphasize God's
will and human freedom in all philosophical issues. The
main dierence between Aquinas' rational theology and
that of Scotus' is that Scotus believed certain predicates
may be applied univocally with exactly the same meaning to God and creatures, whereas Aquinas insisted that
this is impossible, and that only analogical predication
137.3.3 Individuation
can be employed, in which a word as applied to God has a
meaning dierent from, although related to, the meaning
Scotus elaborates a distinct view on hylomorphism, with of that same word as applied to creatures. Duns strugthree important strong theses that dierentiate him. He gled throughout his works in demonstrating his univocity
held: 1) that there exists matter that has no form whatso- theory against Aquinas' analogy doctrine.
ever, or prime matter, as the stu underlying all change,
against Aquinas (cf. his Quaestiones in Metaphysicam 7,
q. 5; Lectura 2, d. 12, q. un.), 2) that not all created sub- 137.4.2 Existence of God
stances are composites of form and matter (cf. Lectura
2, d. 12, q. un., n. 55), that is, that purely spiritual sub- The existence of God can be proven only a posteriori,
stances do exist, and 3) that one and the same substance through its eects. The Causal Argument he gives for
can have more than one substantial formfor instance, the existence of God says that an innity of things that are
humans have at least two substantial forms, the soul and essentially ordered is impossible, as the totality of caused
the form of the body (forma corporeitas) (cf. Ordinatio things that are essentially caused is itself caused, and so
4, d. 11, q. 3, n. 54). He argued for an original prin- it is caused by some cause which is not a part of the totalciple of individuation (cf. Ordinatio 2, d. 3, pars 1, qq. ity, for then it would be the cause of itself; for the whole
16), the "haecceity" as the ultimate unity of a unique totality of dependent things is cause, and not on anything
individual (haecceitas, an entity's 'thisness'), as opposed belonging to that totality. The argument is relevant for
to the common nature (natura communis), feature exist- Scotus' conception of metaphysical inquiry into being by
ing in any number of individuals. For Scotus, the ax- searching the ways into which beings relate to each other.
137.5. VENERATION
137.4.3
425
Illuminationism
137.4.4
Immaculate Conception
Perhaps the most inuential point of Duns Scotus' theology was his defense of the Immaculate Conception of
Mary (i.e., that Mary herself was conceived without sin).
At the time, there was a great deal of argument about
the subject. The general opinion was that it was appropriately deferential to the Mother of God, but it could not
be seen how to resolve the problem that only with Christ's
death would the stain of original sin be removed. The
great philosophers and theologians of the West were divided on the subject (indeed, it appears that even Thomas
Aquinas sided with those who denied the doctrine, though
some Thomists dispute this). The feast day had existed
in the East (though in the East, the feast is just of the
Conception of Mary) since the seventh century and had
been introduced in several dioceses in the West as well,
even though the philosophical basis was lacking. Citing
Anselm of Canterbury's principle, "potuit, decuit, ergo
fecit" (He [i.e., God] could do it, it was appropriate, therefore He did it), Duns Scotus devised the following argument: Mary was in need of redemption like all other human beings, but through the merits of Jesus' crucixion,
given in advance, she was conceived without the stain of
original sin. God could have brought it about (1) that
she was never in original sin, (2) she was in sin only for
an instant, (3) she was in sin for a period of time, being purged at the last instant. Whichever of these options was most excellent should probably be attributed to
Mary.* [24] This apparently careful statement provoked a
storm of opposition at Paris, and suggested the line 'red
France for Mary without spot' in the famous poemDuns
Scotus's Oxford,by Gerard Manley Hopkins.
137.5 Veneration
Long honored as a Blessed by the Order of Friars Minor,
as well as in the Archdioceses of Edinburgh and Cologne,
in the 19th-century the process was started seeking his
recognition as such by the Holy See, on the basis of a
cultus immemorabilis, i.e., one of ancient standing.* [26]
He was declared Venerable by Pope John Paul II in 1991,
who ocially recognized his liturgical cult, eectively
beatifying him on 20 March 1993.* [27]
426
to its dissolution) as an accumulation of 'cobwebs, moths ment.* [33] During the 1990s, various scholars extended
and bookworms'.* [31]
this argument to locate Scotus as the rst thinker who
Despite this, Scotism grew in Catholic Europe. Sco- succumbed to what Heidegger termed 'onto-theology'. In
tus' works were collected into many editions, particularly recent years, this criticism of Scotus has become disin the late fteenth century with the advent of printing. seminated in particular through the writings of the 'RadiHis school was probably at the height of its popularity cal Orthodox' group of theologians, centred around John
at the beginning of the seventeenth century; during the Milbank and Catherine Pickstock.
sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries there were even
special Scotist chairs, e.g. at Paris, Rome, Coimbra, Salamanca, Alcal, Padua, and Pavia. It ourished well into 137.7 Bibliography
the seventeenth century, and its inuence can be seen in
such writers as Descartes and Bramhall. Interest dwin- Works in rough chronological order
dled in the eighteenth century, and the revival of scholastic philosophy, known as Neo-Scholasticism, was essen Before 1295:
tially a revival of Thomistic thinking.
Parva logicalia
137.6.3
Twentieth century
The twentieth century saw a resurgence of interest in Scotus, with a range of assessments of his thought.
On the one hand, Scotus has received interest from secular philosophers such as Peter King, Gyula Klima, Paul
Vincent Spade and others.
For some today, Scotus is one of the most important
Franciscan theologians and the founder of Scotism, a
special form of Scholasticism. He came out of the Old
Franciscan School, to which Haymo of Faversham (died
1244), Alexander of Hales (died 1245), John of Rupella (died 1245), William of Melitona (died 1260), St.
Bonaventure (died 1274), Cardinal Matthew of Aquasparta (died 1289), John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1292), Richard of Middletown (died c. 1300),
etc., belonged. He was known as Doctor Subtilisbecause of the subtle distinctions and nuances of his thinking. Later philosophers in the sixteenth century were
less complimentary about his work, and accused him of
sophistry. This led to his name, "dunce" (which developed from the name Dunsegiven to his followers in
the 1500s) to become synonymous for somebody who
is incapable of scholarship".
137.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Theoremata
Spurious works
De Rerum Principio (Of the Beginning of Things)
An inauthentic work once attributed to Scotus.
Latin editions
OPERA OMNIA. (Wadding Edition, so-called after its editor Luke Wadding) Lyon, 1639; reprinted
Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung,
1968. [Despite the title, this edition does not represent all the works of Scotus. Certain works printed
in it are no longer attributed to Scotus; certain works
by Scotus are omitted (including his early Lecturaon the Sentences of Peter Lombard); what
the book presents as Book I of Scotus's lateReportatiois in fact an entirely separate work whose
authenticity and authority are vigorously disputed.]
OPERA OMNIA. ('Vatican Edition= VE) Civitas
Vaticana: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis, 1950.
427
LECTURA
XVI, Lectura in Librum Primum Sententiarum. Prologus et Distinctiones 1-7, 1960.
XVII, Lectura in Librum Primum Sententiarum. Distinctiones 8-45, 1966.
XVIII, Lectura in Librum Secundum Sententiarum. Distinctiones 1-6, 1982.
XIX, Lectura in Librum Secundum Sententiarum. Distinctiones 7-44, 1993.
XX, Lectura in Librum Tertium Sententiarum.
Distinctiones 1-17, 2003.
XXI, Lectura in Librum Tertium Sententiarum. Distinctiones 18-40, 2004.
OPERA PHILOSOPHICA (= OP). St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute:, 19972006:
Vol. I: Quaestiones super Porphyrius Isagoge
et Aristoteles Categoriae, Franciscan Institute
Publications, 1999. ISBN 978-1-57659-1215
Vol. II: Quaestiones super Peri hermeneias et
Sophistici Elenchis (along with) Theoremata,
Franciscan Institute Publications, 2004, ISBN
978-1-57659-122-2.
Vol. III-IV: Quaestiones super libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis Franciscan Institute
Publications, 2004. ISBN 978-1-57659-1246.
Vol. V: Quaestiones super Secundum et Tertium de Anima. Franciscan Institute Publications, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8132-1422-1.
The Examined Report of the Paris Lecture, Reportatio I-A, Volume 1, edited and translated by Allan
B. Wolter, OFM and Oleg Bychkov. Franciscan Institute Publications, 2004 ISBN 978-1-57659-1932
The Examined Report of the Paris Lecture, Reportatio I-A, Volume 2, edited and translated by Allan
B. Wolter, OFM and Oleg Bychkov. Franciscan Institute Publications, 2008. ISBN 978-1-57659-1505
English translations
John Duns Scotus, A Treatise on God as First Principle. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press 1982. A
Latin text and English translation of the De Primo
Principio. Second edition, revised, with a commentary by Allan Wolter, (First edition 1966).
John Duns Scotus, God and Creatures. The Quodlibetal Questions, Translated by Wolter, Allan B.,
OFM, and Felix Alluntis, Washington, D.C.: The
Catholic University of America Press, 1975.
428
Duns Scotus on the Will and Morality, Translated
by Wolter, Allan B., OFM, Washington, DC: The
Catholic University of America Press, 1986.
Duns Scotus: Philosophical Writings, Translated by
Wolter, Allan B., OFM, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1987.
Duns Scotus
Parisian Proof for the Existence of God,
edited By Allan B. Wolter and Marilyn McCord
Adams, Franciscan Studies 42, 1982, pp. 248321.
[Latin text and English translation).
John Duns Scotus, Contingency and Freedom. Lectura I 39, translation, commentary and introduction by A. Vos Jaczn, H. Veldhuis, A.H.
Looman-Graaskamp, E. Dekker and N.W. den Bok.
The New Synthese Historical Library 4. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer, 1994.
Questions on the Metaphysics of Aristotle by John
Duns Scotus, Translated by Etzkorn, Girard J., and
Allan B. Wolter, OFM, St. Bonaventure, NY: The
Franciscan Institute, 19971998.
John Duns Scotus. Four Questions on Mary, Introduction with Latin text and English translation and
notes by Allan B. Wolter, OFM, Franciscan Institute
Publications, 2000.
137.9 Notes
[1] Together with Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham.
See e.g. the Plato.Stanford.edu articles Duns Scotus
and William of Ockham
[2] People of Note: John Duns Scotus. Duns, Scotland.
[3] Williams 2002, p. 2
[4] Brampton, C. K. (1964).Duns Scotus at Oxford, 1288
1301. Franciscan Studies 24 (Annual II): 520.
[5] Although Vos (2006, p. 23) has objected that 'Duns' was
actually his family name, as someone from Duns would
have been known as 'de Duns'.
[6] Vos 2006 p. 27. See also Roest, Bert (2000). A history of
Franciscan education (c. 12101517). Brill. pp. 2124.
ISBN 978-90-04-11739-6.
[7] Vos 2006 p. 27
[8] John Duns Scotus. Catholic Encyclopedia.
John Duns Scotus. Political and Economic Philosophy, Introduction with Latin text and English translation and notes by Allan B. Wolter, OFM, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2001.
John Duns Scotus. Early Oxford Lecture on Individuation, Introduction with Latin text and English
translation and notes by Allan B. Wolter, OFM, [13] Pini, Giorgio (2005).Univocity in Scotuss Quaestiones
super Metaphysicam: The Solution to a Riddle (PDF).
Franciscan Institute Publications, 2005.
Medioevo 30: 69110.
John Duns Scotus. Questions on Aristotle's Cate- [14] See e.g. Wolter 1995, p. 76 and passim
gories, Translated by Lloyd A. Newton, Washington,
[15] See the introduction to the critical edition: Duns Scoti
DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2014.
Duns Scotus on Time and Existence: The Questions
on Aristotle's 'De interpretatione' , Translated with
Introduction and Commentary by Edward Buckner
and Jack Zupko, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2014.
137.10. REFERENCES
137.10 References
Bos, Egbert P. (1998). John Duns Scotus: Renewal
of Philosophy. Acts of the Third Symposium organized by the Dutch Society for Medieval Philosophy
Medium Aevum. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 97890-420-0081-0.
429
Cross, Richard (ed.), The Opera Theologica of John
Duns Scotus. Proceedings of The Quadruple
Congresson John Duns Scotus, Part 2. Archa Verbi.
Subsidia 4, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2012,
ISBN ISBN 978-3-402-10214-5.
Cross, Richard (2014). Duns Scotus's Theory of
Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-968488-5.
Frank, William A.; Wolter, Allan B. (1995). Duns
Scotus, Metaphysician. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-072-1.
Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Noone, Timothy B. (2003). A
Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-0-631-21672-8.
Grenz, Stanley (2005). The Named God And The
Question Of Being: A Trinitarian Theo-ontology.
Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN
978-0-664-22204-8.
Honderich, Ted (1995). Duns Scotus. The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866132-0.
Honnefelder Ludger, Mhle Hannes, Speer
Andreas, Kobusch Theo, Bullido del Barrio
Susana (eds.), Johannes Duns Scotus 13082008: Die philosophischen Perspektiven seines
Werkes/Investigations into his Philosophy. Proceedings of The Quadruple Congresson John
Duns Scotus, Part 3. Archa Verbi. Subsidia 5,
Franciscan Institute Publications, 2011,ISBN
978-3-402-10215-2.
Ingham, Mary Beth CSJ, and Bychkof, OLef (eds.),
John Duns Scotus, Philosopher. Proceedings ofThe
Quadruple Congresson John Duns Scotus, Part 1.
Archa Verbi. Subsidia 3, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2010, ISBN 978-3-402-10213-8.
Ingham, Mary Beth CSJ, Scotus for Dunces: An Introduction to the Subtle Doctor, Franciscan Institute
Publications, 2003.
Ingham, Mary Beth CSJ, The Harmony of Goodness: Mutuality and Moral Living According to
John Duns Scotus, Franciscan Institute Publications,
1997.
Kretzmann, Norman; Kenny, Anthony; Pinborg,
Jan; Stump, Eleonore (1982). The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52136933-6.
Shannon, Thomas The Ethical Theory of John Duns
Scotus, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1995.
430
Vos, Antonie (2006). The Philosophy of John Duns
Scotus. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
ISBN 978-0-7486-2462-1.
Williams, Thomas (2002). The Cambridge Companion to Duns Scotus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63563-9.
Wolter, Allan B. OFM and O'Neil, Blane OFM,
John Duns Scotus: Mary's Architect, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1993.
Wolter, Allan B. OFM, The Philosophical Theology
of John Duns Scotus, IUthaca, Cornell University
Press, 1990.
Wolter, Allan B. OFM, Scotus and Ockham. Selected Essays, Franciscan Institute Publications,
2003.
Chapter 138
Philip Faber
Philip Faber (Fabri) (1564, Spinata di Brisighella,
Faenza Padua, 28 August 1630) was an Italian
Franciscan theologian, philosopher and noted commentator on Duns Scotus.
138.1 Life
In 1582 he entered the Order of St.
Francis
(Conventuals), at Cremona. After completing his studies, he taught in various monastic schools till he was appointed professor of philosophy in 1603, and in 1606 professor of theology, at the University of Padua, where he
was highly successful as a lecturer.
In 1625 he was elected provincial of the order, and he
again took up his work as professor, expounding the
teachings of Duns Scotus, abandoning the superlative
style of other commentators.
138.2 Works
His most important works are:
Philosophia naturalis Scoti in theoremata distributa(Parma, 1601, revised at Venice, 1606,
1616, 1622, and at Paris, 1622).
Commentaria in quatuor libros sententiarum Duns
Scoti(Venice, 1613; 3rd ed. Paris, 1622);
De Praedestinatione(Venice, 1623), a complement to the rst book of the Sentences;
De restitutione, et extrem unctione(Venice,
1624), an addition to the fourth book of the Sentences;
A treatise 'de Sacramento Ordinis, poenis et censuris ecclesiasticis'" (Venice, 1628).
His work, De Primatu Petri et Romani Ponticisand
hisCommentaries on the Metaphysics of Aristotlewere
published, after Faber's death, by his friend Matthew Ferchius, who prefaced the Commentaries, with a biography of the author.
431
Chapter 139
139.1 Works
Institutionum Dialecticarum. Lisbon: 1564.
Commentariorum in Libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis. Rome: 1577.
Isagoge Philosophica. Lisbon: 1591.
432
Chapter 140
140.1 References
[1] Truman, Ronald W. Spanish Treatises on Government, Society, and Religion in the Time of Philip II. pp. 3968.
[2] http://www.jstor.org/pss/338655
433
Chapter 141
Gilbert de la Porre
Gilbert de la Porre (c. 1075 September 4, 1154), also the school of Chartres}--where Gilbert was chancellor at
known as Gilbert of Poitiers, Gilbertus Porretanus or that momentbacked Abelard. Pope Eugene III presided
Pictaviensis, was a scholastic logician and theologian.
over the trial. During the trial, Gilbert and Bernard were
asked to recite and speak of specic biblical scriptures.
Bernard, being nowhere near as well versed as Gilbert,
was not able to condemn him. It was decided however
141.1 Life
that in order to make the church happy, Gilbert had to
change parts of his book that were not in accordance with
He was born in Poitiers, and completed his rst studies the ocial position on faith. Gilbert died in 1154.
there. He was then educated at Chartres under Bernard
of Chartres, where he learned the dierences between
Aristotle and Plato and later at Laon under Anselm of 141.2 Works
Laon and Ralph of Laon, where he studied biblical scriptures. After his education, he returned to Poitiers, where
its believed he taught. He then returned to Chartres to Gilbert is almost the only logician of the 12th century who
teach logic and theology and took over Chancellor after is quoted by the greater scholastics of the succeeding age.
Bernard from 1126-1140. It is in Paris where we also His chief logical work, the treatise De sex principiis, was
know he gave lectures. From a passage from the text, regarded with a reverence almost equal to that paid to
Dialogue with Ratius and Everard, by the Cistercian Ev- Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous commentaerardus, we learn that Gilbert was more popular in Paris tors, amongst them Albertus Magnus. Owing to the fame
then in Chartres. Everardus writes that he was fourth to of this work, he is mentioned by Dante as the Magister
attend Gilberts lectures in Chartres and three hundredth sex principiorum. The treatise itself is a discussion of the
to attend in Paris. In Paris, John of Salisbury attended Aristotelian categories, specially of the six subordinate
Gilbert's lectures in 1141 and was greatly inuenced by modes.
them. John of Salisbury would later become chancellor Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two classes, one
of Chartres and also wrote over Gilbert saying: He taught essential, the other derivative. Essential or inhering (forgrammar and theology, would whip a student who made mae inhaerentes) in the objects themselves are only suba grammatical error, if he believed a student was wasting stance, quantity, quality and relation in the stricter sense
time in class he would suggest they take up bread making, of that term. The remaining six, when, where, action,
and last when he lectured he used philosophers, orators passion, position and habit, are relative and subordinate
and as well as poets to help interpret.
(formae assistantes). This suggestion has some interest,
Sometime in the 1140s, Gilbert published his Commen- but is of no great value, either in logic or in the theory of
tary on Boethius's, Opuscala Sacra. Although intended knowledge. More important in the history of scholastias an explanation of what Boethius meant, it interpreted cism are the theological consequences to which Gilbert's
the Holy Trinity in such a way that it went against the realism led him.
teachings of the church. In 1142, Gilbert became Bishop
of Poitiers and within the same year two archdeacons,
Arnaud and Calon, denounced Gilbert for his ideas on
the trinity. It was also in 1142 when Gilbert's teaching
position was taken over in Chartres. By 1147, in Paris,
Peter Lombard attacked Gilbert for his trinitarian beliefs. In 1148, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, known as the
great detector of heresies, brought Gilbert to trial. Saint
Bernard had previous reasons to believe Gilbert was a
heretic because when Abelard was tried and condemned,
434
141.3 References
De sex principiis and commentary on the De Trinitate in Migne, Patrologia Latina, lxiv. 1255 and
clxxxviii. 1257
Abb Berthaud, Gilbert de la Porre (Poitiers, 1892)
B. Haurau, De la philosophie scolastique, pp. 294
318
John MarenbonGilbert of Poitiers,Gracia, Jorge
J.E. and Timothy B. Noone (eds.) A companion
to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. (Malden MA:
Blackwell, 2003).
R. Schmid's articleGilbert Porretanusin HerzogHauck, Realencyk. f. protest. Theol. (vol. 6, 1899)
Karl von Prantl, Geschichte d. Logik, ii. 215
Joseph Bach, Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters, ii.
133.
T. Gross-Diaz, The Psalms Commentary of Gilbert
of Poitiers (Leiden, 1995).
F.C. Copleston, A History of Medieval Philosophy
(New York: Harper and Row, 1972).
John Marenbon, Early Medieval Philosophy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
Edouard Jeauneau, Rethinking The School of
Chartres (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
2009).
Arthur Hyman & James J. Walsh, Philosophy in
the Middle Ages (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing
Company, 1974).
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press.
435
Chapter 142
Giles of Rome
Giles of Rome (Latin gidius Romanus, or in Italian
Egidio Colonna; c. 1243, Rome 22 December
1316, Avignon), was an archbishop of Bourges who was
famed for his logician commentary on the Organon by
Aristotle. Giles was styled Doctor Fundatissimus (
Best-Grounded Teacher) by Pope Benedict XIV. He
was Prior General of the Augustinian order, and also authored two other important works, De Ecclesiastica Potestate, a major text of early 14th century papalism, and De
Regimine Principum, a guide book for princes.
142.2 Controversy
Giles was involved in the condemnation of 1277 promulgated by tienne Tempier. Several of his opinions had
been found reprehensible by Archbishop Tempier, and in
1285 Pope Honorius IV asked him for a public retraction.
This, however, was far from lessening his reputation, for
in 1287 a decree of the general chapter of the Augustinians held in Florence, after remarking that Giles's doctrine
shines throughout the whole world(venerabilis magistri
nostri gidii doctrina mundum universum illustrat), commanded all members of the order to accept and defend
all his opinions, written or to be written.
After lling several important positions in his order
he was elected superior-general in 1292. Three years
later Pope Boniface VIII appointed him Archbishop of
Bourges, France, although Jean de Savigny had already
been designated for this see by Pope Celestine V. The
French nobility protested on the ground that Colonna was
an Italian, but his appointment was maintained and approved by the king.
He was present at the Council of Vienne (13111312) in
which the Order of Knights Templars was suppressed.
436
437
VIII and King Philip IV was long believed to have been
favourable to the king. But it has been proved that he
is the author of the treatise De potestate ecclesiastic, in
which the rights of the pope are vindicated. The similarity between this treatise and the bull Unam Sanctam
seems to support the view taken by some writers that he
was the author of the bull.
He had already taken an active part in ending the discussions and controversies concerning the validity of Boniface's election to the papacy. In his treatise De renunciatione Pap sive Apologia pro Bonifacio VIII he shows the
legitimacy of Celestine's resignation and consequently of
Boniface's election. In philosophy and theology he generally follows the opinions of his master, St. Thomas,
whose works he quotes as scripta communia.
The Defensorium seu Correctorium corruptorii librorum
Sancti Thom Acquinatis against the Franciscan William
de la Mare of Oxford is by some attributed to him; but this
remains uncertain. Nevertheless, on many points he holds
independent views and abandons the Thomistic doctrine
to follow the opinions of St. Augustine and of the Franciscan School. He even errs in asserting that, before the
Fall, grace had not been given to Adam, an opinion which
he wrongly attributes to St. Augustine.
Giles wrote a commentary on Guido Cavalcanti's philosophical love canzone Donna me prega(see Enrico
Fenzi, La canzone d'amore di Guido Cavalcanti e i suoi
antichi commenti, Melangolo, 1999).
142.3 Works
142.4 The Aegidian school
438
Naples and Rome, 16831696); this work was abridged
by Anselm Hrmannseder in his Hecatombe theologica (Presburg, 1737). Benignus Sichrowsky (d. 1737)
wrote also Philosophia vindicata ad erroribus philosophorum gentilium iuxta doctrinam S. Augustini et B. gidii
Column (Nuremberg, 1701).
142.5 Translations
On ecclesiastical power: A Medieval Theory of
World Government, edited and translated by RW
Dyson, (New York: Columbia University Press,
2004)
Commentary on the Song of Songs and other writings,
translated by J Rotelle, (Villanova, PA: Augustinian
Press, 1998)
On ecclesiastical power / by Giles of Rome = De ecclesiastica potestate / by Aegidius of Rome, translated
by Arthur P. Monahan, (Lewiston, NY: E Mellen
Press, 1990)
Giles of Rome on ecclesiastical power: the De ecclesiastica potestate of Aegidius Romanus,translated by
R.W. Dyson, (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1986)
Theorems on existence and essence, translated by
Michael V Murray, (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette
University Press, 1952)
Errores philosophorum, translated by John O Riedl,
(Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1944)
142.6 References
Johannes Felix Ossinger, Bibliotheca augustiniana
(Ingolstadt and Vienna, 1768)
Henry Denie and Emile Chatelain, Chartularium
Universitatis Parisiensis (Paris, 1889), I, II, see Index
FRRET, La facult de thol. de Paris et ses doct.
les plus clbres au moyen ge (Paris, 1896), III,
459-475
Hugo von Hurter, Nomenclator (3d ed., Innsbruck,
1906), II, 481-486 and passim for gidian School
LAZARD, Gilles de Rome in Hist. litt. de la France
(Paris, 1888), XXX, 423-566
MATTIOLO, Studio critico sopra Egidio Romano
Colonna in Antologia Agostiniana (Rome, 1896), I
SCHOLZ, gidius von Rom (Stuttgart, 1902)
WERNER, Die Scholastik des spt. M. A., III, Der
Augustinismus des spt. M. A. (Vienna, 1863)
Chapter 143
John Hennon
John (Johannes) Hennon (died after 1484) was a
medieval philosopher in the late Scholastic tradition.
He was from Nijmegen, and studied at the University
of Paris, where he received his magister artium and
baccalaureus formatus in sacra pagina (1463).
As a student of Paris, Hennon was heavily inuenced by
William of Ockham and Roger Bacon. He wrote a Latin
commentary on the Physics of Aristotle, the Commentarii
in Aristotelis libros Physicorum, which was completed on
1 October 1473 if a seventeenth-century source is to be
believed.* [1] Examining the state of science in the late
Middle Ages, physicist, historian, and philosopher Pierre
Duhem, in Le systme du monde, isolates Hennon's account of the vacuum and a plurality of worlds.
