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Information technology 1
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Two basic technologies have been responsible for the development of the necessary hardware:
integrated circuits and digital communications, Parallel advances have been made in software,
particularly easy-to-use software products to create. maintain, manipulate, and query files and
records. Many of these software programs are designed for use both by computer professionals
and enthusiastic amateurs. Another important factor is the development of computer networks

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Information systems colIect, organize. store, processoretrieve and display information in different
formats (text. video, and voice), Information technology alIows very fast. automated
manipulation of digital data and their transformation from and to analogue,

As technology develops, new modelsand types of computer appear. At the heart of all computers
is the hardware. However. without software. computers are just dumb boxes, unable to perform
any calculations or operations.
Models and types of computer

workstation--' I

Computer hardware
CPU (central proce~ssing 'unit)

keyboard

faser printer . monitor.

printer

mouse . RAM(randomaccess memory)

scanner. screen . storagedevices

Software
software

Many words in the field of IT corne from American English. So you may see the following
spellings:
British English

American English

programme

program

analogue

analog

The area of IT is developing very quickly; and the language to describe hardware, software and
applications is also evolving at a high speed. As a result new no un + noun combinations
change to single nouns

141

noun + noun

single noun

lap top

laptop

note book

notebook

work station

workstation

desk top

desktop

often

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Label the diagram.

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Combine one word from A and one word ITomB and match it with the appropriate definition
inC.

create --...
central

products

a monitor will do this on a computer screen

information

this describes the format of O and 1 in which

information is stored

processing unit

these enable a computer to perform word

processing, to create databases, and to manipulate
numerical data

software

display

digital
expansion

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when two or more components are combined and

then incorporated into a single package

ca"
files
network

to make new programs, utilities or documents

a group of electronic machines connected by cables
or other means which can exchange information and
share equipment (such as printers and disk drives)

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integrated

data

the principal microchip that the computer is built

around

computer

circuits

you plug this into a slot to add features such as

video, sound, modem and networking

Complete each gap in the following text with a phrase from the table above.
1 The computer monitor will

so you can see it on screen.

2 Information is stored on a computer as

3 Spreadsheet and graphic software are examples of

4 Digital communications
hardware to be made.

have allowed developments in

and

5 In order to organise data you should

where you can store data.

6 When several computers are linked together you have a

7 The part of the computer which interprets and carries out instructions is the
8 Ancapabilities.

can be inserted in your computer to give your computer extra

15

Information technology 2
A network includes:

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11 - physical connections
11 - computer programs

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11 - share files,printersand other resources

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11 - techniques

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used to link two or more computers.

Network users can:
11 - send electronic messages
- run programs on other computers

Each network operates according to a set of computer programs called network protocols for
computers to talk to one another. Computer networks can now be interconnected efficiently
through gateways. The biggest network is the World Wide Web. It consists of a large number of
smaller interconnected networks called internets. These internets may connect tens, hundreds,
or thousands of computers. They can share information with each other, such as databases of
information. The internet allows people all over the world to communicate with each other
effectivelyand inexpensively.
Before a network can operate, it needs physical connectonsso that signals can be transmitted.
After the network has been connecte d, it is ready for operaton.
Network connections

II

Network operation
web page

website

A prefix comes at the beginning of a word and usually has a specificmeaning, for example
inter between.

Look at the following prefixes and their use in the above IT words/phrases:
example of use

inter-

meaning of prefix
between

intra-

within

intranet, e.g. company intranet

trans-

across

transmit, transfer, transaction

co-jcom-jcon-

with

combine, compatible, connect, configure

up-

up (to internet)

upload

down-

down (from internet)

download, downtime, i.e. when the network is down

(not working)

prefix

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internet, interconnect, interactive, international

DD:DI
Choose the correct word in each of the following.

1 The speed with which a modem can process data is measured in -'
a) bandwidth
b) bits per second (bps)
c) signal
2 Cables consisting of several copper wires each with a shield are known as a) twisted pair
b) optical fibre
c) power cables

cables.

3 Computers that are connected together within one building form a -'
a) WAN

b) ISP

c) LAN

4 If you transfer a file from a remote computer to your computer, you -'
a) download

b) upload

c) run

5 To send out information is to -'

a) signal
b) packet
c) transmit
6 A document containing information and graphics that can be accessed on the internet is
a) a website

b) a web page

c) the World Wide Web

Complete the words in the following sentences by adding the prefix inter-, intra-, trans-, com-,
con-, up- or down-.
1 Last month computer _time

cost the company over lO,OOOin lost production.

2 The computers in the production department have now been successfully _connected
with those in the planning department.
3 Once you have completed payment details the data will be _mitted

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via a secure link.

4 We cannot network these computers because the systems are not _patible.
5 Many companies distribute internal documents on their own _net.
6 Once the home page has been completed, we'll be ready to _lo

ad the site.

7 Cables are being laid throughout the building as the network requires physical_nections.
8 Using the network he was able to _bine

the data from different reports.

Here is a list of instructions for someone wanting to set up a small network. Put the instructions
in the correct order.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h

Make wiring and layout plans for your network.

Hook up the network cables by connecting everything to the hub.
Check that each computer has an IP address and give it a name.
If you're installing a small network, twisted pair will be adequate. However, in order to span
greater distances and to minimize magnetic and electrical interference use fibre optic cable.
Decide on the type of network you want to install. To enable you to transfer large amo unts of
data, choose Fast Ethernet (lOOBaseT).
Install network adapters in the computers.
Add an internet gateway to your network to set up a shared internet connection.
Install driver software for the adapter driver and install client software to share printers and
files.
Check which protocols are installed and add any other protocols you require.
Get the hardware you need: an Ethernet adapter card for each computer that doesn't have an
Ethernet port, a hub if you've got more than two computers, cables and wall jacks.

17

....

Engineering
Engineering is based principally on physics, chemistry, and mathematics, and their extensions
into materials science, solid and fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, transfer and rate processes,
and systems analysis.
Engineering as a profession involves different tasks. It can refer specifically to the manufacture or
assembly of engines, machine tools and machine parts. It is also used more generally to describe
the creative application of scientific principIes to design, develop, construct and forecast the
behaviour of structures, apparatus, machines, manufacturing processes and works.
The function of scientists is to know, while that of engineers is to do: they must solve specific
problems.
See also: Chemical (12), Civil (20,21), Electrical (16), Electronic (17,18),
Petroleum (23,24), Production (1, 2), Construction (15).

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Mining (22),

Different branches DI engneerng require different equpment and are based on different processes.

Branches of engineering
The following words/phrases are all followedby 'engineering'

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Equipment in engineering

Processes in treating metals

e:

Notice the following adjective endings:

Notice the following verb endings:

Notice the following nouns which are a plural form but are normally used with a singular verb

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Match the foIlowing verbs with the correct definition.

anneal
anodize
electroplate
forge
found
galvanize
grind
roll
plate
soften
temper

to melt metal and then pour it into a form, e.g. iron components
to make thin sheets of metal by passing it between large rollers, e.g. steel
to shape metals by heating and then hammering, e.g. horse shoes
to make materials tough by cooling them slowly, e.g. glass
to make something softer, e.g. fibres
to heat and then cool metals to obtain the required hardness and elasticity,
e.g. steel
to cover with a thin layer of metal using electrolysis, e.g. car components
to protect from rusting by coating in zinc, e.g. food cans
to give a metal a protective coat by using it as an anode in electrolysis,
e.g. car components
to polish or sharpen by rubbing on a rough surface, e.g. stone
to cover one metal with a thin layer of another, e.g. silver plate

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Complete the foIlowing sentences with a form of the word in brackets.

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1 In the
industry,
develop processes for producing plastics,
fibres, medicines, etc. from simple chemicals. (chemistry)
2 Producing steel using the Bessemer process is one of the best-known
processes. (industry)

3 Most

4 FoIlowing the earthquake. every building had to be inspected to see whether it had suffered
any
damage. (structure)

5 Certain chemicals are added to glue to

devices need oil as a lubricant. (mechanics)

it. (hard)

6 Excavators and power shovels are two types of

equipment used by
when they are removing ro eles from the ground. (mine)

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Here is an extract from a speech made by a careers advisor to a group of students choosing their
future courses of study at university. Complete the speech by choosing one of the words from
the boxo

.
Engineering students shoutd have an understanding of maths, (a)
and
chemistry. Working with pharmaceuticals, food, mineral processing and chemical
manutacturing,
engineer is trained to understand, design, control, and
investigate material flows. If you enjoy problem solving and find projects such as the
Channel Tunnel and the Three Gorges Dam interesting,
engineering may
be for you. You will produce creative designs at an economical price white paying due
concern to the environment. If your interest is in road building then you may decide to
follow a specialized course in (d)
engineering. By studying
(e)
and (f)
engineering you learn about the design ot
complete systems, such as computers, controllers, power and transport systems.
(g)
engineers plan, design and (h)
a wide range ot things:
washing machines, cars and spacecraft.
engineers work very closely
with mechanical engineers, to make new products at the right price, on time and in the
correct quantity. As wetl as designing and selecting )
and materials,
they also organize people and finance.