143.1 Sources
Duhem, Pierre; Roger Ariew, ed. and trans. 1985.
Medieval Cosmology: Theories of Innity, Place,
Time, Void, and the Plurality of Worlds. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16922-7.
Hennon believed that nature abhors a vacuum and therefore no natural void was possible, though God could create one. A void, however, is not dened by a positive
distance between surfaces in which there is nothing, but
rather as the capacity (potentialitas) for a body to be interposed between the two surfaces equal to that which is
there when it is full. Hennon arms that ice is denser
than liquid water, and that a sealed vase of water will
break upon freezing because nature abhors a vacuum.
He believes further that two smooth plates could not be
separated (again, because nature abhors a vacuum) unless there were some air still between them, which with
enough force may become rareed, allowing the plates to
be separated.
Hennon is less original on a plurality of worlds, where he
borrows text verbatim from Albert of Saxony's Quaestiones in libros de Caelo et Mundo. He follows Albert and
John Buridan in asserting that a multiplicity of worlds is
not contradictory and therefore possible through divien
omnipotence. In fact, God could create an innite multitude of beings, since Hennon nds no contradiction between innity and magnitude. Duhem in his analysis of
Hennon's chapter De Caelo et Mundo, argues that Hennon
relied on the Condemnations of 1277 by Stephen Tempier
to attack Aristotelian physics, and thus the position that
the earth cannot move.* [2]
143.3 Notes
[1] The manuscript is preserved in the Bibliothque nationale
de France, fonds latin, no. 6529. The commentaries begin on folio 4r, where in the seventeenth century somebody wrote: Magistri Johannis Hennon Commentarii in
Aristotelis libros Physicorum, parva naturalis et metaphysicam, completi die prima octobris anno 1473, ut habetur in
ultima pagina hujus libri.
[2] Hennon refers to the specic article of condemnation
Quod Deus non posset movere Caelum motus recto, error:
That God could not move the heavens with rectilinear
motion, an error.
439
Chapter 144
Henricus de Gandavo
Henricus Heinbuche de Langenstein
Henricus Totting de Oyta
Hermannus Alemannus
Jacobus Capocci de Viterbio
Aegidius Romanus
Jacobus Veneticus
Albertus Magnus
Johannes Argyropulus
Albertus de Saxonia
Andreas de Biliis: Commentaries on Metaphysics
and On the Heavens book 4.* [1]
Johannes Buridanus
Johannes Duns Scotus
Bartholomaeus de Brugis
Johannes de Glogovia
Johannes de Janduno
Boethius
Johannes Pecham
Boethius de Dacia
Johannes Saresburiensis
Bonaventura
Johannes Versoris
Caietanus de Thienis
Johannes Wyclif
Christophorus Landinus
Laurentius Vallensis
Marsilius de Inghen
Georgius Trapezuntius
Marsilius Mainardinus
Godefridus de Fontibus
Michael Scotus
Gualterus de Burley
Nicolaus Oresme
Guillelmus de Conchis
Guillelmus de Heytesbury
Guillelmus de Ockham
Petrus Abaelardus
Guillelmus de Shirwode
Petrus de Abano
Heimericus de Campo
Petrus de Alliaco
440
144.2. NOTES
Petrus de Alvernia
Petrus Hispanus
Petrus Martinez de Osma
Radulphus Reginaldi Britonis
Remigius de Florentia
Richardus de Lavenham commentaries on the
Physics and Ethics* [2]
Robertus Grosseteste
Robertus de Kilwardby
Rogerus Bacon
Sigerus de Brabantia
Simon de Faversham
Stephanus Tempier
Theodoricus Brito
Thomas de Aquino
Thomas Bradwardinus
Thomas de Erfordia
Thomas de Sutton
144.2 Notes
[1] Paul F. Grendler (29 September 2004). The Universities
of the Italian Renaissance. JHU Press. p. 321. ISBN
978-0-8018-8055-1. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
[2] Norman Kretzmann; Anthony Kenny; Jan Pinborg;
Eleonore Stump (29 July 1988). The Cambridge History
of Later Medieval Philosophy: From the Rediscovery of
Aristotle to the Disintegration of Scholasticism, 1100-1600.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 882. ISBN 978-0-52136933-6. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
441
Chapter 145
145.1 Life
145.1.1 School
145.1.2 University
It is not known whether he attended university in Scotland
as a student there are no matriculation records of him
and he claimed never to have seen the university town of
St Andrews, Fife as a young man (though he did complain
later of its bad beer). He seems to have decided to prepare
for Paris at Cambridge in England. He says that in 1492
he attendedGods House, which later became Christ's
College.* [1] He remembers the bells on great feast
442
145.1. LIFE
443
days, I spent half the night listening to them but was ophy...
obviously well-prepared, as he left for Paris after three In 1518 he returned to Scotland to become Principal of
terms.
the University of Glasgow (and also canon of the catheIn 1493 he matriculated in the University of Paris, dral, vicar of Dunlop and Treasurer of the Chapel Royal).
France, then the foremost University in Europe. He stud- He returned to Paris several times by sea one time, getied at the Collge Sainte-Barbe and took his Bachelor ting delayed in Dieppe for three weeks by a storm; and by
of Arts degree there in 1495 followed by his Master's land another time, having dinner en route through Engdegree in 1496. There were many currents of thought land with his friend, Cardinal Wolsey. He oered Main Paris but he was heavily inuenced, as were fellow jor a post, which he declined, in his new college at the
Scots such as Lawrence of Lindores by the nominalist and University of Oxford, to be called Cardinal's College,
empiricist approach of John Buridan. (The latter's inu- (later Christ Church, Oxford). In 1528, King Francis I
ence on Copernicus and Galileo can be traced through of France issued Major with a patent of naturalisation,
Majors published works). He became a student mas- making him a naturalised subject of France.
ter ('regent') in Arts in the Collge de Montaigu in1496 In 1533 he was made Provost of St Salvator's College in
and began the study of theology under the formidable Jan the University of St Andrews to which thronged many
Standonck. He consorted with scholars of later renown, of the most signicant men in Scotland, including John
some from his hometown, Robert Walterston, and his Knox and George Buchanan. He missed Paris When
home country (David Cranston of Glasgow, who died I was in Scotland, I often thought how I would go back to
in 1512), but mostly they were the luminaries of the Paris and give lectures as I used to and hear disputations
age, including Erasmus, whose reforming enthusiasms he . He died in 1550 (perhaps on 1 May), his works read
shared, Rabelais and Reginald Pole. In the winter of 1497 throughout Europe, his name honoured everywhere, just
he had a serious illness, from which he never completely as the storms of the Reformation were about to sweep
recovered. He had never had dreams before, but ever af- away, at least in his own country, any respect for his
terwards he was troubled by dreams, migraine, colic and centuries-old methodology.
excessive sleepiness(he was always hard to awaken).
In 1499, he moved to the College of Navarre. In 1501, he
received his degree of Bachelor of Sacred Theology and
in 1505 his logical writings were collected and published 145.1.4 Some publications by John Major
for the rst time. In 1506 he was licensed to teach the Heinrich Totting von Oytha's abbreviation of Adam
ology and was awarded the degree of Doctor of Sacred
de Wodeham's Oxford Lectures, edited by Major,
Theology on 11 November that year (coming 3rd in the
Paris 1512.
listings). He taught at the Collge de Montaigu (where he
was, temporarily joint Director) and also the prestigious
Lectures in logic (Lyons 1516)
Sorbonne, where he served on many commissions.
145.1.3
Later career
444
145.2 Inuence
145.2.1
Historians
His De Gestis Scotorum (Paris, 1521) was partly a patriotic attempt to raise the prole of his native country, but
was also an attempt to clear away myth and fable, basing
his history on evidence. In this, he was following in the
footsteps of his predecessor, the Chronicler Andrew of
Wyntoun, though writing in Latin for a European audience as opposed to the Scots Andrew wrote for his aristocratic Scots patrons. Although the documentary evidence available to Major was limited, his scholarly approach was adopted and improved by later historians of
Scotland, including his pupil Hector Boece and John Lesley.
145.2.2
145.2.3 Knox
Major wrote in his Commentary on the Sentences of Peter
Lombard Our native soil attracts us with a secret and
inexpressible sweetness and does not permit us to forget
it. He returned to Scotland in 1518. Given his success and experience in Paris, it is no surprise that he became the Principal of the University of Glasgow. In 1523
left for the University of St Andrews where he was assessor to the Dean of Arts. In 1525 he went again to
Paris from where he returned in 1531 eventually to become Provost of St Salvator's College, St Andrews until his death in 1550, aged about eighty three. One of
his most notable students was John Knox (coincidentally,
another native of Haddington) who said of Major that he
was such as "whose work was then held as an oracle on
the matters of religion" If this is not exactly a ringing endorsement, it is not hard to see in Knox's preaching an
intense version of Major's enthusiasms the utter freedom of God, the importance of the Bible, scepticism of
earthly authority. It might be more surprising that Major preferred to follow his friend Erasmus's example and
remain within the Roman Catholic Church (though he
did envisage a national church for Scotland). Major also
enthused other Scottish Reformers including the Protestant martyr Patrick Hamilton and the Latin stylist George
Buchanan, whose enthusiasm for witty Latinisms had him
waspishly suggesting that the only thing major about his
ex-teacher was his surname typical Renaissance disdain
for the Schoolmen.
145.2.4 Empiricism
Major and his circle were interested in the structures of
language spoken, written and 'mental'. This latter was
the language which underlies the thoughts that are expressed in natural languages, like Scots, English or Latin.
He attacks a whole range of questions from a generally
'nominalist' perspective a form of philosophical discourse whose tradition derives from the high Middle Ages
and was to continue into that of the Scottish and other
European empiricists. According to Alexander Broadie,
Major's inuence on this latter tradition reached as far
as the 18th and 19th century Scottish School of Common Sense initiated by Thomas Reid. The highly logical
and technical approach of Medieval philosophy perhaps added to by Major's poor written style as well as
his adherence to the Catholic party at the time of the
Reformation explain in some part why this inuence
is still somewhat occluded.
145.2.5
Human rights
445
Renaudet, Augustin, Prrforme et Humanisme
Paris pendant les premires guerres d'Italie (1494
1516) Bibliotque del l'Institut Franais de Florence (Universit de Grenobles 1st series Volume VI)'
douard Champion Paris 1916
Thomas, H Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire London 2003 Weidenfeld and Nicolson
ISBN 0-297-64563-3
Thomas Reid
145.4 Notes
145.5 References
Broadie, A The Circle of John Mair: Logic and Logicians in Pre-Reformation Scotland, Oxford 1985
Broadie, A The Tradition of Scottish Philosophy Edinburgh 1990 Polygon ISBN 0-7486-6029-1
Durkan, J New light on John Mair Innes Review Vol
IV Edinburgh 1954
Major, John A history of Greater Britain, as well
England as Scotland; translated from the original
Latin and edited with notes by Archibald Constable,
to which is prexed a life of the author by Aeneas
J.G. Mackay. Edinburgh University Press for the
Scottish History Society, (1892).
446
"John Mayor". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York:
Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
Major, John scolasticon.fr a database on Medieval scholars
Chapter 146
Lambertus de Monte
Lambertus de Monte (Domini), also called Lambert of Cologne or, in Dutch, Lambertus van 'sHeerenbergh (1430/51499), was a Dutch scholastic
and Thomist. He went to the University of Cologne in
1450, where he was taught by his uncle Gerhardus de
Monte, and received his Master of Arts in 1454, holding
an arts professorship there from 1455 until 1473, when he
became a doctor of theology. He then taught in the faculty of theology until his death. He was the third doctor
of the bursa Montana.
146.2 References
He wrote several Thomist commentaries on Aristotle, including the Physics, De anima, and the logica nova, most
of which were printed in Cologne during his lifetime or
shortly thereafter. He was a defender of the Thomistic interpretation of Aristotle against that of Albert the Great
and his followers. He was a member of the Schola
Coloniensis of Thomists. Notably, he argued for Aristotle's salvation against the scholarly consensus that Aristotle was in Hell. He also wrote copulata on Peter of
Spain. Besides Thomas and Gerhardus, he was inuenced
by Henry of Gorkum, Gerhardus' teacher.
146.1 Works
Copulata totius novae logicae Aristotelis
Copulata super libros De anima Aristotelis (Expositio ... circa tres libros De anima Aristotelis), rst
published 1485, 1492
Compilatio commentaria ... in octo libros Aristotelis
De physico (Prohemium Phisicorum), rst published 1493, 1498
Copulata omnium tractatuum Petri Hispani etiam
(syncategorematum et) parvorum logicalium ac
trium modernorum secundum doctrinam Thomae
Aquinatis cum textu
De salvatione Arestotelis, rst published c. 1498
447
Chapter 147
William of Ockham
was never made regent master.* [3] Because of this, he
acquired the honoric title Venerabilis Inceptor, orVenerable Beginner(an inceptor was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities* [4]).
His work in this period became the subject of controversy, and Ockham was summoned before the Papal court
of Avignon in 1324 under charges of heresy. During
the Middle Ages, theologian Peter Lombard's Sentences
(1150) had become a standard work of theology, and
many ambitious theological scholars wrote commentaries
on it.* [5] William of Ockham was among these scholarly
commentators. However, Ockham's commentary was not
well received by his colleagues, or by the Church authorities. In 1324, his commentary was condemned as
unorthodox by a synod of bishops, and he was ordered
to Avignon, France, to defend himself before a papal
court.* [5] For two years, he was conned to a Franciscan house, until he was condemned as a heretic in 1326.
147.1 Life
William of Ockham joined the Franciscan order at an
early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the
University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, but while he
completed all the requirements for a master's degree in
theology (the 14th century equivalent of a doctorate ) he
448
147.3.1
Nominalism
Ockham was a pioneer of nominalism, and some consider him the father of modern epistemology, because
of his strongly argued position that only individuals exist, rather than supra-individual universals, essences, or
forms, and that universals are the products of abstraction
449
from individuals by the human mind and have no extramental existence.* [12] He denied the real existence of
metaphysical universals and advocated the reduction of
ontology. Ockham is sometimes considered an advocate
of conceptualism rather than nominalism, for whereas
nominalists held that universals were merely names, i.e.
words rather than existing realities, conceptualists held
that they were mental concepts, i.e. the names were
names of concepts, which do exist, although only in the
mind. Therefore, the universal concept has for its object,
not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and whichsupposesin the mind the things to
which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time
being, the place of the things which it represents. It is the
term of the reective act of the mind. Hence the universal is not a mere word, as Roscelin taught, nor a sermo,
as Abelard held, namely the word as used in the sentence,
but the mental substitute for real things, and the term of
the reective process. For this reason Ockham has sometimes also been called a terminist, to distinguish him
from a nominalist or a conceptualist.* [13]
Ockham was a theological voluntarist who believed that
if God had wanted to, he could have become incarnate as
a donkey or an ox, or even as both a donkey and a man
at the same time. He was criticized for this belief by his
fellow theologians and philosophers.* [14]
450
147.3.4
Theory of knowledge
147.3.5
Political theory
Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. He was one of the rst medieval authors to advocate a form of church/state separation, and
was important for the early development of the notion of
property rights. His political ideas are regarded asnaturalorsecular, holding for a secular absolutism. The
views on monarchical accountability espoused in his Dialogus (written between 1332 and 1347)* [18] greatly inuenced the Conciliar movement and assisted in the emergence of liberal democratic ideologies.
147.4 Literary
hamism/nominalism
Ock-
Ockham and his works have been discussed as a possible inuence on several late medieval literary gures and
works, especially Georey Chaucer, but also Jean Molinet, the Gawain poet, Franois Rabelais, John Skelton,
Julian of Norwich, the York and Townely Plays, and Renaissance romances. Only in very few of these cases is
it possible to demonstrate direct links to Ockham or his
texts. Correspondences between Ockhamist and Nominalist philosophy/theology and literary texts from medieval to postmodern times have been discussed within
the scholarly paradigm of literary nominalism.* [24] ErasOckham was for complete separation of spiritual rule and mus criticized him together with Duns Scot as fuelling
earthly rule. He thought that the pope and churchmen unnessary controversies inside the Church in his Praise
have no right or grounds at all for secular rule like having of Folly.
property, citing 2 Tim. 2:4. That belongs solely to earthly
rulers, who may also accuse the pope of crimes, if need
be. * [19]
After the Fall the God had given men, also nonChristians, two powers: private ownership and the right to
set their rulers, who should serve the interest of the people, not some special interests. Thus he preceded Thomas
Hobbes in formulating social contract theory along with
earlier scholars. * [19]
147.5 Works
451
Books IIIV (Reportatio) 1317-18 (transcription of the lectures; OT 5-7).
The political works, all but the Dialogus, have been edited
in H. S. Oer, et al., eds. Guilelmi de Ockham Opera Politica, 4 vols., 194097, Manchester: Manchester University Press [vols. 13]; Oxford: Oxford University Press
[vol. 4].
Philosophical writings
Breviloquium (134142).
147.5.2
Theological writings
452
Ernest Addison Moody
Occam programming language
Ockham algebra
Oxford Franciscan school
Rule according to higher law
Terminism
Voluntarism (theology)
Adam de Wodeham
147.7 Notes
[1] There are claims also that he was born in Ockham, Yorkshire but it is now accepted that his birth place was in Surrey. See Wood, Rega (1997). Ockham on the Virtues.
Purdue University Press. pp. 3, 67n1. ISBN 978-155753-097-4.
[19] Virpi Mkinen, Keskiajan aatehistoria, Atena Kustannus Oy, Jyvskyl, 2003, ISBN 9517963106,
9789517963107.
Pages 160, 167-168, 202, 204,
207-209.
[20] In his Summa Logicae, part II, sections 32 and 33.Translated on page 80 of Philosophical Writings, tr. P. Boehner,
rev. S. Brown, (Indianapolis, IN, 1990)
147.8 References
147.9 Translations
Philosophical works
Philosophical Writings, tr. P Boehner, rev. S Brown,
(Indianapolis, IN, 1990)
453
Tractatus de principiis theologiae, translated in A
compendium of Ockham's teachings: a translation
of the Tractatus de principiis theologiae, translated
by Julian Davies, (St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan
Institute, St. Bonaventure University, 1998)
On the Power of Emperors and Popes, translated by
Annabel S. Brett, (Bristol, 1998)
Rega Wood, Ockham on the Virtues, (West
Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1997) [includes translation of On the Connection of the
Virtues]
A Letter to the Friars Minor, and Other Writings,
translated by John Kilcullen, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) [includes translation
of Epistola ad Fratres Minores]
A Short Discourse on the Tyrannical Government,
translated by John Kilcullen, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992) [translation of Breviloquium de principatu tyrannico]
The De sacramento altaris of William of Ockham, translated by T Bruce Birch, (Burlington,
Iowa: Lutheran Literary Board, 1930) [translation
of Treatise on Quantity and On the Body of Christ]
William of Ockham, [Question One of] Eight
Questions on the Power of the Pope, translated
by Jonathan Robinson, available online: http://
individual.utoronto.ca/jwrobinson/#Translations
454
Pelletier, Jenny (2012). William Ockham on Metaphysics. The Science of Being and God. Leiden:
Brill. ISBN 978-9-0042-3015-6.
Robinson, Jonathan (2012). William of Ockham's
Early Theory of Property Rights in Context. Leiden:
Brill. ISBN 978-9-0042-4346-0.
McGrade, Arthur Stephen (2002). The Political
Thought of William Ockham. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52224-3.
Schierbaum, Sonja (2014). Ockham's Assumption of
Mental Speech: Thinking in a World of Particulars.
Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9-0042-7734-2.
Spade, Paul (1999). The Cambridge Companion to
Ockham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-58244-X.
Wood, Rega (1997). Ockham on the Virtues. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-097-4.
Chapter 148
Gerardus Odonis
Gerardus Odonis,* [1] (born probably at Chteauroux,
in the present department of Indre, France, date unknown; died at Catania, Sicily in 1349) was a French
theologian and Minister General of the Franciscan Order.* [2]
of monks. These regulations were conrmed, 28 November 1336, by Pope Benedict XII(133442); consequently
Gerardus was able at the chapter held at Cahors, 7 June
1337, to obtain, in spite of strong opposition, the enactment of the so-called Constitutiones Benedictinae.
Nevertheless, he was in danger of being removed from his
position, nor did the statutes remain in force longer that
the lifetime of Benedict XII and the period during which
148.1 Life
Gerardus was general. The general chapter of Assisi abrogated, 1 June 1343, theConstitutiones Benedictinae
Whether he was the son of Count Andr de Chauvigny and re-enacted, with some additions, the constitutions of
is very doubtful. After he had entered the Order of St. Narbonne (1260).
Francis, most probably at Chteauroux, and consequently
had belonged to the Touraine province of the order, he Gerardus Odonis both resembled and imitated Elias of
became a member of the Aquitanian province and still be- Cortona, the minister general second in succession from
longed to this latter (without, however, being provincial St. Francis of Assisi. In union with the pope, he zealously
minister) when he was elected minister general of the or- promoted Franciscan missions, constantly sending fresh
der, 10 June 1329, at the general chapter. The presiding missionaries to Persia, Georgia, Armenia (1329); Malocer of this chapter was Cardinal de la Tour, a Francis- abar (1330), China and Tatary (1331); Bosnia (1340).
can, whom Pope John XXII had appointed vicar-general In 1329 John XXII sent him to King Charles Robert of
of the order. The previous minister general, Michael of Hungary and to Ban Stephen of Bosnia for the purpose of
Cesena, had been deposed by John XXII on 6 June 1328. bringing about the extermination of the heretics, largely
Gerardus Odonis was inclined to give up poverty, the Patarenes, in these countries. On 5 September 1333, Gerprinciple of the order, on account of which Michael of ardus and the Dominican Arnauld de Saint-Michel (ArCesena had come into conict with the pope. The general nauldus de S. Michaele) were appointed papal legates to
chapter held at Paris (1329) took a position, in the name make peace between the Kings of England and Scotland.
of the entire order, on the side of the pope and formally The procurator of the Scottish king in Paris having reexpelled the small party made up of Michael of Cesena's ported, however, that his master was not to be found in
Scotland, John recalled the commission of the legates, 31
adherents.
October 1333.
Gerardus Odonis openly showed his readiness to abandon
the rule of poverty at the general chapter of Perpignan Gerardus remained in Paris and defended before a large
(1331), where he won over to his side fourteen provincial number of professors of the university, on 18 Decemministers. In reference to this question they presented ber 1333, the opinion of John XXII concerning the
a petition to John XXII which the pope rejected in the Visio beatica, namely, that the saints do not enjoy
consistory of 1 August 1331. Owing to his views con- the complete Beatic Vision until after the Last Judgcerning poverty Gerardus also became entangled in a dis- ment. The University of Paris was greatly agitated by
pute with King Robert and Queen Sanzia of Naples and the controversy, and the next day, 19 December, Philip
Sicily. These rulers were protectors of the rigid adher- VI of France called together twenty-nine professors at
ents to the rule of poverty as well as of the followers of Vincennes to discuss the question. This assembly disMichael of Cesena and of the Fraticelli. Notwithstand- sented from the opinion of the pope, as did also a second
ing the papal letters of admonition and the fact that John assembly which met 2 Jan., 1334. John XXII withdrew
XXII sent Gerardus Odonis as his representative to the his opinion, 3 December 1334.
Court of Naples in 1331 and the following year, Gerar- Gerardus Odonis was also one of the commission of
dus had new statutes drawn up with the view of changing sixteen masters of theology which met by command of
the form of the Franciscan Order to that of the old orders
455
456
Benedict XII from 4 July to 4 Sept., 1334, at PontSorgues near Avignon, to discuss, under the pope's presidency, the question of the Visio beatica. On 27 Nov.,
1342, Benedict XII appointed him Patriarch of Antioch
and at the same time Bishop of Catania* [3] in Sicily.
148.3 Works
Apart from the Constitutiones Benedictinaeand the
Ocium de stigmatibus S. Francisci, still recited in he
Franciscan Order and commonly attributed to Gerardus,
the best known of his writings is hisCommentarius [Expositio] in Aristotelis Ethicam(Brescia, 1482, Venice,
1500). This work brought him the honour later of being
called Doctor Moralis. He also wrote on logic and a treatise entitledPhilosophia Naturalis, in which he is said
to have apparently taught Atomism; another work was a
Commentarius in IV libros Sententiarum. Among his
exegetical works are: De guris Bibliorum, and treatises on the Psalter, the First Epistle to the Corinthians,
and the Epistle to the Galatians, besidesSermones. In
addition to taking severe measures against the adherents
of the deposed Michael of Cesena, Gerardus addressed
to the latter the writing Quid niteris, to which, however, Cesena soon made a rejoinder beginning Teste
Salomone.
148.4 Notes
[1] Geraldus Othonis, or Ottonis
[2] "Gerardus Odonis". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York:
Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
[3] Gerard of Odo.
[4] Ziegler, Philip (1969). The Black Death. Collins. pp.
4043.
148.5 References
Giraldus Odonis O. F. M.: Opera Philosophica, Critical edition from the manuscripts by L. M. De Rijk,
Chapter 149
Peter of Auvergne
For the troubadour of the same name, see Peire
d'Alvernhe.
149.2 Notes
[1] Gallia Christiana, II, 283
149.3 References
Du Boulay, Hist. Univ. de Paris, III (Paris, 1666),
709; Hist. ant. eccl. XIV (Paris, 1701), 214
Denie, Cart. Univ. Paris, I (Paris, 1889), 930; II,
69, 90
149.1 Works
458
149.4 Translations
Questions on Aristotle's De caelo , ed. G Galle, (Leuven, 2003)
Commentary on Aristotle's On Length and Shortness
of Life , ed. M Dunne, Archives d'histoire doctrinale
et litteraire du moyen age 69, (2002), 153-200
Robert Andrews (1988) Peter of Auvergne's commentary on Aristotle's 'Categories': Edition, translation, and analysis. (Volumes I and II) UMI Dissertation Express (Ref. n 8804534)
Questions on Books I and II of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, ed. A Celano, Mediaeval Studies
48, (1986), 1-110
The Commentary of Peter of Auvergne on Aristotle's
Politics, ed. GM Grech, (Rome, 1967)
Questiones in Metaphysicam, ed. A Monahan, in
JR O'Donnell, ed, Nine Mediaeval Thinkers: A Collection of Hitherto Unedited Texts, (Toronto, 1955),
145-181
This article incorporates text from a publication now in
the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913).
"Peter of Auvergne". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
Chapter 150
Pietro Pomponazzi
Pietro Pomponazzi (16 September 1462 18 May study Aristotle for himself, and devoted himself to the
1525) was an Italian philosopher. He is sometimes known De anima with the view of showing that Thomas Aquinas
by his Latin name, Petrus Pomponatius.
had entirely misconceived the Aristotelian theory of the
active and the passive intellect.
150.1 Biography
Pomponazzi was born in Mantua and began his education
there. He completed his studies at Padua, where he became a medical doctor in 1487. In 1488 he was elected
extraordinary professor of philosophy at Padua, where he
was a colleague of Alessandro Achillini, the Averroist.
From about 1495 to 1509 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy until the closing of the schools of Padua,
when he took a professorship at Ferrara where he lectured
on the Aristotle's De anima (the soul). In 1512 he was invited to Bologna where he remained until his death and
where he produced all his important works.
The predominance of medical science at Padua had
cramped his energies, but at Ferrara, and even more at
Bologna, the study of psychology and theological speculation were more important. In 1516 he produced his
great work De immortalitate animae (On the Immortality
of the Soul), which gave rise to a storm of controversy
between the orthodox Thomists of the Catholic Church,
the Averroists headed by Agostino Nifo, and the so-called
Alexandrist School. The treatise was burned at Venice,
and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of death at the
hands of the Catholics. Two pamphlets followed, the
Apologia and the Defensorium, wherein he explained his
paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic materialist. His last two treatises, the De incantationibus and the
De fato, were posthumously published in an edition of his
works printed at Basel.
460
Chapter 151
Francesco Robortello
Francesco Robortello (Latin: Franciscus Robortellus;
15161567) was a Renaissance humanist, nicknamed Canis grammaticus (the grammatical dog) for his confrontational and demanding manner.
151.1 As scholar
Robortello, who was born in Udine, was an editor of rediscovered works of Antiquity, who taught philosophy
and rhetoric, as well as ethics (following Aristotle), and
Latin and Greek, roving from Padua through universities
461
462
Dionysi Longini rhetoris praestantissimi liber de
grandi sive sublimiorationis genere ... cum adnotationibus, Basel 1554. Recovering the lost literary
criticism of Longinus, On the Sublime.
Thesaurus criticus, 1557, second edition, 1604
De arte, sive ratione corrigendi antiquorum libros disputatio, Florence 1548;* [3] 2nd edition 1562 This
Lecture on the art and method of correcting the
books of the old writerswas one of the rst critical
discussions of the methodologies to apply in correcting texts of Antiquity.
De articio dicendi 1567. A textbook of rhetoric.
151.3 Notes
[1]
[2] Biblioteca comunale di Empoli - Catalogo delle edizioni
del Cinquecento -Scheda 319. Comune.empoli..it. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[3] Firenze, Lorenzo Torrentino, 1548
151.4 References
Ryan, E. E. Robortello and Maggi on Aristotle's
Theory of Catharsis. in Rinascimento XXII (1982)
pp 263273.
Chapter 152
Jakob Schegk
Jakob Schegk (also known as Jakob Degen, Johann Jacob Brucker Schegk, Jakob Schegk the elder, Schegkius,
and Scheckius) (June 6, 1511 May 9, 1587) was a
polymath German Aristotelian philosopher and academic
physician.
ian Aristotelian philosopher Simone Simoni. A committed Aristotelian, he resolutely opposed the philosophical innovations of Petrus Ramus.* [3] He likewise was
involved in a dialogue with Thomas Erastus concerning
the ubiquity of Christ's physical body in the Lord's Supper.* [4]
He took over the administration of the Tbinger Stift giving him the opportunity to develop a competence in theology. He likewise studied law prior to turning his attention to medicine in the 1530s. He took a doctorate
in medicine in 1539 after studying with Leonhard Fuchs
and Michael Rucker. He remained on the arts faculty until joining the medical faculty in 1553. Nevertheless, his
philosophical expertise was too great to go untapped, and
the university gave him the unusual dual commission to
hold lectures in both medicine and Aristotle from 1564
onwards. His poor eyesight hampered his mobility, and
he became totally blind by 1577. He nevertheless continued his academic career. In philosophy, he was a leading
German Lutheran Aristotelian and was regarded as one
of the greatest philosophical authorities of his age.* [2]
He died at Tbingen.
While somewhat neglected by modern scholarship, his
numerous commentaries upon the Aristotelian corpus are
highly regarded, especially his De demonstratione libri
XV. He engaged a long running dispute against the Ital463
464
152.4 Notes
[1] Arthur Richter, Degen, Jakobin Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie, herausgegeben von der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Band 5 (1877), pp. 2122, Digitale Volltext-Ausgabe in
Wikisource, URL: (Version vom 6. April 2011, 02:41
Uhr UTC)
[2] Arthur Richter, Degen, Jakobin Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie,
[3] Howard Hotson, Commonplace Learning: Ramism and its
German Ramications, 15431630 (2007) pp. 22, 102.
[4] Charles D. Gunnoe, Thomas Erastus and the Palatinate: A
Renaissance Physician in the Second Reformation (Leiden:
Brill, 2011), pp. 155-158
[5] Hiro Hirai, The Invisible Hand of God in Seeds: Jacob
Schegks Theory of Plastic Faculty,Early Science and
Medicine 12 (2007) 377-404
[6] Quoted in James Hinz, Jacob Schegk,Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation (Oxford, 1996), vol 4, p. 2
152.5 References
Gnter Frank, Die Vernunft des Gottesgedankens:
Religionsphilosophische Studien zur frhen Neuzeit.
Stuttgart, Bad Cannstatt, 2003 (Quaestiones ; 13).
[Johann Jacob Brucker Schegk]
James Hinz,Jacob Schegk,Oxford Encyclopedia
of the Reformation (Oxford, 1996), vol. 4, p. 2.
ISBN 0-19-506493-3
Hiro Hirai, The Invisible Hand of God in Seeds:
Jacob Schegks Theory of Plastic Faculty,Early
Science and Medicine 12 (2007): 377-404.
Hiro Hirai, Jacob Schegk on the Plastic Faculty
and the Origins of Soulsin Medical humanism and
natural philosophy: Renaissance debates on matter,
life, and the soul (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 81-103.
Sachiko Kusukawa, Lutheran uses of Aristotle:
a comparison between Jacob Schegk and Philip
Melanchthon.In Philosophy in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999),
pp. 169205.
Albert Moll, Jakob Degen und Oswald
Gabelkover,in Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt
des Wrttembergischen rztlichen Veriens 26
(1856): 81-85, 89-92, 97-103
Arthur Richter (1877), "Degen, Jakob (Philosoph)",
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) (in German)
5, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 2122
Chapter 153
Domingo de Soto
Roman Emperor Charles V and the emperor's representative at the Council of Trent.
In the 20th century, Pierre Duhem credited him with important achievements in dynamics* [2] and also viewed
him as a forerunner of modern mechanics.* [3]
153.1 Works
Summulae, 1529.
De ratione tegendi et detegendi secretum, 1541
In dialecticam Aristotelis commentarii, 1544
In VIII libros physicorum, 1545
Deliberacion en la causa de los pobres, 1545
De natura et gratia libri III, 1547
Comment. in Ep. ad Romanos, 1550
De justitia et jure, 1553.
In IV sent. libros comment. 1555-6.
De justitia et jure libri X, 1556
153.2 Notes
New York:
153.3 References
466
History of Economic ThoughtSalamanca School
Chapter 154
Guido Terrena
Guido Terrena (c.1270, Perpignan1342), also known Nicomachean Ethics, Metaphysics, and Physics.
as Guido Terreni and Guy de Perpignan, was a Catalan Other works include the Errores Sarracenorum against
Carmelite canon lawyer and scholastic philosopher.
Islam,* [19] a Summa de haresibus and a Decretum commentary.* [2]
154.1 Life
154.3 Burial place
154.4 References
Guiu Terreni, Confutatio errorum quorundam magistrorum, ed. Alexander Fidora, Almudena Blasco
and Celia Lpez Alcalde, Barcelona: Obrador edndum, 2014.
154.2 Works
He was an early infallibilist;* [7] the concept of papal infallibility is thought to occur rst in a work he wrote concerning the conict of Pope John XXII (131634) and
the Franciscan Spirituals.* [8] It is said that he adapted
this doctrine to papal needs, rather than originating it,* [9]
and before 1328.* [10]
He was a leading member of a small group of infallibilists at the court of Pope John XXII.* [11] His position
on papal infallibility so closely anticipated the doctrine
of Vatican I that in the judgment of B.M. Xiberta, the
Carmelite scholar who edited [Terreni's] work, 'if he had
written it after Vatican I he would have to add or change
hardly a single word.'"* [12] He wrote:We are not asking
whether a pope can be a heretic in himself but whether he
can err in dening anything in the church and obliging the
faithful to believe, so that his error does not concern the
person of the pope alone but concerns all the faithful and
the whole church of Christ. For an error concerning his
person can inhere in the pope, but not an error concerning
the whole church.* [13]
154.5 Notes
He was one of those opposing the views of Arnold of Villanova on the Antichrist;* [14]* [15] and he rst dubbed
Joachim of Fiore a heretic.* [16] He was asked, with
Pierre de la Palud, to report on Peter John Olivi's apocalyptic writing.* [17]* [18]
He wrote commentaries on Aristotle's De anima,
467
[1] Jorge J. E. Gracia, Timothy B. Noone (editors), A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages (2003), p. 291.
[2] http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/1298c-g.htm
[3] Daniel Williman, The Right of Spoil of the Popes of Avignon, 1316-1415 (1988), p. 121.
468
[4] http://symploke.trujaman.org/index.php?title=Guido_
de_Terrena, in Spanish, http://web.archive.org/web/
20091026220045/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/
Atlantis/2572/ObispadoElna.htm
[5] http://pagesperso-orange.fr/jean.pares/seigneur/mosset/
21mosset.htm, in French.
[6] Andrew Jotischky, The Carmelites and Antiquity: Mendicants and Their Pasts in the Middle Ages (2002), p. 26.
[7] Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the
Development of Doctrine (1989), p. 107.
[8] Philippe Levillain,The Papacy: An Encyclopedia (2002),
p. 776.
[9] Paul Misner, Papacy and Development: Newman and the
Primacy of the Pope (1976), note p. 176.
[10] Brian Gogan, The Common Corps of Christendom (1982),
note p. 32.
[11] Thomas Turley, Infallibilists in the Curia of Pope John
XXII(Journal of Medieval History (April 1975), 1 (1),
pp. 71-101 (Abstract)
[12] Mark E. Powell, Papal Infallibility: A Protestant Evaluation of an Ecumenical Issue (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 9780-8028-6284-6), p. 34
[13] Brian Tierney, Origins of papal infallibility, 1150-1350
(Brill 1972), p. 249
[14] Marjorie Reeves, The Inuence of Prophecy in the Later
Middle Ages: A Study in Joachimism (1969), p. 315.
[15] John Anthony Burrow, Ian P. Wei, Medieval Futures: Attitudes to the Future in the Middle Ages (2000), p. 34.
[16] Reeves, p. 69.
[17] From black magic to heresy: a doctrinal leap in the
ponticate of John XXII. Industry & Business Article Research, News, Information, Contacts, Divisions, Subsidiaries, Business Associations
[18] Gordon Le, Heresy in the Later Middle Ages, p. 211.
[19] Joseph Puig, p. 2560 in Andreas Speer, Wissen ber Grenzen: Arabisches wissen und lateinisches Mittelalter (2006).
[20] Sebastiano Fantoni Castrucci, Istoria della Citt
d'Avignone e del Contado Venesino (Venice 1678), vol. 1,
p. 59
Chapter 155
Thomas Aquinas
Aquinasredirects here. For other uses, see Aquinas acquired new luster when the Church declared the teach(disambiguation).
ing of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored
For the ship that sank in 2013, see MV St. Thomas with the special praises of the Pontis, the master and
Aquinas.
patron of Catholic schools.* [10]
Thomas Aquinas, OP (/kwans/; 1225 7 March
1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian* [3]* [4] Dominican friar and Catholic priest and an
immensely inuential philosopher and theologian in the
tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known
as the "Doctor Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis".* [5]
Aquinasis from the county of Aquino, an area where his
family held land until 1137. He was born in Roccasecca,
Italy.
He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His inuence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived in development or opposition of
his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law,
metaphysics, and political theory. Unlike many currents
in the Church of the time,* [6] Thomas embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle whom he referred
to as the Philosopherand attempted to synthesize
Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity.* [7] The works for which he is best known are the
Summa Theologica and the Summa contra Gentiles. His
commentaries on Sacred Scripture and on Aristotle are
an important part of his body of work. Furthermore,
Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which
form a part of the Church's liturgy.* [8]
Thomas is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church
and is held to be the model teacher for those studying
for the priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of
both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works
was long used as a core of the required program of study
for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well
as for those in religious formation and for other students
of the sacred disciplines (philosophy, Catholic theology,
church history, liturgy, canon law).* [9]
155.1 Biography
155.1.1 Early life (12251244)
Thomas was born in Roccasecca, in the Aquino county of
the Kingdom of Sicily (present-day Lazio region, Italy),
c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the
castle of his father, Landulf of Aquino. Thomas's father did not belong to the most powerful branch of the
family and simply held the title miles, while Thomas's
mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of
the Neapolitan Caracciolo family.* [11] Landulf's brother
Sinibald was abbot of the rst Benedictine monastery
at Monte Cassino. While the rest of the family's sons
pursued military careers,* [12] the family intended for
Thomas to follow his uncle into the abbacy;* [13] this
would have been a normal career path for a younger son
of southern Italian nobility.* [14]
At the age of ve Thomas began his early education at
Monte Cassino but after the military conict between
the Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX spilled
into the abbey in early 1239, Landulf and Theodora had
Thomas enrolled at the studium generale (university) recently established by Frederick in Naples.* [15] It was
here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle,
Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would inuence
his theological philosophy.* [16] It was also during his
study at Naples that Thomas came under the inuence
of John of St. Julian, a Dominican preacher in Naples,
who was part of the active eort by the Dominican order to recruit devout followers.* [17] There his teacher in
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus
de Ibernia.* [18]
Also honored as a Doctor of the Church, Thomas is con- At the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the reThomas's change of
sidered the Church's greatest theologian and philosopher. cently founded Dominican Order.
*
[19]
In an attempt to preheart
did
not
please
his
family.
Pope Benedict XV declared:This (Dominican) Order ...
vent Theodora's interference in Thomas's choice, the Do469
470
155.1.2
155.1. BIOGRAPHY
471
While at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale Thomas Thomas wrote two works, one of them being De unitate
472
155.1. BIOGRAPHY
Christ. Christ said to Thomas, You have written well
of me, Thomas. What reward would you have for your
labor?" Thomas responded, Nothing but you, Lord.
*
[49]* [50] After this exchange something happened, but
Thomas never spoke of it or wrote it down. Because of
what he saw, he abandoned his routine and refused to dictate to his socius Reginald of Piperno. When Reginald
begged him to get back to work, Thomas replied:Reginald, I cannot, because all that I have written seems like
straw to me* [51] (mihi videtur ut palea).* [52] What exactly triggered Thomas's change in behavior is believed by
Catholics to have been some kind of supernatural experience of God.* [53] After taking to his bed, he did recover
some strength.* [54]
473
demnation was to clarify that God's absolute power transcended any principles of logic that Aristotle or Averroes
might place on it.* [61] More specically, it contained a
list of 219 propositions that the bishop had determined
to violate the omnipotence of God, and included in this
list were twenty Thomistic propositions. Their inclusion
badly damaged Thomas's reputation for many years.* [62]
155.1.8 Canonization
For centuries, there have been recurring claims that
Aquinas had the ability to levitate. For example, G. K.
Chesterton wrote that, His experiences included wellattested cases of levitation in ecstasy; and the Blessed Virgin appeared to him, comforting him with the welcome
news that he would never be a Bishop.* [60]
155.1.7
Condemnation of 1277
A monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St. Januarius, shows a cell in which he supposedly lived to visitors.
See also: Condemnations of 12101277
His remains were placed in the Church of the Jacobins in
Toulouse on 28 January 1369. Between 1789 and 1974,
In 1277 tienne Tempier, the same bishop of Paris who they were held in the Basilique de Saint-Sernin, Toulouse.
had issued the condemnation of 1270, issued another In 1974, they were returned to the Church of the Jamore extensive condemnation. One aim of this con- cobins, where they have remained ever since.
474
155.2. PHILOSOPHY
can display courage, but it would be courage with temperance. A Christian would display courage with charity.
These are somewhat supernatural and are distinct from
other virtues in their object, namely, God:
475
certain matters. These particular determinations, devised
by human reason, are called human laws, provided the
other essential conditions of law be observed....Human
law is positive law: the natural law applied by governments to societies.* [88]
Thomas thinks that monarchy is the best form of government, because a monarch does not have to form compromises with other persons. Moreover, according to
Thomas, oligarchy degenerates more easily into tyranny
than monarchy. To prevent a king from becoming a
tyrant, his political powers must be curbed. Unless an
agreement of all persons involved can be reached, a
tyrant must be tolerated, as otherwise the political situation could deteriorate into anarchy, which would be even
Concerning the Human Law, Aquinas concludes, "...that worse than tyranny.
just as, in the speculative reason, from naturally known The kings are God's representatives in their territories.
indemonstrable principles, we draw the conclusions of the But the church, represented by the popes, is above the
various sciences, the knowledge of which is not imparted kings in matters of doctrine and morality. As a conseto us by nature, but acquired by the eorts of reason, so quence, the kings and other worldly rulers are obliged to
too it is from the precepts of the natural law, as from gen- adapt their laws to the Catholic church's doctrines and
eral and indemonstrable principles, that the human reason ethics. For example, the worldly authorities have to exneeds to proceed to the more particular determination of ecute persons whom the church has sentenced to death
476
for heresy and they have to ght and subdue groups of of the species to which it belongs, and substantial form is
heretics such as the Albigenses and Waldensians to re- also the structure or conguration that provides the obstore the unity of the church.
ject with the abilities that make the object what it is. For
Following Aristotle's concept of slavery, Thomas justies humans, those abilities are those of the rational animal.
this institution on the grounds of natural law.* [94]
155.2.5
Psychology
Aquinas maintains that a human is a single material substance. He understands the soul as the form of the body,
which makes a human being the composite of the two.
Thus, only living, form-matter composites can truly be
called human; dead bodies are humanonly analogously. One actually existing substance comes from body
and soul. A human is a single material substance, but still
should be understood as having an immaterial soul, which
continues after bodily death.
Ultimately, humans are animals; the animal genus is
body; body is material substance. When embodied, a human person is an individual substance in the category
rational animal.* [95] The body belongs to the essence of
a human being. In his Summa theologiae Aquinas clearly
states his position on the nature of the soul; dening it
as the rst principle of life.* [96] The soul is not corporeal, or a body; it is the act of a body. Because the
intellect is incorporeal, it does not use the bodily organs,
as the operation of anything follows the mode of its
being.* [97]
155.3. THEOLOGY
477
2).
Faith and reason complement rather than contradict each
other, each giving dierent views of the same truth.
155.3.2 Creation
As a Catholic Thomas believed that God is the maker
of heaven and earth, of all that is visible and invisible.Like Aristotle, Thomas posited that life could form
from non-living material or plant life, a theory of ongoing
abiogenesis known as spontaneous generation:
Since the generation of one thing is the
corruption of another, it was not incompatible
with the rst formation of things, that from the
corruption of the less perfect the more perfect
should be generated. Hence animals generated
from the corruption of inanimate things, or of
plants, may have been generated then.* [101]
Additionally Thomas considered Empedocles's theory
that various mutated species emerged at the dawn of Cre17th century sculpture of Thomas Aquinas
ation. Thomas reasoned that these species were generated
through mutations in animal sperm, and argued that they
were not unintended by nature; rather, such species were
pernatural revelation has its origin in the inspiration of simply not intended for perpetual existence. That discusthe Holy Spirit and is made available through the teaching sion is found in his commentary on Aristotle's Physics:
of the prophets, summed up in Holy Scripture, and transmitted by the Magisterium, the sum of which is called
The same thing is true of those substances
Tradition. Natural revelation is the truth available to
Empedocles said were produced at the beginall people through their human nature and powers of reaning of the world, such as the ox-progeny,
son. For example, he felt this applied to rational ways to
i.e., half ox and half man. For if such things
know the existence of God.
were not able to arrive at some end and nal
Though one may deduce the existence of God and his
Attributes (Unity, Truth, Goodness, Power, Knowledge)
through reason, certain specics may be known only
through the special revelation of God in Jesus Christ. The
major theological components of Christianity, such as the
Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in the teachings
of the Church and the Scriptures and may not otherwise
be deduced.* [100]
478
Clearly, some special characteristics sets apart war
from schism, brawling, and sedition.While
it would be contradictory to speak of a just schism,
a just brawlingor a just sedition(the three terms
denote sin and sin only) waralone permits sub classication into good and bad kinds. Curiously, however,
Aquinas does not work up a terminological contrast betweenjustandunjustwar. * [105] Thomas Aquinas,
centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to dene the conditions under which
a war could be just.* [106] He laid these out in his historic
work, Summa Theologica:
155.3. THEOLOGY
8.
479
This Trinity exists independently from the world. It transcends the created world, but the Trinity also decided to
1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as
give grace to human beings. This takes place through the
*
body and soul, or matter and form. [110]
Incarnation of the Word in the person of Jesus Christ and
through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within those who
2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is dishave experienced salvation by God; according to Aidan
tinguished from other beings on account of God's
*
Nichols.
[119]
complete actuality.* [111] Thomas dened God as
the Ipse Actus Essendi subsistens,subsisting act
of being.* [112]
155.3.6 Prima causa rst cause
3. God is innite. That is, God is not nite in the ways
that created beings are physically, intellectually, and
emotionally limited. This innity is to be distinguished from innity of size and innity of number.* [113]
In the Summa Theologica Thomas begins his discussion of Jesus Christ by recounting the biblical story of
Adam and Eve and by describing the negative eects of
original sin. The purpose of Christ's Incarnation was to
restore human nature by removing the contamination of
sin, which humans cannot do by themselves. Divine
Wisdom judged it tting that God should become man,
so that thus one and the same person would be able both
to restore man and to oer satisfaction.* [121] Thomas
argued in favor of the satisfaction view of atonement; that
is, that Jesus Christ died to satisfy for the whole human race, which was sentenced to die on account of sin.
*
[122]
Thomas argued against several specic contemporary and
historical theologians who held diering views about
Christ. In response to Photinus, Thomas stated that Jesus
was truly divine and not simply a human being. Against
Nestorius, who suggested that Son of God was merely
conjoined to the man Christ, Thomas argued that the
fullness of God was an integral part of Christ's existence. However, countering Apollinaris' views, Thomas
held that Christ had a truly human (rational) soul, as well.
This produced a duality of natures in Christ. Thomas
argued against Eutyches that this duality persisted af-
480
ter the Incarnation. Thomas stated that these two na- by means of the Albigensian Crusade. In the Summa thetures existed simultaneously yet distinguishably in one ologiae, he wrote:
real human body, unlike the teachings of Manichaeus and
Valentinus.* [123]
With regard to heretics two points must be
In short Christ had a real body of the same nature of
ours, a true rational soul, and, together with these, perfect
Deity.Thus, there is both unity (in his one hypostasis)
and composition (in his two natures, human and Divine)
in Christ.* [124]
I answer that, The Person or hypostasis of
Christ may be viewed in two ways. First as it is
in itself, and thus it is altogether simple, even
as the Nature of the Word. Secondly, in the
aspect of person or hypostasis to which it belongs to subsist in a nature; and thus the Person
of Christ subsists in two natures. Hence though
there is one subsisting being in Him, yet there
are dierent aspects of subsistence, and hence
He is said to be a composite person, insomuch
as one being subsists in two.* [125]
Echoing Athanasius of Alexandria, he said that The
only begotten Son of God...assumed our nature, so that
he, made man, might make men gods.* [126]
155.3.8
In God's tribunal, those who return are always received, because God is a searcher of
481
after life.* [132] For Aquinas, the rewards and punishment of the afterlife are not only spiritual. Because of
this, resurrection is an important part of his philosophy
on the soul. The human is fullled and complete in the
body, so the hereafter must take place with souls enmattered in resurrected bodies. In addition to spiritual reward, humans can expect to enjoy material and physical
blessings. Because Aquinas's soul requires a body for its
actions, during the afterlife, the soul will also be punished
or rewarded in corporeal existence.
482
being second only to Aristotle among Western philosophers. Joyce refers to Aquinas's doctrines in Elementa
philosophiae ad mentem D. Thomae Aquinatis doctoris
angelici (1898) of Girolamo Maria Mancini, professor of
theology at the Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe.* [134]
For example, Mancini's Elementa is referred to in Joyce's
early masterpiece Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man.* [135]
The inuence of Thomas's aesthetics also can be found in
the works of the Italian semiotician Umberto Eco, who
wrote an essay on aesthetic ideas in Thomas (published
in 1956 and republished in 1988 in a revised edition).
Sacris solemniis
This critique is illustrated on the following examples: Ac St. Thomas Aquinas College
cording to Russell, Aquinas advocates the indissolubility
of marriage on the ground that the father is useful in
School of Salamanca, 16th-century Spanish
the education of the children, (a) because he is more raThomists
tional than the mother, (b) because, being stronger, he is
*
better able to inict physical punishment. [137] Even
Thomas Aquinas and the Sacraments
though modern approaches to education do not support
Thought of Thomas Aquinas
these views, No follower of Saint Thomas would, on
that account, cease to believe in lifelong monogamy, be University of Santo Tomas
cause the real grounds of belief are not those which are
alleged.* [137] It may be countered that the treatment
University of St. Thomas (Minnesota)
of matrimony in the Summa Theologica is in the Supple Verbum Supernum Prodiens
ments volume, which was not written by Aquinas.* [138]
*
Moreover, as noted above, [139] Aquinas's introduction
of arguments and concepts from the pagan Aristotle and Thomists
Muslim Averroes was controversial within the Catholic
Church of his day.
Alasdair MacIntyre
Aquinas's views of God as rst cause, cf. quinque viae,
depend upon the supposed impossibility of a series having no rst term. Every mathematician knows that there
tienne Gilson
G. E. M. Anscombe
155.7. NOTES
483
Brian Davies
Jacques Maritain
Jay Budziszewski
James V. Schall
Josef Pieper
Ralph McInerny
Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange
[19] Collison, Diane, and Kathryn Plant. Fifty Major Philosophers. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2006.
[20] Hampden, The Life, p. 23.
[21] Hampden, The Life, p. 24.
155.7 Notes
[2] http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-thomas-aquinas/
[4] Rev. Vaughan, Roger Bede (1871). The Life and Labours
of St. Thomas of Aquin: Vol.I. London.
[5] See Pius XI, Studiorum Ducem 11 (29 June 1923), AAS,
XV (non modo Angelicum, sed etiam Communem seu
Universalem Ecclesiae Doctorem). The title Doctor
Communis dates to the fourteenth century; the title Doctor
Angelicus dates to the fteenth century, see Walz, Xenia
Thomistica, III, p. 164 n. 4. Tolomeo da Lucca writes
in Historia Ecclesiastica (1317): This man is supreme
among modern teachers of philosophy and theology, and
indeed in every subject. And such is the common view
and opinion, so that nowadays in the University of Paris
they call him the Doctor Communis because of the outstanding clarity of his teaching.Historia Eccles. xxiii, c.
9.
[6] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/
[7] http://www.dartmouthapologia.org/articles/show/125
[8] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31211/
Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
[9] Code of Canon Law, Can. 252, 3
[10] Benedict XV Encyclical Fausto appetente die 29 June
1921, AAS 13 (1921), 332; Pius XI Encyclical Studiorum Ducem 11, 29 June 1923, AAS 15 (1923), cf. AAS
17 (1925) 574; Paul VI, 7 March 1964 AAS 56 (1964),
302 (Bouscaren, vol. VI, pp. 78688).
[11] Jean-Pierre Torrell, Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Person
And His Work, CUA press, 2005, p. 3. Google Book
[12] Hampden, The Life, p. 14.
[13] Stump, Aquinas, p. 3.
[14] Scha, Philip (1953). Thomas Aquinas, pp. 422423.
[15] Davies, Aquinas: An Introduction, pp. 12
484
155.7. NOTES
485
Rosemarie A. ArthurThe Pseudo Dionysius as Polemicist: The Development and Purpose of the Angelic Hierarchy in Sixth Century SyriaLondon: Ashgate, 2011,
pp. 63-64.
[73] The Catholic source that shows Thomas' having been inuenced by this concoction more than any other source
is discussed in Peter Paul Fuchs Medieval Confabulations, The Mendicant Controversy, and the Real TemplarMasonic PhilosophyThe Association of Masonic Arts
http://www.masonicarts.org/309666939
[74] Blog Archive
Saints.SQPN.com.
2010-01-17.
"
Saint Thomas
22 October 1974.
Aquinas.
Retrieved
[100] Hankey, Wayne (2013). The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Second ed.). CSU East Bay: Routledge. pp. 134135. ISBN 978-0-415-78295-1.
Summa Theologica, First Part of the Second Part, Question 94 Reply Obj. 2
[101] Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, On the Work
of the Sixth Day, Reply to Objection 5, Fathers of the EnSumma Question 94, A.3
glish Dominican Province
"Summa, Q62a2. Ccel.org. Retrieved 2012-02-02.
[102] Saint Thomas Aquinas, Physica, Book 2, Lecture 14, FaAquinas Summa Theologica q91 a1
thers of the English Dominican Province
[78] 3. Aquinas
[79]
[80]
[81]
[82]
[83] Pojman, Louis (1995). Ethics: Discovering Right and [103] St. Augustine of Hippo, Crusades-Encyclopedia
Wrong. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company. ISBN 0-534-56138-1.
[104] Saint Augustine and the Theory of Just War
[84] "Summa, Q94a2. Ccel.org. Retrieved 2012-02-02.
[108] http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1002.htm#article1
[109] Summa of Theology I, q.2, The Five Ways Philosophers
Have Proven God's Existence
486
[118] http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1031.htm#article3
[119] Nichols, Aidan (2002). Discovering Aquinas. Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp.
173174.
[120] Nichols, Aidan (2002). Discovering Aquinas. Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp.
8082.
[121] Aquinas, pp. 228229.
[122] "Summa, III, Q.50, art.1. Newadvent.org. Retrieved
2010-01-17.
[123] Aquinas, pp. 231239.
[124] Aquinas, pp. 241, 245249. Emphasis is the author's.
[125] http://www.newadvent.org/summa/4002.htm#article4
[126] Weigel, George (2001). The Truth of Catholicism. New
York City: Harper Collins. p. 9. ISBN 0-06-621330-4.
[127] Kreeft, p. 383.
[128] Romans 6:23, ASV. Biblegateway.com. Retrieved
2010-01-17.
155.8 References
Aquinas, Thomas (2000). Mary T. Clark, ed. An
Aquinas Reader: Selections from the Writings of
Thomas Aquinas. Fordham University Press. ISBN
0-8232-2029-X.
(2002). Aquinas's Shorter Summa. Manchester, New Hampshire: Sophia Institute Press.
ISBN 1-928832-43-1.
Davies, Brian (1993). The Thought of Thomas
Aquinas. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19826753-3.
(2004). Aquinas: An Introduction. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-7095-5.
Geisler, Norman, ed. (1999). Baker Encyclopedia
of Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Baker Academic.
[129] http://www.firstthings.com/article/1995/12/
003-aquinas-and-the-heretics
[130] Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York: Routledge. p. 194.
[131] Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York: Routledge. p. 200.
Healy, Nicholas M. (2003). Thomas Aquinas: Theologian of the Christian Life. Ashgate. ISBN 07546-1472-7.
[132] Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York: Routledge. p. 192.
Kreeft, Peter (1990). Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-300-X.
[133] Stump, Eleanore (2003). Aquinas, (in the series The Arguments of the Philosophers). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 461, 473.
[134] The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, Vol V, Year 32, No. 378,
June, 1899, p. 570, http://books.google.com/books?id=
fpYvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false
Accessed 3-7-2013
Nichols, Aidan (2003). Discovering Aquinas: An Introduction to His Life, Work, and Inuence. Wm. B.
Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-0514-0.
Russell, Bertrand (1967), A History of Western Philosophy, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-67120158-1
Scha, Philip (1953).
Thomas Aquinas
.
The New Scha-Herzog Encyclopedia of
Religious Knowledge 126 (3190).
Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House.
pp.
Bibcode:1930Natur.126..951G.
42223.
doi:10.1038/126951c0.
Stump, Eleonore (2003).
ISBN 0-415-02960-0.
[138] http://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm
[139] Thomas Aquinas#Condemnation of 1277
Attribution
Aquinas.
Routledge.
487
Faitanin, Paulo (2008). A Sabedoria do Amor: iniciao losoa de Santo Toms de Aquino [Love's
philosophy: initiation to Saint Thomas Aquinasphi- 155.10.2 On his thought
losophy] (in Portuguese). Instituto Aquinate. ISSN
Actus Essendi: An Electronic Journal on Aquinas's
1982-8845.
Doctrine of the Act of Being.
(2008). O Ofcio do Sbio: o modo de estudar e ensinar segundo Santo Toms de Aquino [The
wise's profession: the way of studying & learning after Saint Thomas Aquinas] (in Portuguese). Instituto
Aquinate. ISSN 1982-8845.
Paterson, Craig & Matthew S. Pugh (eds.), Analytical Thomism: Traditions in Dialogue. Ashgate,
2006. Introduction to Thomism
Strathern, Paul (1998). Thomas Aquinas in 90 Minutes. Chicago: I.R. Dee. 90 p. ISBN 1-56663-1947
Torrell, Jean-Pierre (2005). Saint Thomas Aquinas
(Rev. ed.). Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1423-8.
OCLC 456104266.
Wallace, William A (1970). Thomas Aquinas,
Saint. In Gillispie, Charles. Dictionary of Scientic Biography 1. New York: Scribner & American
Council of Learned Societies. pp. 196200. ISBN
978-0-684-10114-9.
Weisheipl, James (1974). Friar Thomas D'Aquino:
his life, thought, and work (1st ed.). Garden City,
New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-01299-7.
Brown, Paterson. St. Thomas's Doctrine of Necessary Being, Philosophical Review, 1964.
488
155.10.3
By Thomas
Chapter 156
156.1 Biography
(3) Exegetical: In sacrosanctum Joannis Evangelium commentarium(Rome, 1592), nine editions; In prima XII capita Sacrosancti Jesu
Christi D. N. Evangelium secundum Lucam
(Rome, 1600), printing supervised by Father Miguel
Vzquez, S.J.; In Epistolam B. Pauli Apostoli ad
Romanos(Rome, 1602), Aramaic tr., Father Luis
de Azevedo. Manuscripts: Emmendationes in
Sacra Biblia vulgata, corrected by direction of
Clement VIII; Regul hebraic pro lingua sancta
intelligenda. Sermons: Motivs y advertencias
de casas dignas de refomacin cerca del Breviario
.* [3]
156.3 Notes
[1] http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.
asp?t1=T&t2=o
[2] Roger Ariew, Ren Descartes and the Jesuits, p. 164, in
Mordechai Feingold (editor), Jesuit Science and the Republic of Letters (2002)
156.2 Works
489
Chapter 157
Cuthbert Tunstall
Cuthbert Tunstall (otherwise spelt Tunstal or Tonstall;
1474 18 November 1559) was an English Scholastic,
church leader, diplomat, administrator and royal adviser.
He served as Prince-Bishop of Durham during the reigns
of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.
On 22 February 1530 again by papal provision Tunstall succeeded Cardinal Wolsey as Bishop of Durham.
This role involved the assumption of quasi-regal power
authority within the territory of the diocese. In
157.1 Childhood and early career and
1537 he was also made President of the new Council
of the North. Although he was often engaged in timeconsuming negotiations with the Scots, he took part in
Cuthbert Tunstall was born at Hackforth, Yorkshire in other public business, and attended parliament, where in
1474, an illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland 1539 he participated in the discussion on the Bill of Six
Castle, Lancashire. His legitimate half-brother, Brian Articles.
Tunstall, was killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. In the question of Henry's divorce, Tunstall acted as one
Cuthbert studied mathematics, theology, and law at of Queen Catherine's counselors. Unlike Bishop John
Oxford (Balliol College), Cambridge (Trinity College), Fisher and Sir Thomas More, during the troubled years
and Padua, where he graduated Doctor of Laws. He was that followed Tunstall adopted a policy of passive obediprocient in Greek and Hebrew.
ence and acquiescence in many matters regarding which
William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury made Tun- he likely had little support. While Tunstall adhered rmly
stall his chancellor on 25 August 1511, and shortly af- to Roman Catholic doctrine and practices, after some
terward appointed him rector of Harrow on the Hill. hesitation he accepted Henry as head of the Church of
He eventually became a canon of Lincoln (1514) and England, and publicly defended this position thus acarchdeacon of Chester (1515). Soon thereafter he was cepting a schism with Rome.
employed on diplomatic business by King Henry VIII and Tunstall disliked the religious policy pursued by the adCardinal Wolsey. In 1515, Tunstall was sent to then- visers of King Edward VI, and voted against the rst Act
Flanders, Belgium with Sir Thomas More.* [1] was at of Uniformity in 1549. However, he continued to disBrussels that he would meet Erasmus as well, becoming charge his public duties without interruption, and hoped
the intimate friend of both scholars. In 1519 he was sent that the Earl of Warwick might be induced to reverse
to Cologne; a visit to Worms (152021) gave him a sense the anti-Catholic policy of the Duke of Somerset. This
of the signicance held by the Lutheran movement and hope failed, and after Somerset's fall, Tunstall was sumits literature.
moned to London in May 1551, and conned to his house
Tunstall was made Master of the Rolls in 1516, and Dean
of Salisbury in 1521. In 1522, he became Bishop of London by papal provision, and on 25 May 1523 he was made
Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. In 1525, he negotiated
with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V after the Battle
of Pavia, and helped to arrange the Peace of Cambrai in
1529.
490
157.5. NOTES
491
157.6 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
Tunstall, Cuthbert. Encyclopdia Britannica
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from the 1913 Catholic
Encyclopedia article "Cuthbert Tunstall" by Edwin
Burton, a publication now in the public domain.
Chapter 158
Jacopo Zabarella
Giacomo (or Jacopo) Zabarella (5 September 1533
15 October 1589) was an Italian Aristotelian philosopher
and logician.
158.1 Life
Zabarella was born into a noble Paduan family. He received a humanist education and entered the University
of Padua, where he received a doctorate in 1553. His
teachers included Francesco Robortello in humanities,
Bernardino Tomitano in logic, Marcantonio Genua in
physics and metaphysics, and Pietro Catena in mathematics. In 1564 he succeeded Tomitano in a chair of logic.
In 1577 he was promoted to the rst extraordinary chair
of natural philosophy. He died in Padua at the age of 56
in 1589. His entire teaching career was spent at his native
university. His successor was Cesare Cremonini.
158.2 Work
Zabarella's work reects his teaching in the Aristotelian
tradition. His rst published work was Opera logica Title page of Opera logica (1578).
(Venice 1578), followed by Tabula logicae (1578). His
commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics appeared
in 1582. His great work in natural philosophy was De re- 158.3 Writings
bus naturalibus, published posthumously in 1590. It constituted 30 treatises on Aristotelian natural philosophy,
Opera Logica, (rst edition Venise, 1578; second
the introduction to which was written only weeks before
Venise, 1586; third Francfort, 158687) contains:
his death. His two sons edited his incomplete commen 1. De natura logicae; 2. De quarta gura syltaries on Aristotle's texts, also published posthumously
logismorum; 3. De methodis; 4. De conver(the commentary on the Physics in 1601 and the com*
sione demonstrationi in denitionem; 5. De
mentary on On the Soul (1605). [1]
propositionibus necessariis; 6. De speciebus
Zabarella consulted newly recovered Greek commendemonstrationis; /. De regressu; 8. De tribus
tators such as Alexander of Aphrodisias, Philoponus,
praecognitis; 9. De medio demonstrationis.
Simplicius, and Themistius, as well as medieval commentators like Thomas Aquinas, Walter Burley, and Averroes.
Opera Logica, (fourth edition Kln, 1597) with the
Unlike some earlier scholastic philosophers, he was literaddition of:
ate in Greek, and was therefore able to use the Greek texts
10. In II libros Posteriores analyticos comof Aristotle. He devoted much eort to presenting what
mentarii (Venise, 1582); 11. De doctrinae orhe considered to be the true meaning of Aristotle's texts.
492
158.6. REFERENCES
dine apologia (Padova, 1585); 12. Tabulae
logicae (Venise, 1578).
Opera Logica, anastatic reprint of the Kln 1597
edition by Wilhelm Risse, Hildesheim: Georg Olms,
1966.
De rebus naturalibus libri XXX (Venise, 1590).
De mente agente. De rebus naturalibus liber XXIX.
Edited by J. M. Garca Valverde, Fragmentos de
Filosofa, 9(2011).
De sensu gente. De rebus naturalibus liber XXIV.
Edizione a cura di J.M. Garca Valverde, Rivista di
Storia della Filosoa, 2012.
De inventione aeterni motoris. De rebus naturalibus
liber IV. Edicin de J.M. Garca Valverde, Bruniana
& Campanelliana, 2012.
493
H. Mikkeli (1992): An Aristotelian Response to Renaissance Humanism. Jacopo Zabarella on the Nature of Arts and Sciences, Helsinki: The Finnish Historical Society.
Randall, J.H. (1961): The School of Padua and the
Emergence of Modern Science. Padova: Editrice Antenore.
158.6 References
[1] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Commentarii in Meteora, In Commentarii in Aristotelis libros physicorum, item In libros De generatione et corruptione, item In Meteora, (Frankfurt,
1602).
158.5 Bibliography
Edwards, William F. (1960): The Logic of Iacopo
Zabarella (15331589). Unpublished Ph.D.thesis,
Columbia University.
Chapter 159
The pyknon is a structure located within a tetrachord. Despite the forbiddingly technical and aridappearance
of the doctrines ascribed to Archestratus, Andrew Barker
has argued that in fact they engage with issues of real
signicance to musicians, and to anyone seeking to understand the resources and strategies of melodic composition.* [5]
159.4. REFERENCES
Archestratus and his followers, who say
that the parts of musical studies concerned with
the nature of the voice, the note, the interval
and other such things are philosophical matters, are people who should not be tolerated,
not only because they have set out on utterly
irrelevant theorising, and have babbled about
these things childishly in a way that is useless to
the science, but also because they are the only
people to have declared that the study of these
matters is mousik.
Archestratus may have hoped to show that specialized
sciences such as harmonics were entitled to the serious
attention of philosophers in general, but the schools of
Hellenistic philosophy were largely immune to this suggestion.* [9]
159.3 Notes
[1] Barker 2009, p. 420
[2] Barker 2009, p. 391
[3] Barker 2009, p. 391 n. 3
[4] Barker 2009, pp. 395, 416-7
[5] Barker 2009, p. 391
[6] Barker 2009, p. 392
[7] Barker 2009, p. 391
[8] Barker 2009, p. 411
[9] Barker 2009, p. 420
159.4 References
Andrew Barker, Musical Theory and Philosophy:
The Case of Archestratus,Phronesis 54 (2009), pp.
390422
495
Chapter 160
Aristo of Ceos
Aristo of Ceos (/rsto/; Greek: ; .
c. 225 BC) was a Peripatetic philosopher and a native of
the island of Ceos, where his birthplace was the town of
Ioulis. He is not to be confused with Aristo of Chios, a
Stoic philosopher of the mid 3rd century BC.
He was a pupil of Lyco,* [1] who had succeeded Strato
as the head of the Peripatetic school from about 269 BC.
After the death of Lyco, (around 225 BC), Aristo probably succeeded him as the head of the school. Aristo, who
was, according to Cicero,* [2] a man of taste and elegance,
was yet decient in gravity and energy, which prevented
his writings acquiring that popularity which they otherwise deserved, and may have been one of the causes of
their neglect and loss to us. In his philosophical views, if
we may judge from the scanty extant fragments, he seems
to have followed his master pretty closely. Diogenes
Lartius,* [3] after enumerating the works of Aristo of
Chios, says, that Panaetius and Sosicrates attributed all
these works, except the letters, to Aristo of Ceos. How
far this opinion is correct, we cannot, of course, say; at
any rate, however, one of those works, Conversations
on Love, is repeatedly ascribed to Aristo of Ceos by
Athenaeus.* [4] One work of Aristo not mentioned by
Diogenes Lartius, was entitled Lyco,* [5] in gratitude to
his master. There are also two epigrams in the Greek Anthology,* [6] which are commonly attributed to Aristo of
Ceos, though there is no evidence for it.
160.1 Notes
[1] Diogenes Lartius, v. 70, 74
[2] Cicero, de Finibus, v. 5
[3] Diogenes Lartius, vii. 163
[4] Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, x. 419, xiii. 563, and xv. 674
[5] Plutarch, de Aud. poet. 1.
[6] Greek Anthology, vi. 303, and vii. 457
160.2 References
Chapter 161
Aristobulus of Paneas
Aristobulus of Paneas (Greek: ; c.
160 BC) was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher of the
Peripatetic school, though he also used Platonic and
Pythagorean concepts. Like his successor, Philo, he attempted to fuse ideas in the Hebrew Scriptures with those
in Greek thought.
He lived in the third or 2nd century BC. The period of
his life is doubtful, Anatolius of Laodicea (270 CE) placing him in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (3rd century BC), Alfred Gercke in the time of Ptolemy Lathyrus
(latter part of 2nd century BC); while more reliable testimony indicates that he was a contemporary of Ptolemy
Philometor (middle of 2nd century BC). He is the author
of a book the exact title of which is not certain, although
there is sucient evidence to prove that it was an exposition of the Law.
161.1 References
Jewish Encyclopedia entry
161.2 Notes
497
Chapter 162
Aristoxenus
For the 1st century physician of Asia Minor, see sias).* [2] He learned music from his father, and havAristoxenus (physician).
ing then been instructed by Lamprus of Erythrae and
Aristoxenus of Tarentum (Greek: ; . Xenophilus the Pythagorean, he nally became a pupil
of Aristotle,* [3] whom he appears to have rivaled in the
variety of his studies. According to the Suda,* [4] he
heaped insults on Aristotle after his death, because Aristotle had designated Theophrastus as the next head of
the Peripatetic school, a position which Aristoxenus himself had coveted having achieved great distinction as a
pupil of Aristotle. This story is, however, contradicted
by Aristocles,* [5] who asserts that he never mentioned
Aristotle but with the greatest respect.
The theory that the soul is a harmonyof the four elements composing the body, and therefore mortal (nothing at all,in the words of Cicero* [7]), was ascribed to
Aristoxenus (fr. 118-121 Wehrli) and Dicaearchus. This
theory is comparable to the one oered by Simmias in
Plato's Phaedo.
In his Elements of Harmony (also Harmonics), Aristoxenus attempted a complete and systematic exposition of
Aristoxenus was born at Tarentum, and was the son of music. The rst book contains an explanation of the
a learned musician named Spintharus (otherwise Mne- genera of Greek music, and also of their species; this
498
499
is followed by some general denitions of terms, particularly those of sound, interval, and system.* [8] In the
second book Aristoxenus divides music into seven parts,
which he takes to be: the genera, intervals, sounds, systems, tones or modes, mutations, and melopoeia.* [8] The
remainder of the work is taken up with a discussion of
the many parts of music according to the order which he
had himself prescribed.* [8]
Aristoxenus rejected the opinion of the Pythagoreans that
arithmetic rules were the ultimate judge of intervals and
that in every system there must be found a mathematical coincidence before such a system can be said to be
harmonic.* [8] In his second book he asserted that by
the hearing we judge of the magnitude of an interval, and
by the understanding we consider its many powers.* [8]
And further he wrote, that the nature of melody is best
discovered by the perception of sense, and is retained by
memory; and that there is no other way of arriving at the
knowledge of music;" and though, he wrote, others afrm that it is by the study of instruments that we attain
this knowledge;" this, he wrote, is talking wildly, for
just as it is not necessary for him who writes an Iambic to
attend to the arithmetical proportions of the feet of which
it is composed, so it is not necessary for him who writes a
Phrygian song to attend to the ratios of the sounds proper
thereto.* [8]
Thus the nature of Aristoxenus' scales and genera deviated sharply from his predecessors. Aristoxenus introduced a radically dierent model for creating scales. Instead of using discrete ratios to place intervals, he used
continuously variable quantities. Hence the structuring of
his tetrachords and the resulting scales have other qualities of consonance.* [9]
109
11
500
Notes or Memorabilia (), Historical notes ( ), Brief notes
( ), Miscellaneous notes
( ), Random jottings (
): fr. 128-132, 139 Wehrli
501
Chapter 163
Calliphon
For the 6th-century BC Pythagorean, see Calliphon of
Croton.
Calliphon (or Callipho, Greek: ; 2nd century
BC) was a Greek philosopher, who probably belonged
to the Peripatetic school and lived in the 2nd century
BC.* [1] He is mentioned several times and condemned
by Cicero as making the chief good of man to consist in
a union of virtue (Latin: honestas) and bodily pleasure
(Greek: , Latin: voluptas), or, as Cicero says, in
the union of the human with the beast.* [2]
163.1 Notes
[1] Fortenbaugh, W., White S., (2002), Lyco of Troas and
Hieronymus of Rhodes, Page 119. Transaction Publishers
[2] Cicero, de Finibus, ii. 6, 11, iv. 18, v. 8, 25, de Ociis,
iii. 33, Tusculanae Quaestiones, v. 30, 31; Clement of
Alexandria, Stromata, 2. 127.
502
Chapter 164
Chamaeleon (philosopher)
Chamaeleon (or Chameleon; Greek: ; c.
350 c. 275 BC), was a Peripatetic philosopher of
Heraclea Pontica. He was one of the immediate disciples
of Aristotle. He wrote works on several of the ancient
Greek poets, namely:
- On Anacreon
- On Sappho
- On Simonides
- On Thespis
- On Aeschylus
- On Lasus
- On Pindar
- On Stesichorus
He also wrote on the Iliad, and on Comedy (
). In this last work he treated, among other
subjects, of the dances of comedy.* [1] This work is
quoted by Athenaeus* [2] by the title
, which is also the title of a work by the
Peripatetic philosopher Eumelus. It would seem also
that he wrote on Hesiod, for Diogenes Lartius says,
that Chamaeleon accused Heraclides Ponticus of having stolen from him his work concerning Homer and
Hesiod.* [3] The above works were probably both biographical and critical. He also wrote works entitled
, and , and some moral treatises,
(which was also ascribed to Theophrastus),
, and . Of all his works only a
few fragments are preserved by Athenaeus and other ancient writers.
164.1 Notes
[1] Athenaeus, xiv. 628
[2] Athenaeus, ix. 374
[3] Diogenes Lartius, v. 6. 92.
503
Chapter 165
Clearchus of Soli
(Gergithios); a treatise on attery
165.1 Writings
Clearchus wrote extensively around 320 BCE on eastern cultures, from Persia to India, and several fragments
from him are known. His bookOf Education(Greek:
, Peri paideis) was preserved by Diogenes
Laertius.
(Perigraphai); ?
the reading in
Athenaeus is doubtful (XIV 648f)
(Peri narks); on the electric ray
(Peri tn enudrn); on wateranimals
165.2 Travels
165.3. NOTES
Whence Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the
sanctuary of Kineas
(Ai Khanoum inscription)
Clearchus of Soli was a contemporary and compatriot of
Stasanor (born in the same city of Soli, in Cyprus), who
was a general of Alexander the Great and later satrap of
Bactria and Sogdiana.
165.3 Notes
[1] Excerpt of Chapter I-22, Josephus, Contra Apionem:
For Clearchus, who was the scholar of Aristotle, and inferior to no one of the Peripatetics whomsoever, in his rst
book concerning sleep, says thatAristotle his master related what follows of a Jew,and sets down Aristotle's
own discourse with him. The account is this, as written
down by him: Now, for a great part of what this Jew
said, it would be too long to recite it; but what includes
in it both wonder and philosophy it may not be amiss to
discourse of. Now, that I may be plain with thee, Hyperochides, I shall herein seem to thee to relate wonders, and
what will resemble dreams themselves. Hereupon Hyperochides answered modestly, and said, For that very reason
it is that all of us are very desirous of hearing what thou art
going to say. Then replied Aristotle, for this cause it will
be the best way to imitate that rule of the Rhetoricians,
which requires us rst to give an account of the man, and
of what nation he was, that so we may not contradict our
master's directions. Then said Hyperochides, Go on, if it
so pleases thee. This man then, [answered Aristotle,] was
by birth a Jew, and came from Celesyria; these Jews are
derived from the Indian philosophers; they are named by
the Indians Calami, and by the Syrians Judaei, and took
their name from the country they inhabit, which is called
Judea; but for the name of their city, it is a very awkward
one, for they call it Jerusalem. Now this man, when he
was hospitably treated by a great many, came down from
the upper country to the places near the sea, and became
a Grecian, not only in his language, but in his soul also;
insomuch that when we ourselves happened to be in Asia
about the same places whither he came, he conversed with
505
Chapter 166
Critolaus
For the general of the Achaean League, 147/6 BC, see c. 111 BC, he found Critolaus' pupil Diodorus of Tyre at
Critolaos of Megalopolis.
the head of the Peripatetic school.* [3]
Critolaus (/kratle.s/; Greek: Kritolaos;
c. 200-c. 118 BC* [1]) of Phaselis was a Greek philosopher of the Peripatetic school. He was one of three
philosophers sent to Rome in 155 BC (the other two being
Carneades and Diogenes of Babylon), where their doctrines fascinated the citizens, but scared the more conservative statesmen. None of his writings survive. He was
interested in rhetoric and ethics, and considered pleasure
to be an evil. He maintained the Aristotelian doctrine of
the eternity of the world, and of the human race in general, directing his arguments against the Stoics.
166.1 Life
He was born in Phaselis, a Greek colony in Lycia, c. 200
BC, and studied philosophy at Athens under Aristo of
Ceos, and became one of the leaders of the Peripatetic
school by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a
moralist. There has been considerable discussion as to
whether he was the immediate successor of Aristo, but
the evidence is confused.
The great reputation which Critolaus enjoyed at Athens,
as a philosopher, an orator, and a statesman, induced the
Athenians to send him to Rome in 155 BC, together with
Carneades and Diogenes the Stoic, to obtain a remission
of the ne of 500 talents which the Romans had imposed
upon Athens for the destruction of Oropus. They were
successful in the object for which they came; and the embassy excited the greatest interest at Rome. Not only the
Roman youth, but the most illustrious men in the state,
such as Scipio Africanus, Laelius, Furius, and others,
came to listen to their discourses. The novelty of their
doctrines seemed to the Romans of the old school to be
fraught with such danger to the morals of the citizens, that
Cato induced the senate to send them away from Rome as
quickly as possible.* [2] Gellius describes his arguments
as elegant and polished(Latin: scita et teretia). We
have no further information respecting the life of Critolaus. He lived upwards of eighty-two years, but died c.
118 BC. By the time Licinius Crassus arrived at Athens
166.2 Philosophy
Critolaus seems to have paid particular attention to
Rhetoric, though he considered it, like Aristotle, not as
an art, but rather as a matter of practice. Cicero speaks in
high terms of his eloquence.* [4] Next to Rhetoric, Critolaus seems to have given his chief attention to the study
of moral philosophy, and to have made some additions
to Aristotle's system.* [5] In general, he deviated very little from the philosophy of the founder of the Peripatetic
school,* [6] though in some respects he went beyond his
predecessors. For example, he held that pleasure is an
evil,* [7] and denitely maintained that the soul consists
of aether. The end of existence was to him the general
perfection of the natural life, including the goods of the
soul and the body, and also external goods. Cicero says in
the Tusculanae Quaestiones that the goods of the soul entirely outweighed for him the other goods (Latin: tantum
propendere illam bonorum animi lancem).
Further, he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic
doctrine of the eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the human race. There is no observed change
in the natural order of things; humankind recreates itself
in the same manner according to the capacity given by
Nature, and the various ills to which it is heir, though fatal to individuals, do not avail to modify the whole. Just
as it is absurd to suppose that humans are merely earthborn, so the possibility of their ultimate destruction is inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation of eternal
order, must itself be immortal.
A Critolaus is mentioned by Plutarch* [8] as the author
of a work on Epirus, and of another entitled Phenomena;
and Aulus Gellius* [9] also speaks of an historical writer
of this name. Whether the historian is the same as the
Peripatetic philosopher, cannot be determined. A grammarian Critolaus is mentioned in the Etymologicum Magnum.
506
166.3. NOTES
166.3 Notes
[1] Tiziano Dorandi, Chapter 2: Chronology, in Algra et al.
(1999) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy,
page 50. Cambridge.
[2] Plutarch, Cato Maj. 22; Aulus Gellius, vii. 14; Macrobius
Saturnalia i. 5 ; Cicero, de Orat. ii. 37, 38.
[3] Lucian, Macrobii 20; Cicero, De Oratore, i. 11.
[4] Quintillian, ii. 15. 23, 17. 15; Sextus Empiricus, adv.
Mathem. ii. 12; Cicero, De Finibus, v. 5.
[5] comp. Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones v. 17; Clement of
Alexandria, Stromata, ii.
[6] cf. Cicero, De Finibus, v. 5 C. imitari antiquos voluit
.
[7] Aulus Gellius, ix. 5. 6.
[8] Plutarch, Parall. min. cc. 6, 9.
[9] Aulus Gellius, xi. 9.
507
Chapter 167
Demetrius of Phalerum
167.1 Life
508
509
sander's death in 297 BC) to the court of Ptolemy I Soter 167.3 References to Demetrius
at Alexandria, with whom he lived for many years on the
best terms, and who is even said to have entrusted to him
167.3.1 Diogenes Lartius
the revision of the laws of his kingdom.* [12] During his
stay at Alexandria, he devoted himself mainly to literary
Diogenes Lartius devotes a section of his The Lives
pursuits, ever cherishing the recollection of his own counand
Opinions of Eminent Philosophers to Demetrius
try.* [13]
Phalereus.* [26]
On the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Demetrius fell
into disfavour (he apparently supported the wrong candidate, Ptolemy Keraunos),* [14] and was sent into exile to 167.3.2 Hegel
Upper Egypt, where he is said to have died of the bite of
a snake.* [15] His death appears to have taken place soon Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, in the Lectures on the
History of Philosophy, says of Demetrius Phalereus that
after the year 283 BC.
Demetrius Phalereus and others were thus soon after [Alexander] honoured and worshipped in Athens as
God.* [27] What the exact source was for Hegel's claim
167.2 Works and legacy
is unclear. Diogenes Lartius does not mention this.* [28]
167.2.1
Literary works
167.4 References
[1] Tiziano Dorandi, Chapter 2: Chronology, in Algra et al.
(1999) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy,
pages 49-50. Cambridge.
[2] Diogenes Lartius, v. 75; Aelian, Varia Historia, xii. 43
[3] Strabo, 9.1.13
167.2.2
[5] Diogenes Lartius, v. 75; Diodorus Siculus, xix. 78; Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, 6.
According to Strabo,* [22] Demetrius inspired the creation of the Mouseion, the location of the Library of
Alexandria, which was modeled after the arrangement of
Aristotle's school. The Mouseion contained a peripatos
(covered walkway), a syssition (room for communal dining) and a categorized organization of scrolls.
According to the earliest source of information, the [9] Athenaeus, vi., xii.; Aelian, Varia Historia, ix. 9; Polybius,
pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas composed between
xii. 13.
c180 and 145 BC,* [23] the library was initially organized by Demetrius of Phaleron,* [24] under the reign of [10] Athenaeus, xii.
Ptolemy I Soter (c.367 BCc.283 BC). Other sources [11] Plutarch, Demetrius 9; Diodorus Siculus, xx. 45
claim it was instead created under the reign of his son
Ptolemy II (283246 BC).* [25]
[12] Aelian, Varia Historia, iii. 17.
510
167.5 Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 168
Dicaearchus
For the pirate, see Dicaearchus of Aetolia.
168.1 Life
He was the son of one Pheidias, and born at Messana
in Sicily, though he passed the greater part of his life in
Greece, and especially in Peloponnesus. He was a disciple of Aristotle,* [1] and a friend of Theophrastus, to
whom he dedicated some of his writings. He died about
285 BC.
168.2 Writings
Dicaearchus was highly esteemed by the ancients as a
philosopher and as a man of most extensive information
upon a great variety of things.* [2] His work is known
only from the many fragmentary quotations of later writers. His works were geographical, political or historical, philosophical, and mathematical; but it is dicult to
draw up an accurate list of them, since many which are
quoted as distinct works appear to have been only sections of greater ones. The fragments extant, moreover, do
not always enable us to form a clear notion of the works
to which they once belonged. The geographical works
of Dicaearchus were, according to Strabo,* [3] criticised
in many respects by Polybius; and Strabo himself* [4] is
dissatised with his descriptions of western and northern
Europe, where Dicaearchus had never visited.
511
Life of Greece ( ) The Bios Hellados, in three books* [5] is Dicaearchusmost famous work. In the mid 1st century BC it inspired
Jason of Nysas Bios Hellados and Varro's De Vita
Populi Romani. It exists in only 24 fragments,* [6]
but he apparently attempted to write a biography
of the Greek nation from earliest times to the reign
of Philip II. The most famous passages are those
cited by Varro* [7] and Porphyry* [8] which suggest
a dualistic view of progress. For example, the invention of agriculture alleviates hunger through the
creation of surplus, but surplus in turn proves to
be an incitement to greed which leads to war. Every human advance solves one problem but also
engenders another. Passages which detailed human institutions and their history suggest he thought
these could arrest decline. For example, his denition of country (), family (), and
tribe (), is about the right ordering of human
relations within the polis.* [9] Dicaearchus apparently explained the saying, sharing stops choking, as a reference to how humans learned to distribute surplus fairly.* [10] Many fragments are interested in the origins of the music and culture of
Greece.* [11] This is in contrast to the debased symposiastic Greek culture of which he complains in
some of his other works.* [12] His interest in dening Greek culture in its heyday is thus partly polemical: he wishes to attack current fashions in music
by reminding his readership of their original forms.
The link between political decline and cultural debasement (as they saw it) was also made by his fellow
Peripatetic and friend Aristoxenus.* [13] In a celebrated passage, he compared the introduction of the
New Music
into Greek theatres to the barbarization
of the Poseidoniates in the Bay of Naples.* [14]
Circuit of the Earth ( )* [15] This
work was probably the text written in explanation of
the geographical maps which Dicaearchus had constructed and given to Theophrastus, and which seem
to have comprised the whole world, as far as it was
then known.* [16]
512
Description of Greece ( )
This is a fragment of a work dedicated to
Theophrastus, and consisting of 150 iambic lines.
It was formerly attributed to Dicaearchus, but the
initial letters of the rst twenty-three lines show that
it was really the work of one Dionysius, son of
Calliphon.* [17]
168.3 References
168.4 Sources
David C. Mirhady, Dicaearchus of Messana: The
Sources, Texts and Translations,in Fortenbaugh,
W., Schtrumpf, E., (editors) Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion. Transaction Publishers. (2001). ISBN 0-7658-0093-4
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
513
Chapter 169
Echecratides
Echecratides was an Ancient Greek Peripatetic philosopher who is mentioned among the disciples of Aristotle.
He is spoken of only by Stephanus of Byzantium, from
whom we learn that he was a native of Methymna in
Lesbos.
Several other persons of this name, concerning whom
nothing is known beyond what is contained in the passages where they occur, are mentioned by Thucydides (i.
Ill), Pausanias (x. 16. 4), Aelian (V. H. i. 25), Lucian
(Timon, 7), and by Anyte in the Greek Anthology (vi.
123.).
169.1 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Leonhard Schmitz (1870).
Echecrates. In Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography and Mythology 2. p. 2.
514
Chapter 170
Erymneus
Erymneus (Greek: ; . c. 110 BC) was a
Peripatetic philosopher in Ancient Greece.
Erymneus succeeded Diodorus of Tyre as scholarch
(leader) of the Lyceum. Very little is known about
him, and he known only because he is mentioned by
Athenaeus.* [1] He instructed Athenion, whose identity
is obscure, in philosophy.* [2] He led the school while
Apellicon of Teos was a member. The school had a renewed vitality under Erymneus.* [3]
170.1 References
[1] Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, v. 211e
[2] Canfora & Ryle, The Vanished Library (University of California Press, 1990), p. 52.
[3] Lynch, J. P., Aristotle's School (University of California
Press, 1972), p. 202.
515
Chapter 171
Eudemus of Rhodes
Eudemus of Rhodes (Greek: ) was an ancient
Greek philosopher, and rst historian of science who
lived from c. 370 BC until c. 300 BC. He was one of
Aristotle's most important pupils, editing his teacher's
work and making it more easily accessible. Eudemus'
nephew, Pasicles, was also credited with editing Aristotle's works.
171.1 Life
Eudemus was born on the isle of Rhodes, but spent a large
part of his life in Athens, where he studied philosophy
at Aristotle's Peripatetic School. Eudemus's collaboration with Aristotle was long-lasting and close, and he was
generally considered to be one of Aristotle's most brilliant pupils: he and Theophrastus of Lesbos were regularly called not Aristotle's disciples, but his companions().
It seems that Theophrastus was the greater genius of
the two, continuing Aristotle's studies in a wide range
of areas. Although Eudemus too conducted original research, his forte lay in systematizing Aristotle's philosophical legacy, and in a clever didactical presentation of
his teacher's ideas. Later authors who wrote commentaries on Aristotle often made good use of Eudemus's
preliminary work. It is for this reason that, though Eudemus's writings themselves are not extant, we know many
citations and testimonia regarding his work, and are thus
able to build up a picture of him and his work.
Aristotle, shortly before his death in 322 BC, designated
Theophrastus to be his successor as head of the Peripatetic School. Eudemus then returned to Rhodes, where
he founded his own philosophical school, continued his
own philosophical research, and went on editing Aristotle's work.
171.4 References
Fritz Wehrli (ed.) Die Schule des Aristoteles. Eudemus von Rhodos. Texte und Kommentar Basel,
Schwabe & Co., 1969 (critical edition of the extant
fragments, with commentary in German)
517
F[ritz] Wehrli, 'Eudemos von Rhodos', in: Paulys
Realencyclopdie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, G. Wissowa, ed. (51 Volumes;
1894-1980) Vol. Suppl. XI (1968) col. 652-658.
Istvan Bodnar, William W. Fortenbaugh (eds.), Eudemus of Rhodes, New Brunswick, Transactions
Publishers, 2002
Ivor Bulmer-Thomas, 'Eudemus of Rhodes', in:
Dictionary of Scientic Biography, Charles Coulston
Gillispie, ed. (18 Volumes, New York 1970-1990)
Volume IV (1971) pp. 460465.
Leonid Zhmud, The Origin of the History of Science
in Classical Antiquity. Berlin, Walter de Gruyter,
2006 (Trans. from Russian by A Chernoglazov)
Leonid Zhmud, 'EudemusHistory of Mathematics', In the Rutgers University Series in the Classical
Humanities. V. 11. Ed. by I. Bodnar, W. W. Fortenbaugh. New Brunswick 2002, 263306
Chapter 172
Hermippus of Smyrna
Hermippus of Smyrna (Greek: ), a
Peripatetic philosopher, surnamed by the ancient writers
the Callimachian (Greek: ), from which
it may be inferred that he was a disciple of Callimachus
about the middle of the 3rd century BC, while the fact
of his having written the life of Chrysippus proves that
he lived to about the end of the century. His writings seem to have been of very great importance and
value.* [1] They are repeatedly referred to by the ancient
writers, under many titles, of which, however, most, if
not all, seem to have been chapters of his great biographical work, which is often quoted under the title of Lives
(Bioi). The work contained the biographies of a great
many ancient gures, including orators, poets, historians, and philosophers. It contained the earliest known
biography of Aristotle, as well as philosophers such as
Pythagoras, Empedocles, Heraclitus, Democritus, Zeno,
Socrates, Plato, Antisthenes, Diogenes, Stilpo, Epicurus,
Theophrastus, Heraclides, Demetrius Phalereus, and
Chrysippus. The work has been lost, but many later Lives
extensively quote it.
172.1 Notes
[1] Josephus, Contra Apionem i. 22; Jerome, De Viris Illustribus Praef.
172.2 References
Hermippos of Smyrna Critical edition and English
translation of the extant fragments by J. Bollanse,
Leiden, Brill, 1999.
Fritz Wehrli, Hermippos des Kallimacheer, Basel
Stuttgart: Schwabe & Co., 1974 (editions of fragments, superseded by Bollanse 1999).
Jan Bollanse, Hermippos of Smyrna and his biographical writings. A reappraisal, Leuven, Peeters,
1999.
518
Chapter 173
Hieronymus of Rhodes
Hieronymus of Rhodes (Greek: ; c. 290
c. 230 BC* [1]) was a Peripatetic philosopher, and an opponent of Arcesilaus and Lyco of Troas. Only a few fragments of his works survive, preserved in the quotations of
later writers.
173.4 References
173.1 Life
Hieronymus belonged to the Peripatetic school, though
Cicero questions his right to the title. He appears to have
lived down to the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. His
philosophical opponents included not only the Academic
philosopher Arcesilaus,* [2] but also the Peripatetic Lyco
of Troas who was hostile towards him.* [3]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
173.2 Works
Hieronymus is frequently mentioned by Cicero, who tells
us that he held the highest good to consist in freedom
from pain and trouble, and denied that pleasure was to
be sought for its own sake. There are quotations from his
writings, and from his letters. Diogenes Lartius mentions two works: On Suspense of Judgement * [4] and Scattered Notes.* [5] It would seem from Cicero,* [6] compared with Runus,* [7] that he was the same as the Hieronymus who wrote on numbers and feet. He may also
have been the author of a work on poets, and a commentary on the Aspis of Hesiod.
173.3 Notes
[1] Brad Inwood, Lloyd P. Gerson, (1997), Hellenistic philosophy: introductory readings, page 408.
[2] Diogenes Lartius, iv. 41
[3] Diogenes Lartius, v. 68
[4] Diogenes Lartius, ii. 105
[5] Diogenes Lartius, i. 26; ii. 14
[6] Cicero, Oration, 56
519
Chapter 174
Lyco of Troas
table student in the Peripatetic school was Aristo of Ceos
who may have succeeded him as head of the school.
174.2 Writings
Among the writings of Lyco was probably a work On
Characters (similar to the work of Theophrastus), a fragment of which is preserved by Rutilius Lupus,* [6] though
the title of the book is not mentioned by any ancient
writer. It appears from Cicero* [7] and Clement of
Alexandria,* [8] that he wrote on the boundaries of good
and evil (Latin: De Finibus). Apuleius suggests that he
wrote a work on the nature of animals.* [9]
174.4 References
[1] Tiziano Dorandi, Chapter 2: Chronology, in Algra et al.
(1999) The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy,
page 53. Cambridge
[2] Diogenes Lartius, v. 67
174.1 Life
174.5 Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
521
Chapter 175
175.2 References
[1] Diogenes Lartius. Life of Theophrastus VII
[2] ap. Diogenes Laertius, v. 38, and repeated by the Suda,
Nicomachus
[3] Suda, nu,398.
[4] William Maxwell Gunn. NicomachusDictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. William
Smith, editor. p 1194. 1867.
[5] Jonathan Barnes,Roman Aristotle, in Gregory Nagy,
Greek Literature, Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 176 n. 249.
522
Chapter 176
Phaenias of Eresus
Phaenias of Eresus (Ancient Greek: , Phainias; also Phanias) was a Greek philosopher
from Lesbos, important as an immediate follower of and
commentator on Aristotle. He came to Athens about 332
BCE, and joined his compatriot, Theophrastus, in the
Peripatetic school. His writings on logic and science appear to have been commentaries or supplements to the
works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. He also wrote extensively on history. None of his works have survived.
176.1 Life
176.2.3 History
Phaenias was born in Eresos in Lesbos. He was the
friend and fellow-citizen of Theophrastus, a letter of
whose to Phaenias is mentioned by Diogenes Lartius.* [1] He came to Athens around 332 BCE,* [2] and
joined Theophrastus in the Peripatetic school. He was the
most distinguished disciple of Aristotle, after Theophrastus. He wrote upon every department of philosophy, as it
was studied by the Peripatetics, especially logic, botany,
history, and literature.
176.2 Philosophy
176.2.1
Logic
176.2.4 Literature
Concerning literary history two works of Phaenias
are mentioned. In On Poets, which is quoted by
Athenaeus,* [12] he seems to have paid particular attention to the Athenian musicians and comedians. On the Socratic philosophers, is twice referred to by Diogenes Lartius.* [13]
Phaenias of Eresus was also among the rst to make systematic collections towards a Greek musical history. His
treatise and others, now lost, were key sources for compilers in Imperial times, such as Athenaeus and pseudo-
523
524
176.3 Notes
[1] Diogenes Lartius, v. 37; Schol. in Apollon. i. 972;
Strabo, xiii.
[2] Suda s.v. Phanias, comp. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, i.
[3] Ammonius Hermiae, ad Categ. p. 13; Schol. Arist. p.
28, a. 40, ed. Brandis
[4] Schol. Arist. p. 566, a. ed. Brandis
[5] Athenaeus, xiv.
[6] Athenaeus, ii., ix.
[7] Plutarch, Themistocles, 13
[8] Athenaeus, viii.; comp. Eustathius, p. 35, 18; Clement of
Alexandria, Stromata, i.; Plutarch, Solon, 14, 32, Themistocles, 1, 7, 73; Suda, Phaenias; Athenaeus, ii.
[9] Athenaeus, i., vi.
[10] Aristotle, Politics, v. 8, 9, etc.
[11] Athenaeus, iii., x.; Parthenius, Erotica Pathemata, 7.
[12] Athenaeus, viii.
[13] Diogenes Lartius, ii. 65, vi. 8
[14] Franklin 2001
176.4 References
John Curtis Franklin, Dictionaries of music 2001
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 177
Praxiphanes
Praxiphanes (Greek: ) a Peripatetic
philosopher, was a native of Mytilene, who lived a
long time in Rhodes. * [1] He lived in the time of
Demetrius Poliorcetes and Ptolemy I Soter, and was a
pupil of Theophrastus, about 322 BC.* [2] He subsequently opened a school himself, in which Epicurus is
said to have been one of his pupils.* [3] Praxiphanes paid
special attention to grammatical studies, and is hence
named along with Aristotle as the founder and creator
of the science of grammar.* [4] Of the writings of Praxiphanes, which appear to have been numerous, two are
especially mentioned, a Dialogue * [5] in which
Plato and Isocrates were the speakers, and an historical
work cited by Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides* [6]
under the title of .
177.1 Notes
[1] Algra, K., The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Page 36. Cambridge University Press. (1999). Cf.
Clement of Alexandria, i.; Strabo, xiv.
[2] Proclus, i. in Timaeum; John Tzetzes, ad Hesiod. Op. et
Dies, 1.
[3] Diogenes Lartius, x. 13
[4] Clement of Alexandria, i.
[5] Diogenes Lartius, iii. 8
[6] Marcellinus, Thucydides, 29
177.2 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
525
Chapter 178
Ptolemy-el-Garib
Ptolemy-el-Garib (Arabic, more correctly al-gharb,
Ptolemy the foreigner,explained as meaningPtolemy
the unknown) was a Hellenistic pinacographer, probably of the Peripatetic school, who wrote a Life of Aristotle notable for its catalog of Aristotle's works. This work
survives in an Arabic manuscript in Istanbul.* [1] The excerpts known prior to this discovery were collected in Ingemar Dring's Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition (Gteborg 1957), pp. 221-231; Marian Plezia has
cast doubt on the idea that Ptolemy-el-Garib's Life was an
important source of later Neoplatonic lives of Aristotle.
Schmitt Charles Bernard. London: Warburg Institute. University of London 1986. pp. 1536 (Reprinted as Chapter VI in D. Gutas, Greek
philosophers in the Arabic tradition, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2000).
Marian Plezia,De Ptolemaeo pinacographo,Eos
63 (1975), pp. 37-42.
, De Ptolemaei Vita Aristotelis,in Aristoteles: Werk und Wirkung, vol. 1 (Aristoteles und seine
Schule), ed. Jrgen Wiesner (Berlin: de Gruyter,
1985), pp. 1-11.
178.1 Notes
[1] Gottschalk 1990 reported that an edition was in preparation by Marian Plezia and Jzef Bielawski. Plezia died
in 1996, Bielawski in 1997. A transcription of the Ms.
Ayasoa 4833 fol. 10b-11a, 14b-18a (with the Catalogue
of Aristotle's works) is now available in: Christel Hein,
Denition und Einteilung der Philosophie. Von der sptantiken Einleitungsliteratur zur arabischen Enzyklopdie,
New York: Peter Lang, 1985, pp. 415-439).
178.2 References
Hans Gottschalk, The Earliest Aristotelian Commentators,in Aristotle Transformed (ed. Richard
Sorabji, 1990), pp. 56f. n. 5.
Chapter 179
179.1 Notes
[1] PHerc. 558
[2] OCD, q.v. Satyrus
[3] Athenaeus, vi. 248; xii. 541; xiii. 556
[4] A. S. Hunt, Oxyrhynchi Papyri, vol. 9 (1912), no. 1176,
pp. 124182
527
Chapter 180
Strato of Lampsacus
Strato of Lampsacus (/streto/; Greek:
Straton, gen.: ; c. 335 c. 269 BC) was a
Peripatetic philosopher, and the third director (scholarch)
of the Lyceum after the death of Theophrastus. He
devoted himself especially to the study of natural science, and increased the naturalistic elements in Aristotle's
thought to such an extent, that he denied the need for an
active god to construct the universe, preferring to place
the government of the universe in the unconscious force
of nature alone.
180.1 Life
Strato, son of Arcesilaus or Arcesius, was born at
Lampsacus between 340 and 330 BC.* [1] He might have
known Epicurus during his period of teaching in Lampsacus between 310 and 306.* [1] He attended Aristotle's
school in Athens, after which he went to Egypt as tutor
to Ptolemy, where he also taught Aristarchus of Samos. Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Strato. Part of a fresco in the
He returned to Athens after the death of Theophrastus National University of Athens.
(c. 287 BC), succeeding him as head of the Lyceum. He
died sometime between 270 and 268 BC,.* [1]
Whereas Aristotle dened time as the numbered aspect
Strato devoted himself especially to the study of natu- of motion,* [5] Strato argued that because motion and
ral science, whence he obtained, or, as it appears from time are continuous whereas number is discrete, time has
Cicero, assumed the name of Physicus (Greek: - an existence independent of motion.* [6] He was criti). Cicero, while speaking highly of his talents, blames cal of Aristotle's concept of place as a surrounding surhim for neglecting the most important part of philosophy, face,* [7] preferring to see it as the space which a thing
that which concerns virtue and morals, and giving himself occupies.* [8] He also rejected the existence of Aristotle's
up to the investigation of nature.* [2] In the long list of his fth element.* [9]
works, given by Diogenes Lartius, several of the titles
He emphasized the role of pneuma, ('breath' or 'spirit') in
are upon subjects of moral philosophy, but the great mathe functioning of the soul; soul-activities were explained
jority belong to the department of physical science. None
by pneuma extending throughout the body from the 'rulof his writings survive, his views are known only from the
ing part' located in the head.* [10] All sensation is felt in
fragmentary reports preserved by later writers.
the ruling-part of the soul, rather than in the extremities
of the body; all sensation involves thought, and there is
no thought not derived from sensation.* [11] He denied
that the soul was immortal, and attacked the 'proofs' put
180.2 Philosophy
forward by Plato in his Phaedo.* [3]
Strato emphasized the need for exact research,* [3] and,
as an example of this, he made use of the observation
of how water pouring from a spout breaks into separate
droplets as evidence that falling bodies accelerate.* [4]
528
180.3. GEOLOGY
529
ways lled with some kind of matter.* [12] Such a theory 180.3 Geology
permitted phenomena such as compression, and allowed
the penetration of light and heat through apparently solid As quoted from Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology:
bodies.* [7]
He seems to have denied the existence of any god outside of the material universe, and to have held that every
particle of matter has a plastic and seminal power, but
without sensation or intelligence; and that life, sensation,
and intellect, are but forms, accidents, and aections of
matter. Cicero took exception to this:
Nor does his pupil Strato, who is called
the natural philosopher, deserve to be listened
to; he holds that all divine force is resident
in nature, which contains, he says, the principles of birth, increase, and decay, but which
lacks, as we could remind him, all sensation
and form.* [13]
Like the atomists (Leucippus and Democritus) before
him, Strato of Lampsacus was a materialist and believed
that everything in the universe was composed of matter
and energy. Strato was one of the rst philosophers to
formulate a secular worldview, in which God is merely
the unconscious force of nature.
You deny that without God there can be
anything: but here you yourself seem to go contrary to Strato of Lampsacus, who concedes to
God a pardon from a great task. If the priests
of God were on vacation, it is much more just
that the Gods would also be on vacation; in
fact he denies the need to appreciate the work
of the Gods in order to construct the world.
All the things that exist he teaches have been
produced by nature; not hence, as he says, according to that philosophy which claims these
things are made of rough and smooth corpuscles, indented and hooked, the void interfering;
these, he upholds, are dreams of Democritus
which are not to be taught but dreamt. Strato,
in fact, investigating the individual parts of the
world, teaches that all that which is or is produced, is or has been produced, by weight and
motion. Thus he liberates God from a big job
and me from fear.* [14]
Strato endeavoured to replace the Aristotelian teleology
by a purely physical explanation of phenomena, the underlying elements of which he found in heat and cold,
with especially heat as the active principle.* [3] Although
Strato's view of the universe can be seen as secular,
he may have accepted the existence of gods within the
universe, in the context of ancient Greek religion; it
is unlikely that he would have regarded himself as an
atheist.* [15]
180.5 Notes
[1] Dorandi 2005, p. 36
[2] Cicero, Acad. Quaest. i. 9; de Finibus, v. 5.
[3] Zeller, Nestle & Palmer 2000, p. 204
530
180.6 References
Algra, Keimpe (1995), Concepts of Space in Greek
Thought, BRILL
Dorandi, Tiziano (2005), Chronology, in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Jonathon; Mansfeld, Jaap et
al., The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-61670-0
Erdmann, Johann Eduard (2002), A History of Philosophy, Anmol Publications
Furley, David (2003), From Aristotle to Augustine:
Routledge History of Philosophy, Volume 2, Routledge
Furley, David (2005), Cosmology, in Algra,
Keimpe; Barnes, Jonathon; Mansfeld, Jaap et al.,
The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-61670-0
Grant, Edward (1974), A Source Book in Medieval
Science, Harvard University Press
Chapter 181
Theophrastus
Theophrastus (/ifrsts/; Greek: ; c.
371 c. 287 BC* [1]), a Greek native of Eresos in Lesbos,
was the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school.
He came to Athens at a young age and initially studied in Plato's school. After Plato's death, he attached
himself to Aristotle. Aristotle bequeathed to Theophrastus his writings and designated him as his successor at
the Lyceum. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic
school for thirty-six years, during which time the school
ourished greatly. He is often considered the father
of botany" for his works on plants. After his death, the
Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus.
The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, extending from biology and physics to ethics and metaphysics.
His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants
and On the Causes of Plants, were an important inuence on Renaissance science. There are also surviving
works On Moral Characters, On Sensation, On Stones, and
fragments on Physics and Metaphysics. In philosophy, he
studied grammar and language and continued Aristotle's
work on logic. He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of
motion, and motion as a necessary consequence of all activity. In ethics, he regarded happiness as depending on
external inuences as well as on virtue and famously said
that life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom.
181.1 Life
Most of the biographical information we have of
Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Lartius' Lives
and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, written more than
four hundred years after Theophrastus' time.* [2] He was
a native of Eresos in Lesbos.* [3] His given name was Tyrtamus (), but he later became known by the
nickname Theophrastus,given to him, it is said, by
Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (from
Ancient Greek godand to phrase
, i.e. divine expression).* [4]
After receiving instruction in philosophy in Lesbos from Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children,
one Alcippus, he moved to Athens, where he may including Nicomachus with whom he was close.* [8] Aris531
532
totle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works,* [9] and designated him as his successor
at the Lyceum.* [10] Eudemus of Rhodes also had some
claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have
resented Aristotle's choice.* [11]
Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for
thirty-ve years,* [12] and died at the age of eighty-ve
according to Diogenes.* [13] He is said to have remarked
we die just when we are beginning to live.* [14]
Under his guidance the school ourished greatly there
were at one period more than 2000 students, Diogenes
arms,* [15] and at his death, according to the terms of
his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his
garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat
of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his
pupils.* [15] His popularity was shown in the regard paid
to him by Philip, Cassander, and Ptolemy, and by the
complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against
him.* [16] He was honored with a public funeral, andthe
whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave.* [17] He was succeeded as head
of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus.
181.2 Writings
From the lists of Diogenes Lartius, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole eld of contemporary knowledge.* [11] His writing probably diered little from Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings
are lost works.* [11] Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle,
had composed a rst and second Analytic (
and ).* [18] He had also
written books on Topics ( ,
and );* [19] on the Analysis of
Syllogisms ( and
), on Sophisms () and
On Armation and Denial (
)* [20] as well as on the Natural Philosophy ( , , and
others), on Heaven ( ), and on Meteorological Phenomena ( and
).* [21]
In addition, Theophrastus wrote on the Warm and
the Cold ( ),* [22] on Water ( ), Fire ( ),* [23] the Sea
( ),* [23] on Coagulation and Melting
( ), on various phenomena
of organic and spiritual life,* [23] and on the Soul
( ), On Experience ( ) and On
Sense Perception (also known as On the Senses;
).* [24] Likewise, we nd mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers
Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Archelaus,* [25]
181.2. WRITINGS
Politics, and must have been similar to it.* [31] He also
wrote on oratory and poetry.* [32] Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his ethical
writings,* [33] as also in his metaphysical investigations
of motion, the soul, and God.* [34]
Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several
collections of problems, out of which some things at
least have passed into the Problems that have come down
to us under the name of Aristotle,* [35] and commentaries,* [36] partly dialogues,* [37] to which probably
belonged the Erotikos (),* [38] Megacles
(),* [27] Callisthenes (),* [39]
and Megarikos (),* [22] and letters,* [40]
partly books on mathematical sciences and their
history.* [41]
533
which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system
whereby plants are classied according to their modes of
generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to
their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc.* [43]
The rst book deals with the parts of plants; the second
book with the reproduction of plants and the times and
manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fth books are
devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their
practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs
and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the
eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds;
and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful
juices, gums, resins, etc.* [43]
181.2.1
On Plants
534
181.2.4 Physics
We also possess in fragments a History of Physics (
). To this class of work belong the
still extant sections on Fire, on the Winds, and on the
signs of Waters, Winds, and Storms.* [47] Various smaller
scientic fragments have been collected in the editions
of Johann Gottlob Schneider (181821) and Friedrich
Wimmer (184262) and in Hermann Usener's Analecta
Theophrastea.
181.2.5 Metaphysics
The
Metaphysics
(anachronistic
Greek
title:
),* [48] in nine
chapters (also known as On First Principles), was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition
(Theophrastos, Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890), but according
to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus, Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X)
and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no rea181.2.2 Characters
son for assigning this work to some other author because
it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus, especially
His book Characters ( ), if it is in- as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it.* [42]
deed his, deserves a separate mention. The work contains
thirty brief, vigorous, and trenchant outlines of moral
types, which form a most valuable picture of the life of his
181.2.6 On Stones
time, and in fact of human nature in general.* [11] They
are the rst recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches
were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard
the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but
the style of the book is against this.* [11] Theophrastus
has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury (1614
16), Bishop Earle (1628), and Jean de La Bruyre
(1688), who also translated the Characters.* [11] George
Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus' Characters, most notably in her book of caricatures, Impressions Cut emeralds
of Theophrastus Such. Writing the "character sketch" as
a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's ty- In his treatise On Stones ( ), which was to
pology.
be used as a source for other lapidaries until at least
the Renaissance,* [49] Theophrastus classied rocks and
gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber
and magnetite, which both have the power of attrac181.2.3 On Sensation
tion.* [50]* [51]* [52] He also comments on the eect of
A treatise On Sense Perception ( ) and its heat on minerals and their dierent hardnesses.
objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of
the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was
written by Priscian of Lydia in the sixth century.* [43]
With this type of work we may connect the fragments on
Smells, on Fatigue, on Dizziness, on Sweat, on Swooning,
on Palsy, and on Honey.* [42]
181.3. PHILOSOPHY
535
181.3 Philosophy
The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's
doctrines, or dened them more accurately, or conceived
them in a dierent form, and what additional structures
of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially
determined because of the loss of so many of his writings.* [42] Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed
from the works of later writers such as Alexander of
Aphrodisias and Simplicius.
181.3.1 Logic
Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the
grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric, since in
his book on the elements of speech, he distinguished the
main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and
also direct expressions ( kuria lexis) from
metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions
( pathe) of speech.* [55] He further distinguished
a twofold reference of speech ( schisis) to things
( pragmata) and to the hearers, and referred
poetry and rhetoric to the latter.* [56]
He wrote at length on the unity of judgment,* [57] on the
dierent kinds of negation,* [58] and on the dierence
between unconditional and conditional necessity.* [59] In
his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof
for the conversion of universal armative judgments,
diered from Aristotle here and there in the laying down
and arranging the modi of the syllogisms,* [60] partly in
the proof of them,* [61] partly in the doctrine of mixture,
i.e. of the inuence of the modality of the premises upon
the modality of the conclusion.* [62] Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the reduction of arguments to
the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them;* [63]
and further, with hypothetical conclusions.* [64] For the
doctrine of proof, Galen quotes the second Analytic
of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle,
as the best treatises on that doctrine.* [65] In dierent
monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science. To this, too, may have belonged
536
the proposition quoted from his Topics, that the principles
of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus.* [66] For the
rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian denitions are quoted from the Topica of Theophrastus.* [67]
Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas,* [68] which, without doubt, corresponded to book of Aristotle's Metaphysics.* [42]
181.3.3 Ethics
Theophrastus did not allow a happiness resting merely
upon virtue,* [82] or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality. He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend,* [83] and
had allowed in prosperity the existence of an inuence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his
expression in the Callisthenes, life is ruled by fortune,
not wisdom(vitam regit fortuna non sapientia).* [84]
That in the denition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles
of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure
generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had dened
it.* [22] Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemAristotle
plative (theoretical), to active (practical) life,* [85] he preHe departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine ferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family
a manner of which Aristotle would not have
of motion, since on the one hand he extended it over all life, etc. in
*
[86]
approved.
categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle.* [74] He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an ac- Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds
tivity, not carrying its own goal in itself (ateles), of that that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust.
which only potentially exists,* [75] but he opposed Aris- Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel
totle's view that motion required a special explanation, just as human beings do.* [87]
537
181.6 Notes
[1] Tiziano Dorandi, Chapter 2: Chronology, in Algra et al.
(1999), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy,
pp. 523. Cambridge.
[2] Theophrastus (1916).
Hort A. F. (transl.), ed.
Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants. 1, Book IV.
New York: Loeb Classical Library/G.P. Putnam's Sons.
[3] Strabo, xiii.; Diogenes Lartius, v. 36, etc.
[4] Strabo, xiii.; Diogenes Lartius, v. 38
[5]Theophrastus is said to have studied rst at Eresus under
Alcippus, then at Athens under Plato. The latter report is
problematic.Theophrastusentry in the Encyclopedia
of classical philosophy (1997), page 552. Greenwood
[6]Theophrastusentry in the Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy (1997), page 552. Greenwood
[7] Grene, Marjorie; Depew, David (2004). The philosophy
of biology: an episodic history. Cambridge University
Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-521-64380-1. Retrieved October 24, 2013.
The bust inscribed "
(Theophrastos Melanta Eresios)"
The marble herm gure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken
as purely conventional. Unidentied portrait heads did
not nd a ready market in post-Renaissance Rome.* [88]
This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese
Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to
marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made.
It is now in the Villa Albani, Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings* [89]
and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb Classical Library Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. Andr Thevet illustrated* [90] in his iconographic compendium, Les vraies
Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an
alleged portrait plagiarized from the bust, supporting his
fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from
the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a
conrming bust in the ruins of Antioch.* [91]
538
[53] John F. Healy, (1999) Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology, pp. 177. Oxford University Press
[44] Theodore Gaza, a refugee from Thessalonika, was working from a lost Greek manuscript that was dierent from
any others (Hort).
International Plant
181.7. REFERENCES
539
181.7 References
Walton, S. A., Theophrastus on Lyngurium: medieval and early modern lore from the classical
lapidary tradition, Annals of Science, Oct. 2001,
58(4):35779, PDF on Academia.edu
Attribution
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
540
Theophrastus and the Greek physiological psychology before Aristotle, by George Malcolm Stratton,
(1917), at the Internet Archive. Contains a translation of On the Senses by Theophrastus.
Theophrastus work The Characters, English
translation by R.C. Jebb (1870), on website eudaemonist.
The Characters of Theophrastus, Greek and English
text next to each other; translated by J. M. Edmonds,
(1929); at the Internet Archive.
Diogenes Lartius, Life of Theophrastus, translated
by Robert Drew Hicks (1925).
Peripatetic Logic: The Work of Eudemus of Rhodes
and Theophrastus of Eresus
Theophrastus On First Principles(known as his
Metaphysics)
Characters (original Ancient Greek text) (Greek)
Project Theophrastus (Greek)
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma Libraries (high resolution
images of works by Theophrastus in .jpg and .ti
format)
Chapter 182
Ammonius of Athens
Ammonius of Athens (Greek: ), sometimes
called Ammonius the Peripatetic, was a philosopher
who taught in Athens in the 1st century.
He was a teacher of Plutarch, who praises his great learning,* [1] and introduces him discoursing on religion and
sacred rites.* [2] Plutarch wrote a biography of him which
is no longer extant.
From the information supplied by Plutarch, Ammonius
was clearly an expert in the works of Aristotle, but he may
have nevertheless been a Platonist philosopher rather than
a Peripatetic.
He may be the Ammonius of Lamprae (in Attica) quoted
by Athenaeus* [3] as the author of a book on altars and
sacrices (Greek: ). Athenaeus
also mentions a work on Athenian courtesans (Greek:
) as written by an Ammonius.* [4]
182.1 References
[1] Plutarch, Symp., iii. 1.
[2] Plutarch, Symp., ix. 15.
[3] Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, xi.
[4] Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, xiii.
541
Chapter 183
Aristo of Alexandria
Aristo (or Ariston, Greek: ) of Alexandria,
was a Peripatetic philosopher, and a contemporary of
Strabo in the 1st century. He wrote a work on the
Nile.* [1] Eudorus, a contemporary of his, wrote a book
on the same subject, and the two works were so much
alike, that the authors charged each other with plagiarism.
Who was right is not said, though Strabo seems to be inclined to think that Eudorus was the guilty party.
183.1 Notes
[1] Diogenes Laertius, vii. 164; Strabo, xvii.
183.2 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
542
Chapter 184
Aristocles of Messene
Aristocles (/rstkliz/; Greek: ) of
Messene in Sicily,* [1] was a Peripatetic philosopher, who
probably lived in the 1st century AD.* [2] He may have
been the teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias.* [3]
According to the Suda* [1] and Eudokia, he wrote several
works:
Whether Homer or Plato is more Worthy.
- Arts of Rhetoric.
A work on the god Serapis.
A work on Ethics, in nine books.
A work on Philosophy, in ten books.
The last of these works appears to have been a history
of philosophy, in which he wrote about the philosophers,
their schools, and doctrines. Several fragments of it are
preserved in Eusebius.* [4]
184.1 Notes
[1] Suda, Aristokles
[2] Karamanolis, G., (2006), Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?: Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry,
page 37. Oxford University Press.
[3] Cyrill. c. Jul. ii. The correct reading of this passage is in
doubt and may refer instead to Aristotle of Mytilene.
[4] Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, xiv, xv.
184.2 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
543
Chapter 185
Aristotle of Mytilene
Aristotle of Mytilene (or Aristoteles, Greek: ; . 2nd century) was a distinguished Peripatetic
philosopher in the time of Galen. It has been argued that
he was a teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias.
Galen (writing c. 190) referred to him as a leading gure in Peripatetic scholarship.* [1] According to Galen,
Aristotle of Mytilene never drank cold water because it
gave him spasms, but he was attacked with a disease in
which it was thought necessary for him to take it. He
drank the cold water and died.
It was argued by Paul Moraux in 1967 that Aristotle of
Mytilene was a teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias.* [2]
Previous scholars had noted that ancient texts refer to an
Aristotleas a teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias, and,
unaware of any 2nd-century philosophers by that name,
had emended the name to "Aristocles". If Moraux's theory is correct, and Aristotle of Mytilene was Alexander's
teacher, then his philosophical views are represented in a
passage of Alexander's On Intellect dealing with the doctrine of the external intellect.* [3]
This theory, however, was criticised by Pierre Thillet in 1984.* [4] Thillet argued that the text that refers
to Aristotle as Alexander's teacher might merely mean
that Alexander learned from the writings of the famous
Aristotle.
185.1 Notes
[1] Galen, De Consuetudinibus (Peri Ethon)
[2] P. Moraux, Aristoteles, der Lehrer Alexanders von
Aphrodisias, Archiv fr Geschichte der Philosophie 49
(1967) 169-182
[3] Robert B. Todd, (1976), Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic
Physics, pages 11-12. BRILL
[4] P. Thillet (ed.), Alexandre d'Aphrodise: Trait du Destin,
Paris 1984, xix-xxxi.
544
Chapter 186
Athenaeus Mechanicus
Athenaeus Mechanicus is the author of a book on
siegecraft, On Machines (Ancient Greek: ). He is identied by modern scholars with
Athenaeus of Seleucia, a member of the Peripatetic
school active in the mid-to-late 1st century BC, at Rome
and elsewhere.* [1]* [2]
186.2.1 Inuence
The tenth-century poliorketikon of Hero of Byzantium,
Parangelmata Poliorcetica, draws on Athenaeus as a
source.
186.1 Life
Strabo mentions a contemporary of his, Athenaeus of Seleucia, a Peripatetic philosopher.* [3] He was for some
time the leading demagogue in his native city, but afterwards came to Rome and became acquainted with
Lucius Licinius Varro Murena. On the discovery of the
plot which the latter, with Fannius Caepio, had entered
into against Augustus, Athenaeus accompanied him in
his ight. He was retaken, but pardoned by Augustus,
as there was no evidence of his having taken a more active part in the plot.* [4] He is perhaps the same person as
the writer mentioned by Diodorus, a historian who mentioned Semiramis.* [4]* [5]
186.2
186.3 Editions
Carl(e) Wescher, Poliorctique des Grecs. Paris,
1867. (online: Google Books, archive.org)
Rudolf Schneider, Griechische Poliorketiker. Abhandlungen der kniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen: philologisch-historische
Klasse, neue Folge, 12:5. Berlin, 1912.
David Whitehead, P.H. Blyth, Athenaeus Mechanicus, On Machines. Historia-Einzelschrift, 182.
Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004. ISBN 3-51508532-7
On Machines
The treatise is addressed to Marcus Claudius Marcellus, and thus will have been composed before Marcellus' death in 23 BC (and possibly at a time when its addressee was preparing to go out on campaign).* [1] It describes a number of siege engines. Among the earlier mechanicians cited as sources by Athenaeus are Agesistratus, Diades of Pella, and Philo of Byzantium. Whitehead
and Blyth analyze the treatise into a preface, a section on
good practice,a section on bad practice,a section
on Athenaeus' own innovations, and an epilogue emphasizing preparation for war as a deterrent, and defending Athenaeus' own record against unnamed critics.* [2]
The work is technical but not without signs of Athenaeus'
philosophical culture: He comes across as a philosopher, and he expounds about time and opportunity, but
also claims to be enough of a technical expert to devise
new machines, and to describe old ones accurately.* [1]
Much of Athenaeus' work (9.4-27.6) is closely parallel to
Maurizio Gatto (ed.), Il Peri mechanematon di Ateneo meccanico. Edizione critica, traduzione, commento e note. Aio 567. Roma: Aracne editrice,
2010. ISBN 978-88-548-3102-5
186.4 Notes
545
[1] Serana Cuomo, review of Gatto 2010, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.11.35
[2] Duncan B. Campbell, review of Whitehead and Blyth
2004, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.07.63
[3] Strabo 14.5.4
[4] William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, p. 400.
[5] Diodorus Siculus, 2.20.3
[6] Whitehead and Blyth 2004, p. 14
Chapter 187
Severus was the son of the Roman senator and philosopher Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus by an unnamed
mother. Severus was of Pontian Greek descent. He was
born and raised in Pompeiopolis, a city in the Roman
province of Galatia. His paternal grandfather Gaius
Claudius Severus was a consul and the rst Roman governor of Arabia Petraea in the reign of the Emperor Trajan,
98-117.
Like his father, Severus was a follower of peripatetic
philosophy. Although Severus held no major political
inuence, he was considered as an inuential gure in
the intellectual and philosopher circles in Rome. Like
his father, Severus was a friend and had a great inuence on the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180). It
was probably Severus that introduced Marcus Aurelius,
to the rhetorician Cornelianus and by his personal physician recommendation, introduced Marcus Aurelius to the
Greek physician Galen. Severus with his father accompanied Marcus Aurelius on a philosophical visit to Athens,
Greece in 176.
Severus served as an ordinary consul in 167 and 173. In
the year of his second consulship, Severus became a patron and was made an honorary citizen of Pompeiopolis.
In 173, an honoric inscription was dedicated to Severus
in his birth city. This honoric surviving inscription was
found on a statue base in the city:
187.2 Sources
The Cities and Bishoprics of Phyrgia: Being an Essay of the Local History of Phrygia from the Earliest
Times to the Turkish Conquest Volume One, Part
One - By William M. Ramsay 2004
187.2. SOURCES
http://www.livius.org/fa-fn/faustina/faustina_ii.
html
http://www.umich.edu/~{}classics/programs/class/
cc/372/sibyl/tutorial/dating/
http://thecorner.wordpress.com/2006/06/21/
chapter-two-septimius-and-the-cursus-honorum/
Marcus Aurelius - Meditations
547
Chapter 188
Cratippus of Pergamon
Cratippus of Pergamon (Greek: ), was a bodily inuence, and that divination is due to the direct
leading Peripatetic philosopher of the 1st century BC who action of the divine mind on that part of the human soul
taught at Mytilene and Athens. The only aspects of his which is not dependent on the body.
teachings which are known to us are what Cicero records
concerning divination.
188.3 References
188.1 Life
188.4 Sources
188.2 Teachings
Although Cicero had a high opinion of the knowledge
and talent of Cratippus, his philosophical opinions are unknown, apart from allusions to his opinions on divination,
on which he seems to have written a work. Cicero states
that Cratippus believed in dreams and supernatural inspiration (Latin: furor) but that he rejected all other kinds
of divination.* [10] He seems to have held that, while motion, sense and appetite cannot exist apart from the body,
thought reaches its greatest power when most free from
548
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Chapter 189
Diodorus of Tyre
Diodorus of Tyre (Greek: ), was a Peripatetic
philosopher, and a disciple and follower of Critolaus,
whom he succeeded as the head of the Peripatetic school
at Athens c. 118 BC. He was still alive and active there in
110 BC, when Licinius Crassus, during his quaestorship
of Macedonia, visited Athens. Cicero denies that he was
a genuine Peripatetic, because it was one of his ethical maxims, that the greatest good consisted in a combination of virtue with the absence of pain, whereby a
reconciliation between the Stoics and Epicureans was attempted.* [1]
189.1 Notes
[1] Cicero, de Oratore, i. 11, Tusculanae Disputationes, v. 30,
De Finibus, ii. 6, 11, iv. 18, v. 5, 8, 25, Academica, ii.
42; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, i., ii.
189.2 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
549
Chapter 190
Herminus
Herminus (Greek: ; 2nd century) was a
Peripatetic philosopher. He lived in the rst half of the
2nd century.* [1] He appears to have written commentaries on most of the works of Aristotle. Simplicius* [2]
says he was the teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias. We
learn from Alexander's commentary on the Prior Analytics that Herminus had worked on Aristotle's syllogistic
system, adding innovations which Alexander disapproved
of.* [3] His writings, of which nothing remains, are frequently referred to by Boethius, who mentions a treatise
by him, On Interpretation (Greek: ), as
also Analytics and Topics.
A Stoic philosopher called Herminus is mentioned by
Longinus in the preface to his book On Ends. This Herminus had been a teacher when Longinus was young (c.
230).* [4]
190.1 Notes
[1] Lucian, Demonax, 56.
[2] Simplicius, ad Arist. de Caelo, ii. 23
[3] Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone,
(2000) The Cambridge ancient history: The High Empire,
A.D. 70-192, page 936. Cambridge University Press.
[4] Geert Roskam, (2005), On the path to virtue: the Stoic doctrine of moral progress and its Reception in (Middle-) Platonism, page 393. Leuven University Press
550
Chapter 191
191.1 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William,
ed. (1870). "* article name needed". Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
551
Chapter 192
192.1 Sources
Severus was the son of the consul and the rst Roman
Governor of Arabia Petraea, Gaius Claudius Severus by
an unnamed mother. Severus was of Pontian Greek descent. He was born and raised in Pompeiopolis, a city in
the Roman province of Galatia.
When Severus had come to Rome during the reign of
Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138), he had become
a philosophical mentor and a teacher to Roman noble
students. Among his students was the future Roman
Emperor Marcus Aurelius, with whom he had become
friends. Severus was the philosophical mentor of Marcus
Aurelius.
In Rome, Severus assumed a reputation as a man of spirit
and as a great philosophical mentor. He was a follower
of Peripatetic philosophy and later served as an ordinary consul in 146 in the reign of the Roman Emperor
Antoninus Pius (138-161).
He married an unnamed woman, by whom he had a son
called Gnaeus Claudius Severus. Severus was evidently a
politician with a deep interest in political philosophy and
this is revealed, on Marcus Aureliusopinion of Severus
in Meditations (1.14n):
From Tiberius to the Antonines: a history of the Roman Empire AD 14-192, by Albino Garzetti, 1974
Marcus Aurelius, by Anthony Richard Birley, Routledge, 2000
The Cambridge Ancient History: the High Empire,
A.D. 70-192, by Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey,
Dominic Rathbone Edition: 2 - Item notes: v. 11 2000
Articles - Gnaeus Claudius Severus Arabianus &
Gnaeus Claudius Severus articles from German
Wikipedia
Marcus Aurelius - Meditations
Chapter 193
193.2 References
He criticized both Aristotle and Eudoxus for their imperfect theory of celestial spheres and also the use of
epicycles, which he felt to be inconsistent with Aristotle's
philosophical postulates. He pointed out that the planets
varied markedly in brightness, and that eclipses of the sun
are sometimes total and sometimes annular, suggesting
that the distances between the sun, moon and earth were
not the same at dierent eclipses.
Sosigenes is perhaps calledthe Peripatetic" only because
of his connection with Alexander. Some ancient evidence
may be taken to suggest that he was, in fact, a Stoic. As
John Patrick Lynch has written:
193.1 Notes
[1] John Patrick Lynch, Aristotle's School: A Study of a Greek
Educational Institution, Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1972, p. 215.
553
Irby-Massie G., Keyser P., Greek Science of the Hellenistic Era: A Sourcebook, pages 8081. Routledge.
Zhmud L., Chernoglazov A., (translator), The Origin of the History of Science in Classical Antiquity,
page 231. Walter de Gruyter.
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"Sosigenes". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 194
Xenarchus of Seleucia
[6] Alexander Aphrodisiensis, de Anim.
194.1 Notes
[1] Die Schedelsche Weltchronik:097
[2] Strabo, 14.5.4.
[3] Giovanni Reale, 1990, A History of Ancient Philosophy:
The Schools of the Imperial Age, page 19. SUNY Press
[4] Simplicius, de Caelo, 1.
[5] Julian, Orations, V. 162 (On the Mother of the Gods.)
554
555
Text
Aristotle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle?oldid=644446615 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, General Wesc, Vicki
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Nicomachus (father of Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomachus%20(father%20of%20Aristotle)?oldid=614540723
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560
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Aristotle's views on women Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle'{}s%20views%20on%20women?oldid=642277493 Contributors: Julesd, Wjhonson, Andycjp, Camipco, Wareh, ADM, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Clevy clev, Hgilbert, JMK,
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Jrainey1, Everarddejong, 478jjjz, John Cline, Tolly4bolly, ClueBot NG, BattyBot, Aristokitty, AthanasiusOfAlex and Anonymous: 34
Corpus Aristotelicum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus%20Aristotelicum?oldid=637200419 Contributors: DopeshJustin,
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user 4, Haukurth, Dina, DNewhall, LeeHunter, Brian0918, Arcadian, Mdd, Velho, Mindmatrix, Allen3, BD2412, KYPark, RussBot,
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AstaBOTh15, Pollinosisss, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Hpvpp, Polisher of Cobwebs, MerlIwBot, Harryjamespotter1980, Azuizo, Davidiad,
Pineiro.7, Closerange897, OilandTempura and Anonymous: 32
Constitution of the Athenians Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20the%20Athenians?oldid=628452243 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Wetman, Robbot, Mathieugp, Pmanderson, WhiteCrow, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Bender235,
Mairi, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Wikidea, Alai, Ghirlandajo, Bacteria, Allen3, AllanBz, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, Miskin, Conscious, Jpbowen, Varano, Tomisti, Tryphiodorus, SmackBot, Elonka, Chairman S., Will Beback, Pthag, Neddyseagoon, Isokrates, Cydebot, Kugland,
Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Escarbot, VoABot II, Jeepday, Squids and Chips, SieBot, Gerakibot, Dimboukas, Ashmedai 119, Catalographer,
Addbot, LightSpectra, Longbowman, Lightbot, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dorieo, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Erud, Omnipaedista,
RibotBOT, RedBot, , EmausBot, Helical gear, Davidiad, Ramenuet, Pasicles, ChrisGualtieri, 069952497a, Jononmac46
and Anonymous: 31
De Interpretatione Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Interpretatione?oldid=641717620 Contributors: GTBacchus, Paul A,
Renamed user 4, Gubbubu, Beland, Eroica, MakeRocketGoNow, Dbachmann, Chalst, Sietse Snel, Wareh, Arcadian, Mdd, Jumbuck,
Freyr, Marudubshinki, BD2412, KYPark, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Black Falcon, Sardanaphalus, Eskimbot, Jon Awbrey, Fuzzypeg,
Bjankuloski06en, Santa Sangre, Neddyseagoon, Gregbard, Cydebot, AniMate, Dougweller, Wikid77, Arch dude, Moz, Ontoraul, Pokemaster1234, Cnilep, SieBot, Tradereddy, Spirals31, Addbot, Renamed user 5, Logicist, Peter Damian (old), Yobot, AnomieBOT, Peter
Damian, Omnipaedista, LilyKitty, EmausBot, Psturm, Hpvpp, MusEdit, GeoreyEdwards, Polisher of Cobwebs, Jean KemperNN, Davidiad, Faizan, Ajhmerivale and Anonymous: 20
Economics (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics%20(Aristotle)?oldid=631564132 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Tomisti, Andrew Lancaster, Cessator, Thomasmeeks, It Is Me Here, Fadesga, Jonund, MystBot, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, ZroBot, GeoreyEdwards, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 2
Eudemian Ethics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudemian%20Ethics?oldid=633599206 Contributors: JoeSmack, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Allen3, RJC, Vincej, Tomisti, Andrew Lancaster, SmackBot, Bluebot, Across.The.Synapse, Isokrates, Cydebot, Icehcky8, KConWiki, Anarchia, PixelBot, MystBot, Addbot, Tide rolls, Yobot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, HRoestBot, Davidiad, ChrisGualtieri and
Anonymous: 6
561
Generation of Animals Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation%20of%20Animals?oldid=612248149 Contributors: Rl, RoyBoy, Wareh, Arcadian, Tomisti, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, D. Webb, Bibi Saint-Pol, Pkeshav, Doug Coldwell, Alexbot, PixelBot, JKeck,
Addbot, Omnipaedista, EmausBot, KLBot2, Davidiad and Anonymous: 2
History of Animals Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Animals?oldid=640520995 Contributors: Asb, LeeHunter,
Laurascudder, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Sciurin, Wikiklrsc, Liface, Allen3, Graham87, RussBot, Zuben, Ragesoss, Tomisti, SmackBot, Sailko,
Neddyseagoon, Jaksmata, Chris55, Cydebot, 271828182, PhJ, Pkeshav, Doug Coldwell, Jeepday, Chiswick Chap, VolkovBot, FinnWiki,
Oneeyedboxer, Alexbot, MystBot, Addbot, Erutuon, Luckas-bot, Yobot, CXCV, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Pollinosisss, Jonkerz, EmausBot, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, Davidiad, WithSelet, OakRunner and Anonymous: 12
Magna Moralia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna%20Moralia?oldid=631556415 Contributors: Pmanderson, MakeRocketGoNow, Dbachmann, Arcadian, Hooperbloob, WhiteC, YurikBot, RJC, Tomisti, SmackBot, James.S, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Fadesga,
Addbot, Abiyoyo, Luckas-bot, Xqbot, Renaissancee, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, ZroBot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 3
Mechanics (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics%20(Aristotle)?oldid=612265766 Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Polylerus, Knucmo2, RJFJR, Proyster, Tomisti, Melchoir, Cessator, Neddyseagoon, Chris55, Cydebot, Catalographer,
Addbot, Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista, Davidiad and Anonymous: 6
Meteorology (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology%20(Aristotle)?oldid=639013444 Contributors: Cybercavalier, Wetman, LeeHunter, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Hard Raspy Sci, Allen3, Marudubshinki, Graham87, Lightsup55, Hakeem.gadi, Tomisti, Nightryder84, Sardanaphalus, Srnec, Jbergquist, Neddyseagoon, BoH, Cydebot, Rettetast, WikipediaIsSofaKingdom, Thanatos666, PericlesofAthens, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Walrasiad, Addbot, Materialscientist, Omnipaedista, Machine Elf 1735,
Semaphoris, Tbhotch, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Davidiad, Mogism, Petesimon2, Cdhobbs9, Federico Leva (BEIC),
Nictornado and Anonymous: 12
Movement of Animals Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement%20of%20Animals?oldid=638423261 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Wareh, Wavelength, Tomisti, Pegship, Suicidalhamster, Grommel, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Epbr123, QuintusMaximus, Fadesga,
Excirial, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Dger, Animalparty, ClueBot NG, Davidiad, RHamzey and Anonymous: 5
On Breath Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Breath?oldid=631433339 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Wareh, Cessator,
WANAX, Cynwolfe, VolkovBot, Fadesga, Addbot, Omnipaedista and RedBot
On Colors Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Colors?oldid=612263758 Contributors: Tomisti, Cessator, Fadesga, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, ZroBot and Davidiad
On Divination in Sleep Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Divination%20in%20Sleep?oldid=612705152 Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, Rich Farmbrough, Wareh, Arcadian, ABCD, RxS, Spencerk, Pegship, Cessator, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Fadesga, Addbot,
Omnipaedista, ZroBot and Davidiad
On Dreams Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Dreams?oldid=612705283 Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, Rich Farmbrough, Wareh, Arcadian, Brainy J, Grutness, Pegship, Cessator, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Fadesga, Addbot, Omnipaedista, ChuispastonBot and Davidiad
On Generation and Corruption Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Generation%20and%20Corruption?oldid=612244622
Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, JoeSmack, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Grutness, Qwertyus, Ketiltrout, ThomistGuy, Tomisti, Pegship, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Atomist, Jon Awbrey, Neddyseagoon, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Ecphora, Appraiser, Emeraude, Fleurstigter,
PixelBot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Omnipaedista, T of Locri, TjBot, EmausBot, Syncategoremata, ZroBot, Catlandcats, Davidiad, Dexbot
and Anonymous: 9
On Indivisible Lines Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Indivisible%20Lines?oldid=611233909 Contributors: Tomisti, Cessator, Hmains, Fadesga, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss and Davidiad
On Length and Shortness of Life Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Length%20and%20Shortness%20of%20Life?oldid=
612264856 Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, Rich Farmbrough, Zenohockey, Wareh, Arcadian, McGeddon, Cessator, Neddyseagoon,
Cydebot, Seraphim, QuintusMaximus, Fadesga, Addbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Boomphook33, ZroBot and Anonymous: 1
On Marvellous Things Heard Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Marvellous%20Things%20Heard?oldid=613211399 Contributors: Wareh, Tomisti, Cessator, Fadesga, Addbot, Luckas-bot, LilHelpa, Omnipaedista, AlexanderVanLoon, Pollinosisss, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Davidiad, Melenc and Anonymous: 1
On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Melissus%2C%20Xenophanes%2C%20and%
20Gorgias?oldid=614513093 Contributors: Tomisti, SmackBot, Cessator, Hmains, Fadesga, WikHead, Addbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista,
Pollinosisss, EmausBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 1
On Memory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Memory?oldid=612264746 Contributors: Pamplemousse, MakeRocketGoNow,
Rich Farmbrough, Wareh, Arcadian, Allen3, Andrew Lancaster, Cessator, Neddyseagoon, Colonel Warden, Cydebot, Fadesga, Addbot,
Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista and Davidiad
On Plants Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Plants?oldid=638330941 Contributors: Tomisti, Cessator, Magioladitis, Chiswick
Chap, Funandtrvl, Fadesga, Addbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, ZroBot, Davidiad, Zorahia and Anonymous: 1
On Sleep Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Sleep?oldid=612264427 Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, Rich Farmbrough,
Wareh, Arcadian, Cessator, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, AbsolutBildung, QuintusMaximus, Fadesga, Addbot, Omnipaedista, ZroBot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 1
On the Heavens Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20the%20Heavens?oldid=644165422 Contributors: Geraki, Andycjp, MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Grutness, Velella, Tabletop, YurikBot, Pigman, Zuben, Cquan, Tomisti, Pegship, Sardanaphalus, FocalPoint, Jagged 85, Neddyseagoon, Maestlin, Gregbard, Cydebot, SteveMcCluskey, EdJohnston, Gwern, VolkovBot,
StAnselm, Singinglemon, JKeck, MystBot, Addbot, Boomur, Download, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jchthys, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot,
FrescoBot, Lonpross, Machine Elf 1735, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, MPSchneiderLC, Davidiad, Apollineo!, Mogism,
Allan95, RBSeven, Aziman17 and Anonymous: 14
On the Soul Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20the%20Soul?oldid=637313942 Contributors: JWSchmidt, Charles Matthews,
Gamaliel, Mboverload, Cevlakohn, MakeRocketGoNow, Reex Reaction, Mike Rosoft, Robert P. O'Shea, Wareh, John Vandenberg, Arcadian, Pearle, Mdd, Grutness, Philthecow, Koavf, JdforresterBot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Sophroniscus, Zuben, Tomisti, Sardanaphalus,
562
Lestrade, Jon Awbrey, RomanSpa, Neddyseagoon, Kripkenstein, CmdrObot, Richard Keatinge, Gregbard, Cydebot, ShoobyD, Miguel
de Servet, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Thijs!bot, Deeplogic, Mrbrown2, Boleslaw, Magioladitis, LookingGlass, WLU, VolkovBot, Messir, TXiKiBoT, Lynxmb, QuintusMaximus, Deneys, Alecs.y.rodez, Locaracle, M^A^L, Quetzapretzel, JKeck, Addbot, Leszek Jaczuk,
Legobot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, TobeBot, Andrea105, EmausBot, XXXpinoy777, Helpful
Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Davidiad, WithSelet, Hmainsbot1, Limpwristed, Bmh81, Hannahhparkk and Anonymous: 37
On Things Heard Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Things%20Heard?oldid=611235079 Contributors: Tomisti, Cessator,
Fadesga, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, Helpful Pixie Bot and Davidiad
On Virtues and Vices Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Virtues%20and%20Vices?oldid=614516983 Contributors: Tomisti,
Cessator, Gregbard, Fadesga, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, Dream of Nyx, BG19bot, Davidiad and Anonymous:
1
On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Youth%2C%20Old%20Age%2C%
20Life%20and%20Death%2C%20and%20Respiration?oldid=612275435 Contributors: Wareh, Sct72, Cydebot, Cirt, Addbot, Luckasbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, ZroBot and Davidiad
Parts of Animals Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts%20of%20Animals?oldid=612247871 Contributors: Michael Hardy, MakeRocketGoNow, Zenohockey, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, TheParanoidOne, Lijealso, Tomisti, Pegship, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Tocharianne, Pkeshav, Nigholith, VolkovBot, Messir, Phe-bot, ClueBot, Fadesga, Alexbot, PixelBot, Addbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Gxlarson,
KLBot2, Davidiad and Anonymous: 6
Parva Naturalia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parva%20Naturalia?oldid=598302216 Contributors: Wareh, Sardanaphalus, Cessator, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Lotje, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 2
Physiognomonics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomonics?oldid=612265715 Contributors: Choster, Dbachmann, Wareh,
SmackBot, Cessator, Stevenmitchell, PamD, Cynwolfe, Catalographer, Addbot, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Pollinosisss, EmausBot, ZroBot
and Helpful Pixie Bot
Posterior Analytics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior%20Analytics?oldid=637314180 Contributors: Pamplemousse, Renamed user 4, Charles Matthews, MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Arcadian, Mdd, Jumbuck, Koavf, SchuminWeb, YurikBot, BOTSuperzerocool, Avalon, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Suicidalhamster, Alunsalt, Neddyseagoon, Gregbard, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, CCS81,
Icarus' Dream, Deneys, AdRock, Lisatwo, PixelBot, Addbot, Logicist, Amirobot, Omnipaedista, MondalorBot, Alph Bot, EmausBot,
Hpvpp, Davidiad, Melenc and Anonymous: 7
Problems (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problems%20(Aristotle)?oldid=642648669 Contributors: Wareh, Tomisti,
MystBot, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, ZroBot, BajaaS, BG19bot, Davidiad, Melonkelon, Dentdark and Anonymous: 4
Progression of Animals Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progression%20of%20Animals?oldid=612263945 Contributors: Christofurio, MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Grutness, YurikBot, Ragesoss, Tomisti, Pegship, Grommel, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Fadesga, JKeck, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista and ZroBot
Protrepticus (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protrepticus%20(Aristotle)?oldid=618186627 Contributors: Bearcat,
Wareh, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gregbard, Bibi Saint-Pol, Presearch, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Steve Quinn, Monteransomejohnson, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Davidiad and Monkbot
Rhetoric to Alexander Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric%20to%20Alexander?oldid=643857327 Contributors: Furrykef,
Wareh, Wikidea, Tomisti, Attilios, Cessator, Gregbard, Ricesp, Addbot, Luckas-bot, AlexanderVanLoon, Jonesey95, Pollinosisss, Helpful
Pixie Bot, ChrisGualtieri and Rastie
Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense%20and%20Sensibilia%20(Aristotle)?oldid=612266969
Contributors: MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Arcadian, Ben davison, Omphaloscope, Neddyseagoon, Tawkerbot2, Cydebot, D. Webb, Mccaskey, Addbot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista and Anonymous: 2
The Situations and Names of Winds Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Situations%20and%20Names%20of%20Winds?
oldid=612194703 Contributors: Tomisti, Cessator, WANAX, GrahamHardy, Fadesga, Addbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss,
ZroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and Davidiad
Sophistical Refutations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophistical%20Refutations?oldid=637313389 Contributors: Rursus, MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Arcadian, Mdd, Jumbuck, Koavf, Finell, Sardanaphalus, Octahedron80, Bjankuloski06en, Neddyseagoon, Gregbard, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, LookingGlass, Sbowers3, PixelBot, CKCortez, Addbot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Hpvpp, ZroBot, Davidiad,
Ihaveacatonmydesk and Anonymous: 3
Topics (Aristotle) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topics%20(Aristotle)?oldid=644231668 Contributors: Renamed user 4, MakeRocketGoNow, Wareh, Arcadian, Jumbuck, Stefanomione, KYPark, YurikBot, Closedmouth, Sardanaphalus, Havardj, SmackBot, Drpedsen, Chris the speller, Bjankuloski06en, Neddyseagoon, Geremia, Gregbard, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, , VoABot II, VolkovBot, CWii,
Ontoraul, Alcmaeonid, Lisatwo, Singinglemon, Bvlax2005, SchreiberBike, Mccaskey, Addbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, Azurfrog, January,
SunyataCL, EmausBot, Lop'6*, Hpvpp, ZroBot, Polisher of Cobwebs, Davidiad, Eyesnore and Anonymous: 6
Aristotelianism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelianism?oldid=642573374 Contributors: Olivier, Earth, SebastianHelm,
Deselms, Tpbradbury, Shizhao, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Paul August, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Wareh, Tabletop, BD2412,
Moorlock, FayssalF, Nivix, Tdoune, Kjlewis, Pigman, Pseudomonas, Jpbowen, Tomisti, Canadianism, Sardanaphalus, Veinor, SmackBot, Elonka, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jagged 85, Baronnet, WikiPedant, Jgoulden, Bo99, Smith609, SQGibbon, Lenoxus,
Wolfdog, Talented Mr Miller, Gregbard, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Deective, The Transhumanist, Bongwarrior, MartinBot, Anarchia, R'n'B,
Pomonomo2003, Kelvin Knight, Phatius McBlu, Madhava 1947, The Jackal God, TreasuryTag, Jimmaths, Jacob Lundberg, Floddinn,
Lynxmb, A4bot, Magarmach, Ontoraul, Wassermann, Mmairs, Newbyguesses, Mild Bill Hiccup, Singinglemon, Arjayay, DumZiBoT,
Good Olfactory, Addbot, LightSpectra, Tanhabot, Download, Ginosbot, SamatBot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Nravi00, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Ulf
Heinsohn, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, D'ohBot, Machine Elf 1735, Citation bot 4, Fifth Fish Finger, Pollinosisss, DixonDBot, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Mustafa logos, MisterDub, Phronetic, ClueBot NG, Chris Van Hutsul,
Redyka94, Helpful Pixie Bot, Europeanhistorian, BattyBot, Fiddlersmouth, Archer47, Denysbondar, Moagim, CsDix, Stamptrader, Josmust222 and Anonymous: 61
Ancient commentators project Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20commentators%20project?oldid=631878960 Contributors: Lar, Fram, TreasuryTag, Ontoraul, Singinglemon, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, Editor with a background in philosophy and
Anonymous: 3
563
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Substantial form Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantial%20form?oldid=637331868 Contributors: Charles Matthews, PeterPoe, Koavf, Spencerk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Gregbard, ShoobyD, Maurice Carbonaro, Reedy Bot, Phatius McBlu, VolkovBot,
Cnilep, Addbot, JEN9841, Rubinbot, Omnipaedista, Machine Elf 1735, Ongar the World-Weary, Pollinosisss, GoingBatty, PBS-AWB,
Suslindisambiguator, ClueBot NG, Hon-3s-T, Aisteco, Awesome113 and Anonymous: 11
List of writers inuenced by Aristotle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20writers%20influenced%20by%20Aristotle?
oldid=642772847 Contributors: Wareh, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, N2e, Matthew Fennell, BashBrannigan, Kelvin Knight, Hotcrocodile,
Last Contrarian, Tassedethe, Wandering Courier, Srich32977, Machine Elf 1735, Greco22, Pollinosisss, Caute AF, Jan Spousta, Aa team
and Anonymous: 19
J. L. Ackrill Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20L.%20Ackrill?oldid=613825572 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Elembis, Stemonitis, Canadian Paul, Rjwilmsi, Gregbard, Cydebot, Yorkshiresky, Coyets, D. Webb, Laureapuella, Waacstats, Keith D, TXiKiBoT,
Rcb1, Catalographer, Addbot, The Sage of Stamford, Lightbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, Uoeia, Foobarnix, Full-date unlinking bot, RjwilmsiBot, ChrisGualtieri, VIAFbot and Anonymous: 5
Adrastus of Aphrodisias Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrastus%20of%20Aphrodisias?oldid=627547172 Contributors: Smalljim, Woohookitty, Tomisti, Hmains, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Flyer22, Alfreddo, Singinglemon, Alexbot, Catalographer, Addbot, NjardarBot, Lightbot, Omnipaedista, Davidiad and Anonymous: 1
Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsi Source:
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630225353 Contributors: Cplakidas, Cydebot, Lugnuts, S711, Mild Bill Hiccup, Al-Andalusi, Addbot, RjwilmsiBot, ZroBot, Captain
Assassin!, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, HistoryofIran and Anonymous: 2
Alexander of Aegae Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20of%20Aegae?oldid=592703714 Contributors: Wareh, Deucalionite, Hmains, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Nick Number, Singinglemon, Catalographer, Addbot, JEN9841, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, ZroBot, Davidiad and Anonymous: 1
Alexander of Aphrodisias Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20of%20Aphrodisias?oldid=636007671 Contributors:
Panairjdde, MrH, Michael Hardy, Delirium, Stan Shebs, Charles Matthews, Rbraunwa, Haukurth, Phoebe, GreatWhiteNortherner, Varlaam, Rich Farmbrough, Elwikipedista, CanisRufus, Wareh, Vervin, Jumbuck, Snowolf, Woohookitty, Kzollman, BD2412, Rjwilmsi,
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and Anonymous: 9
David the Invincible Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20the%20Invincible?oldid=639220563 Contributors: Wareh, Kappa,
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565
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566
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Blofeld, Dsp13 and Ulric1313
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Delirium,
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David (commentator) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20(commentator)?oldid=610658301 Contributors: Tomisti, SmackBot, Dougweller, Singinglemon, Addbot and Omnipaedista
Dexippus (philosopher) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexippus%20(philosopher)?oldid=610654238 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Wareh, FeanorStar7, Tomisti, Cessator, Cydebot, CharlotteWebb, Waacstats, GhostofSuperslum, Singinglemon, Addbot, Atethnekos, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista, BenzolBot, DefaultsortBot, Dinamik-bot, RjwilmsiBot and Thespeaker8
Elias (commentator) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias%20(commentator)?oldid=618390243 Contributors: Tomisti, Dougweller, Singinglemon, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista, John Cline, ClueBot NG, Island Monkey, Qj.woods and Anonymous: 3
Eudorus of Alexandria Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudorus%20of%20Alexandria?oldid=600475638 Contributors: Snowolf,
Woohookitty, Dsp13, Jalo, Flyer22, Yone Fernandes, Singinglemon, Catalographer, Addbot, Luckas-bot, EmausBot, Nimetapoeg and
Anonymous: 2
Eustratius of Nicaea Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustratius%20of%20Nicaea?oldid=617269369 Contributors: Varangian,
Wareh, FeanorStar7, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Cplakidas, Ericus, Cydebot, R'n'B, Martarius, Singinglemon, Hinko Gnito, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss and Renato de carvalho ferreira
Al-Farabi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi?oldid=640419840 Contributors: XJaM, Zoe, Rambot, Alireza Hashemi,
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567
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In fact, Misortie, Dougofborg, Salih-rock, GnarlyLikeWhoa, FrescoBot, Sourenaaa, D'ohBot, Emperor khosro, Citation bot 1, Ghazne,
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, KazekageTR, Farabicollegephalia, Tekisch, Monakhrst, Helpsome, Pooyaf, ClueBot NG, Dr. Persi, Demize.public, Cntras,
Lysozym, Seair21, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alizz77, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Ali Historian, Arash areobarzan, Mughal
Lohar, Xooon, BattyBot, Bamintor, Belisariusgroup, Majilis, BozokluAdam, TommyAtKettering1, Hishampgm, Jafar64, Khatary1, VIAFbot, Zyma, Faizan, Epicgenius, HistoryofIran, MaskedHero, Mvvakili, Azizpatel27, Angel.asa, Ardabiligit, , Bemes,
Isteponaviciute, Arman53, AlexUzb and Anonymous: 333
Hans-Georg Gadamer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg%20Gadamer?oldid=642175567 Contributors: Mav, Slrubenstein, Sara Parks Ricker, KF, Hephaestos, Gabbe, Eric119, Sir Paul, Poor Yorick, Longevitymonger, Malbi, Charles Matthews, Wik, Itai,
Nv8200p, Buridan, Marc Girod, Dimadick, Fredrik, Goethean, David Hoeer, Ojigiri, Cholling, Hadal, HaeB, Diberri, Fabiform, Folks at
137, Brentk, Bovlb, Clossius, Matthead, Chipbruce, Ot, Phil Sandifer, Jmax, Cun, D6, Simonides, Varada, Rich Farmbrough, Alex Golub,
Bender235, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Susvolans, Whosyourjudas, Nicke Lilltroll, Smithmatt, Tresoldi, (aeropagitica), HasharBot, Jumbuck, Gregmcpherson, Cecil, Redvers, RyanGerbil10, Velho, Cruccone, DESiegel, Varchoel, Olessi, FlaBot, OpenToppedBus, AllyD,
YurikBot, RussBot, Manicsleeper, Vincej, Varano, Lt-wiki-bot, Nikkimaria, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, SmackBot, Aim Here,
Stephensuleeman, Eskimbot, Thumperward, WikiPedant, Jon Awbrey, Joshua Scott, Quarty, NJA, MTSbot, Skapur, Hawkestone, Smdo,
Monstradamus, CmdrObot, WeggeBot, Gregbard, Cydebot, Jasperdoomen, Soetermans, Universitytruth, Thijs!bot, 271828182, Jorge
Acevedo Guerra, Qarel, Wtv, Matthew Fennell, Nwe, Magioladitis, Jacques Custard, Felixgerena, Rickard Vogelberg, Mearny, Mtevfrog,
CommonsDelinker, Drsocialism, Johnbod, Kelvin Knight, Pastordavid, Inwind, EdRicardo, Ingram, VolkovBot, Areteichi, Abtinb, Rei-bot,
Alcmaeonid, Errantry, Deconstructhis, SieBot, YliVakkuri, Althena, Psychless, Monegasque, Bonio, Vojvodaen, Timeineurope, All Hallow's Wraith, TheDucksNuts, Jebearce, Spirals31, Dustpelt96, TFBCT1, Deineka, Addbot, AndersBot, Favonian, Numbo3-bot, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Mauro Lanari, Rubinbot, Wandering Courier, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Green Cardamom, FreeKnowledgeCreator, BenzolBot, Welshentag, Brightwind3, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, RichardHoenigswald2, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Gney,
Berislav, N6n, Tillander, Taina xrista, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wikikrax, Dksd72, Samitcha, Anthrophilos, Pirhayati, VIAFbot, Annie
Gravity, AuerbachsMimesis, EvaristoAugello, OccultZone, Tigercompanion25, Oto Vega Ponce, Shihan007, Jacobnayar and Anonymous:
94
David W. Hamlyn Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20W.%20Hamlyn?oldid=641055027 Contributors: Xezbeth, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Gregbard, Waacstats, Tommieboi, Omnipaedista, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Ad Orientem, Statelaw1944 and Anonymous:
1
Ammonius Hermiae Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonius%20Hermiae?oldid=634871723 Contributors: Andre Engels, MrH,
Llywrch, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Haukurth, Phoebe, Dimadick, Michael Snow, GreatWhiteNortherner, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Wareh, FeanorStar7, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, YurikBot, Pvasiliadis, Aldux, Tomisti, Closedmouth, Reedy, Kimon, Bluebot,
Robertg9, Isokrates, Hu12, Eastlaw, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Skomorokh, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Jonathan Stokes, Kimedoncius, DorganBot, Ask123, Ontoraul, J8079s, Singinglemon, Catalographer, Mccaskey, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, KamikazeBot,
Rubinbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, PHansen, Kobrabones, Rja05, RedBot, Kibi78704, Dinamik-bot, ZroBot, MALLUS, ClueBot NG,
Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Pasicles, Dexbot, VIAFbot and Anonymous: 10
Mulla Muzaar Hussain Kashani Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulla%20Muzaffar%20Hussain%20Kashani?oldid=
610851417 Contributors: Gregbard, Waacstats, WereSpielChequers, KathrynLybarger, Arjayay, PaintedCarpet, OccultZone, Mehdi ghaed
and Amortias
Al-Kindi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi?oldid=643567195 Contributors: XJaM, Rsabbatini, Michael Hardy, William M.
Connolley, Silver Maple, Scott, Andres, Charles Matthews, Grendelkhan, Topbanana, Stormie, AnonMoos, Dimadick, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Michael Devore, Matt Crypto, Chameleon, D3, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Urhixidur, Jayjg, Jyp, Xezbeth, Brian0918,
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Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Salsb, Cunado19, Lemon-s, Dialectric, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Heraclius, Aldux, Tony1, Zwobot, Karl Meier, Trex, Iubilus, Tomisti, Wiqi55, Dast, Andrew Lancaster, Ninly, Carabinieri, M.A.Dabbah, Katieh5584, SmackBot, Selfworm, Prodego,
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Bejnar, Dfass, Alexander.Hainy, JHunterJ, Jaiwills, Alanmaher, Hu12, ChrisCork, Gregbard, Cabolitae, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Sa.vakilian,
BhaiSaab, SteveMcCluskey, Tiger-man, Mattisse, Sagaciousuk, Missvain, Cyrus111, S710, RobotG, QuiteUnusual, Darklilac, Lanov,
JAnDbot, GurchBot, Dekimasu, JamesBWatson, Jerome Kohl, Waacstats, Sam Medany, KConWiki, Aziz1005, Gun Powder Ma, Kkrystian, Misarxist, M3tal H3ad, Jonathan Stokes, CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, Anas Salloum, Paris1127, MezzoMezzo, Belovedfreak,
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Lincoln, John Carter, Ontoraul, Mussav, Logan, Deconstructhis, Al Ameer son, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Zephyrus67, Fabullus, FunkMonk,
Harry, Hello71, Mike2vil, Denisarona, ClueBot, Treharne, Zachariel, EoGuy, RashersTierney, J8079s, RafaAzevedo, Singinglemon,
Auntof6, SamuelTheGhost, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Lionmoreh, Mikaey, El bot de la dieta, Chrono1084, Al-Andalusi, Error
128, Meisenstrasse, Johnuniq, AncientToaster, Kurdo777, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Dawynn, Cst17, Ahmad2099, AndersBot, SamatBot, Tassedethe, OlEnglish, Zachen3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dhogan1999, O Fenian, Ptbotgourou, Intothewoods29, Doctorhook, Gongshow, Hinio, SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT, Law, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Xqbot,
PrometheusDesmotes, Davshul, Anne Bauval, J04n, GrouchoBot, Dirrival, Omnipaedista, Jezhotwells, Ashrf1979, Moxy, FrescoBot,
Izzedine, Te5, Cannolis, Citation bot 1, Tom.Reding, Orenburg1, Tbhotch, TjBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Syncategoremata, Aquib American Muslim, Islamuslim, ZroBot, PBS-AWB, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Wayne Slam, Kendite, Muslimsson, 19thPharaoh,
EdoBot, Jhsheikh, ClueBot NG, Niemin2, Z0mByr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Candy10001, Xxmariaxx1001, Q46mariaboo, BG19bot, Serafn33,
Carinae986, Jason from nyc, Egyptianhelper, Nusaybah, Dexbot, VIAFbot, Polymath1900, Yehianumb, Whitelotus111, Andywear1, Bupka
En and Anonymous: 132
568
Ignacio Lpez de Ayala Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignacio%20L%C3%B3pez%20de%20Ayala?oldid=641047691 Contributors: Bgwhite, Gregbard, Dr. Blofeld, Tom.Reding, EmausBot and ArmbrustBot
Theodore Metochites Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore%20Metochites?oldid=625842207 Contributors: Deb, MrH, Llywrch, Adam Bishop, Eugene van der Pijll, Frazzydee, Dimadick, Flauto Dolce, Alan Liefting, Wareh, Man vyi, Garzo, Gryndor, Jaraalbe,
Whitejay251, Wiqi55, SmackBot, Droll, Cplakidas, LoveMonkey, Clicketyclack, David ekstrand, Cydebot, Igorwindsor, BokicaK, Totila,
Waacstats, R'n'B, Keesiewonder, Johnbod, VolkovBot, Margacst, Alexmed, Vojvodaen, Martarius, PixelBot, Katanada, Chronicler, Good
Olfactory, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, VitalyLipatov, Ntetos, Alexikoua, Omnipaedista, LucienBOT, Full-date unlinking bot,
RjwilmsiBot, Sverigekillen, EmausBot, ZroBot, Jbribeiro1, Helpful Pixie Bot, VIAFbot and Anonymous: 14
Michael of Ephesus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20of%20Ephesus?oldid=631559008 Contributors: Wareh, MZMcBride, Reedy Bot, Kafka Liz, Omnipaedista and Anonymous: 2
Nicolaus of Damascus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus%20of%20Damascus?oldid=630554309 Contributors: Llywrch,
Stephen C. Carlson, Wetman, Robbot, Hpc, Per Honor et Gloria, Gdr, Antandrus, Jayjg, Xezbeth, Summer Song, Wareh, J Heath,
FeanorStar7, AllanBz, Rjwilmsi, Graibeard, Yuber, Str1977, Valentinian, Jaraalbe, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Bluebot, Calabrian, Stevenmitchell, Iblardi, Andrew Dalby, SMasters, , Ikokki, Joseph Solis in Australia, Cydebot, Dougweller, Thijs!bot, Roger Pearse,
Dsp13, KonstableBot, JaGa, Chiswick Chap, DorganBot, Hugo999, Deor, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, Nihil novi, Archaeogenetics, Victor Chmara, Singinglemon, Catalographer, Asmith44, Chronicler, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, JackieBot, Xqbot,
Omnipaedista, Orijentolog, DefaultsortBot, NimbusWeb, Lipsio, ZroBot, ChuispastonBot, BG19bot, Davidiad, IluvatarBot, Jacob van
Maerlant, Fastidipedia, Dexbot, VIAFbot, Xenxax and Anonymous: 20
Olympiodorus the Younger Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiodorus%20the%20Younger?oldid=640563198 Contributors:
Dimadick, Pmanderson, Klemen Kocjancic, Wareh, Polylerus, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Jaraalbe, EverettColdwell, Tomisti, Chris Brennan, SmackBot, Hmains, Honbicot, Chris the speller, NaySay, RandomCritic, Maestlin, Cydebot, Escarbot, Fayenatic london, Waacstats,
Johnpacklambert, DorganBot, Hugo999, Rei-bot, John Carter, Singinglemon, Solar-Wind, PixelBot, BOTarate, MystBot, Addbot, Olympiodorus, Steakandchips, Sardur, Lightbot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, MakeSense64, RjwilmsiBot, Laurel Lodged, ZroBot, Zalmoxis21, Dexbot
and Anonymous: 8
Lorraine Smith Pangle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorraine%20Smith%20Pangle?oldid=631104272 Contributors: Scope
creep, Derek R Bullamore, Yobot, 220 of Borg and Pirhayati
John Philoponus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Philoponus?oldid=625514592 Contributors: Delirium, Qed, Charles
Matthews, Dandrake, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Everyking, Cglassey, Bender235, Chewie, Laurascudder, Lima, Wareh, Nk, Jheald,
Kazvorpal, Woohookitty, Linas, Uncle G, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Lar, BrainyBroad, Tomisti, Fram, T. Anthony, SmackBot, RDBury, Jagged
85, Hardyplants, Hmains, Betacommand, Cplakidas, LoveMonkey, The Man in Question, Keahapana, John Wilkins, Logicus, Cydebot,
Hebrides, Thijs!bot, Marek69, Igorwindsor, Deective, Magioladitis, BjrnF, Waacstats, Clive sweeting, SquidSK, TomS TDotO, Johnbod,
VolkovBot, Sporti, StevenBell, StAnselm, WereSpielChequers, Gerakibot, Wolfcm, Vojvodaen, Firey322, The.helping.people.tick, PipepBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, J8079s, Singinglemon, Estirabot, DumZiBoT, SilvonenBot, MystBot, Addbot, Lykos, Abvgd, Alcove, Lightbot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Gregorovivs, Valkyrie62, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Kobrabones, DefaultsortBot, Editor with a background in philosophy, Syncategoremata, Wikipelli, ZroBot, PBS-AWB, Dannus,
Maherkaldas, ClueBot NG, Slowking4, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, CitationCleanerBot, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, VIAFbot and Anonymous:
31
Porphyry (philosopher) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry%20(philosopher)?oldid=640826087 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Delirium, Charles Matthews, Kenatipo, Wetman, Dimadick, Robbot, MrJones, Chris 73, Rainwaterfall, Mirv, Rursus,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Mdmcginn, Everyking, Bkonrad, Per Honor et Gloria, Proslaes, Bacchiad, Quadell, Pmanderson, Sam Hocevar,
Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Livajo, QuartierLatin1968, Wareh, Bill Thayer, Viriditas, Hujaza, VivaEmilyDavies, Gpvos, Mel Etitis, FeanorStar7, Kzollman, Marudubshinki, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Str1977, YurikBot, NTBot, 4C, RussBot, Zaroblue05, Pigman, Yamara, Schoen, BlackAndy, Bota47, Tomisti, Jkelly, Sshadow, Josh3580, Kramden, GrinBot, Gaudio, Tadorne, SmackBot, Selfworm, Jagged 85, AndreasJS, RlyehRising, Hmains, Honbicot, Durova, Mladilozof, Bigturtle, MilitaryTarget, LoveMonkey,
Ocanter, Dfass, Ckatz, RandomCritic, Sheherazahde, Hu12, Michaelbusch, Notque, Zeusnoos, Bairam, Connection, Antioco79, Cydebot,
Jasperdoomen, Bmcln1, Barticus88, Roger Pearse, Widefox, Glokplopit, JAnDbot, WANAX, Txomin, Waacstats, DraiconeBot, Johnbibby, Hveziris, Jonathan Stokes, Terrek, Ian.thomson, LordAnubisBOT, M-le-mot-dit, Zuiddam, Idioma-bot, TXiKiBoT, Nxavar, IPSOS, John Carter, Ontoraul, Martin451, Broadbot, Vahagn Petrosyan, SieBot, Gerakibot, Dimboukas, Wfgh66, Zachariel, Singinglemon,
SchreiberBike, Grisunge, Catalographer, Asmith44, Yunuswesley, MystBot, Addbot, Stinssd, GK1973, Peter Damian (old), Lightbot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, , Amirobot, Rubinbot, JackieBot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, T of Locri, Jwhosler,
Muslim-Researcher, Leonidas Metello, DefaultsortBot, MastiBot, MondalorBot, , RjwilmsiBot, Lung salad, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot,
Dewritech, GoingBatty, ZroBot, Jhholden, Oxford73, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hamilqart, Dexbot, VIAFbot, EntroDipintaGabbia, GoGandhi,
Juc123, Fractal91, RoyBurtonson, Deweyd8210 and Anonymous: 63
Simplicius of Cilicia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicius%20of%20Cilicia?oldid=614538991 Contributors: Derek Ross,
XJaM, Kku, Delirium, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Dimadick, Michael Snow, GreatWhiteNortherner, TOO, Jastrow, Wareh, Jumbuck, BaronLarf, Sketchee, Vary, FlaBot, Pigman, Tomisti, Selfworm, Radulfr, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Nbarth, Stevenmitchell, LoveMonkey, SMasters, Eastlaw, Switchercat, Antioco79, Cydebot, Nishidani, Thijs!bot, Roger Pearse, Escarbot, Jj137, Magioladitis, Waacstats, David Eppstein, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Ask123, Ontoraul, Singinglemon, SilvonenBot, MystBot, Addbot, Atethnekos, Jonathan
Harking, Roaryk, Lightbot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, Kasradaneshvar, WikitanvirBot, Laurel Lodged, ZroBot,
Tillander, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Pasicles, AutomaticStrikeout, VIAFbot, Markunit23 and Anonymous: 25
Sophonias (commentator) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophonias%20(commentator)?oldid=637459623 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Wareh, FeanorStar7, SMasters, Waacstats, Singinglemon, Addbot, DrilBot, DefaultsortBot, VIAFbot and Anonymous: 1
Stephen of Alexandria Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20of%20Alexandria?oldid=630296789 Contributors: Delirium,
Charles Matthews, Bender235, Wareh, CltFn, SmackBot, Durova, Cplakidas, Twas Now, Cydebot, Meno25, Alaibot, Roger Pearse,
Waacstats, Anarchia, Fratrep, J8079s, Singinglemon, Olivierdufault, Addbot, Zorrobot, Ulf Heinsohn, Car Henkel, MrBill3, Khazar2
and Anonymous: 6
Syrianus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrianus?oldid=618222564 Contributors: Stan Shebs, Dimadick, Wareh, Ben davison, VivaEmilyDavies, Linnea, Marudubshinki, SmackBot, Radulfr, Bluebot, TimBentley, KRBN, LoveMonkey, Robertg9, SMasters, Eastlaw,
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569
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Themistius Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themistius?oldid=637616502 Contributors: Docu, Charles Matthews, Rbraunwa,
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Gaetano da Thiene (philosopher) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaetano%20da%20Thiene%20(philosopher)?oldid=522915341
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Bartholomaeus of Bruges Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomaeus%20of%20Bruges?oldid=634647339 Contributors:
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570
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Boetius of Dacia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boetius%20of%20Dacia?oldid=636977000 Contributors: Renamed user 4, Paul
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John Case (Aristotelian writer) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Case%20(Aristotelian%20writer)?oldid=612189231
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127
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and Anonymous: 2
Cuthbert Tunstall Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert%20Tunstall?oldid=637288676 Contributors: Deb, Djnjwd, John K,
Charles Matthews, Rbraunwa, Lord Emsworth, Eugene van der Pijll, Wereon, Mrabbits, Peruvianllama, MRSC, Klemen Kocjancic, Reex
574
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Laurel Lodged, PBS-AWB, Helpful Pixie Bot, VIAFbot, NickGeorge1993 and Anonymous: 9
Jacopo Zabarella Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo%20Zabarella?oldid=638306367 Contributors: Renamed user 4, Charles
Matthews, Joy, Wareh, Rjwilmsi, Bubuka, FlaBot, Jaraalbe, Kjlewis, YurikBot, KSchutte, Leutha, Attilios, SmackBot, Cydebot, Future
Perfect at Sunrise, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Luc007, Magioladitis, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Ontoraul, SQL, VVVBot, PolarBot, Benjamin.mayes, XLinkBot, RogDel, Mccaskey, Addbot, Peter Damian (old), Luckas-bot, Yobot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Ulf Heinsohn, Omnipaedista, ChuispastonBot, Tawrinbaker, VIAFbot, Transphasic and Anonymous: 8
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ChuispastonBot, Xenxax and Anonymous: 1
Aristobulus of Paneas Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristobulus%20of%20Paneas?oldid=639656908 Contributors: MrH, Charles
Matthews, Gwalla, DanielCD, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Doric Loon, Tomisti, Hmains, Cplakidas, Racklever, The Man in Question, Cydebot,
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Yobot, Matanya, Omnipaedista, BenzolBot, DefaultsortBot, Pollinosisss, , Clarice Reis, In ictu oculi, Hmainsbot1, Eio-cos and
Anonymous: 5
Aristoxenus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoxenus?oldid=625429130 Contributors: SimonP, Panairjdde, DopeshJustin,
Gabbe, Delirium, Phoebe, Robbot, Altenmann, Blanchette, Hidaspal, Bender235, Wareh, Binabik80, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot,
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SMasters, Fordmadoxfraud, Gregbard, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Jerome Kohl, Waacstats, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot,
Granite07, Singinglemon, Solar-Wind, Jo Lorib, Catalographer, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Leszek Jaczuk, Roaryk, Richard0612AWB, Lightbot, , JEN9841, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Erud, Omnipaedista, Spongefrog, Reviewer34, DefaultsortBot,
RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, MusEdit, ZroBot, Esc2003, Philafrenzy, ChuispastonBot, EauLibrarian, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChrisGualtieri, VIAFbot, Tolixus and Anonymous: 22
Calliphon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calliphon?oldid=545091692 Contributors: Delirium, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Singinglemon,
Catalographer, Chronicler, Addbot and ArthurBot
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Clearchus of Soli Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearchus%20of%20Soli?oldid=613389979 Contributors: Xezbeth, Woohookitty,
Eubot, RussBot, Aldux, Tomisti, SmackBot, Elonka, Kimon, Radulfr, Hmains, KRBN, Andrew Dalby, SMasters, The Man in Question,
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Pasicles and Anonymous: 3
Critolaus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critolaus?oldid=622803395 Contributors: Delirium, Charles Matthews, Jerey Smith,
Brian0918, Kwamikagami, Markussep, PoptartKing, Woohookitty, Sburke, FlaBot, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Lar, Tomisti, Fram, Lcarsdata,
Srnec, Bluebot, Eastlaw, Cydebot, Ludde23, Deective, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Maelgwnbot, Singinglemon, Catalographer, Practical321,
Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, J04n, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Editor with a background in philosophy, ZroBot,
ChuispastonBot and Anonymous: 5
Demetrius of Phalerum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius%20of%20Phalerum?oldid=639918296 Contributors: Bryan
Derksen, Delirium, John K, Adam Bishop, Wetman, Babbage, Klemen Kocjancic, Haiduc, Paul August, Jumbuck, Markaci, The wub,
Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RJC, Deucalionite, Stevenmitchell, Mikanator, Yannismarou, Popszes, Cydebot, Meladina, 271828182, Escarbot, Waacstats, Pere prlpz, Kostisl, M-le-mot-dit, DorganBot, Senator.gravett, Koranjem, Ontoraul, SieBot, Rodhullandemu, Wikijens,
Singinglemon, Catalographer, Chronicler, RogDel, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Jafeluv, LaaknorBot, , Omnipedian, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Soulfare, Xqbot, Geranian Nestor, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, FrescoBot, Hanay, EmausBot, ZroBot, Y-barton,
Movses-bot, Bazuz, Pasicles, VoiceOfTheCommons, Eio-cos and Anonymous: 14
Dicaearchus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicaearchus?oldid=639894974 Contributors: XJaM, Nonenmac, Gabbe, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Hidaspal, Grutness, PoptartKing, Binabik80, FeanorStar7, Sburke, Ortelius, AllanBz, Electionworld, Ketiltrout,
Jaraalbe, YurikBot, RussBot, Rmky87, Aldux, Emersoni, Deucalionite, Caerwine, Tomisti, Igin, AlexD, Sardanaphalus, Selfworm,
OrphanBot, KRBN, The Man in Question, Bridesmill, Cydebot, Languagehat, Deective, Goshr, Waacstats, R'n'B, Margacst, TXiKiBoT,
Nono le petit robot, SieBot, VVVBot, Gerakibot, Alfreddo, Singinglemon, Catalographer, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, ,
Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Piano non troppo, Erud, J04n, Omnipaedista, RjwilmsiBot, McOoee and Anonymous: 11
Echecratides Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echecratides?oldid=623376430 Contributors: Viriditas, Sandstein and Niceguyedc
Erymneus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erymneus?oldid=627546253 Contributors: Andrewman327, LadyofShalott, Gregbard,
Waacstats, Fadesga, Eeekster, Phlar, Atethnekos, Omnipaedista, Patchy1, Pasicles and MrNiceGuy1113
Eudemus of Rhodes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudemus%20of%20Rhodes?oldid=610709116 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Peruvianllama, Klemen Kocjancic, Wareh, Hu, Woohookitty, Twthmoses, Dodo78, Jaraalbe, Alma Pater, Deucalionite, Tomisti,
Sebastianbohnen, Selfworm, Tarret, Kilo-Lima, Egsan Bacon, Doug Bell, Anlace, Aleator, Hans van Deukeren, Maestlin, Mfried60, Cydebot, Caroldermoid, Waacstats, DorganBot, Ariobarzan, Sam Blacketer, VolkovBot, Koranjem, Ontoraul, Singinglemon, DragonBot,
Catalographer, Chronicler, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, HerculeBot, Ca$e, JackieBot, TechBot, Omnipaedista, HRoestBot, MastiBot,
EmausBot, ZroBot, Suslindisambiguator, TheJJJunk and Anonymous: 9
575
Wareh,
Gnaeus Claudius Severus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus%20Claudius%20Severus?oldid=545838272 Contributors: Dimadick, Hmains, Cplakidas, Anriz, Cydebot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Miyagawa, TobeBot and Anonymous: 1
576
194.2.2
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