25

JIIIII8I

Electrical
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Electrical engineering deals with the practical application of the theory of electricity to the
construction and manufacture of systems, devices and assemblies that use electric power and
signals.
Electrical engineering can be divided into four main branches:

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electric power and

machinery

communications

andcontrol

1(-17&18)

electronics

computers
5&6)

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Electrical applications are used in many industrial areas including:

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li! electric power and machinery

li! electronie circuits

11 superconductors
11 solid-state electronies

1\1 lasers

11 control systems
11 computer design

11 medical imaging systems

1\1roboties

11 consumer

1\1 radar
electronics

11 fibre opties

In recent years, the electronic computer has emerged as the largest application of electrical
engineering. However, another very large field is concerned with electric light and power and
their applications. Specialities within the field include the design, manufacture, and use of
turbines, generators, transmission lines, transformers, motors, lighting systems, and appliances.

B.

Electrical

problemscan be avoided by always using the right

devices and taking appropriate

measures for electrical protection.

Electrieal problems

Electrieal protection

weatherproof";
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Electrieal deviees

Circuit breaker operation

Breaker closed
on normal load

e,

Breaker closed
on normal load

Click - it opens
on overload

Compounds are short ways of giving information. They are used to express complex ideas
economically:

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36

Click - it opens
on overload

noun + noun, e.g. panel board (or panelboard) = a board consisting of a number of panels
noun + adjective, e.g. explosionproof =material whieh cannot be damaged by explosions
adverb + noun, e.g. overload = current which is greater than the load for which the system OI,
mechanism was intended

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Express
1

each

a board

of these

consisting

ideas as a compound.
of

a number

of

panels

2 material that does nat allow water to get into it

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3 material that doesn't allow rain to get into it

4 a board consisting of a number of electrical switches
S conductors which are perfect, conducting a current without a battery
6 material that will nat be damaged in an explosion

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7 current which is greater than the load for which the system or mechanism was intended
8 material that does nat allow dust to get into it

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What is being described?Find a word or phrase from the page opposite.

1 It produces a narrow beam of light and can be used to read barcades in a supermarket, play
compact discs, etc.
2 A word to describe any piece of equipment made for a specificpurpose.

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3 A pulse of light, current or sound that is used to convey information.

4 A device that uses electromagnetic waves to calculate the distance of an object.
S Glass fibres that are used for data transmission.
6 The study of how robots are made and used.
7 A circuit where the current has a choice of paths.
8 A situation where the electrical current takes an easier path than the one intended.
9 A piece of equipment that stops an electrical current if it becomes dangerous.
10 A connecti on paint where several cables are connected.

-~i: Complete

the text below with words from the page opposite. The first letter of the missing words
has been given.

In power stations, high pressure steam, gas, water or wind is used to drive
(a) t

which fum huge (b) g

. Large power stations generate

electricity at 25,000 volts. This is then stepped up to 275,000

(e) t

before being fed into a network of (d) c

Grid. Electrical (e) p

(f) t
(g) t

or 400,000

volts using
known as the

is then carried across the country by overhead

. The Grid voltage is reduced by stepping down

at substations before it is used in homes and factories. Some

industrial plants take electrical energy from the Grid system at 33,000 or 11,000 volts,
but for use in homes and offices it is stepped down to a lower level.

In the home, supply from the mains (h) c

(i) f

passes through a main

and then to afuse boxoThe fuse box is a distribution paint for the

electricity supply to the house. Most houses have two or three ring main
U)c.

connecting electric sockets. There are als o two or three

(k) l

circuits and separate circuits for (I) a

such as cookers

and hot water heaters.

37

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Electronics 1
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Electronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components, at the heart of which

are semiconductors. Transistors, which are made of silicon or germanium, are made from
semiconductors. Commercial products range from cellular radiotelephone systems and video
cassette recorders to high-performance supercomputers and sophisticated weapons systems. In
industry, electronic devices have led to dramatic improvements in productivity and quality. For
example, computer-aided design to oIs facilitate the design of complex parts, such as aircraft
wings, or intricate structures, such as integrated circuits.

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Electronics is a branch of engineering and physics. It deals with the emission, behaviour, and
effects of electrons for the generation, transmission, reception, and storage of information. This
information can be audio signals in a radio, images (video signals) on a television screen, or
numbers and other data in a computer. Electronic systems are important in communication,
entertainment, and control systems.

The development of microelectronics has had a major impact on the electronics industry.
Electroniccomponentsare expected to deliver ever higher performance, while electronic circuits
continue to benefit from miniaturization.
Function of electronic circuits

Sjgn~L
Electronic components

inductor I
valve (BrE)
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Impacts

One way of increasing your vocabulary is to learn the associated words from a key word.
Look at the word table below,which shows words related to the key words presented above:
Noun

Verb

activation

activate

Adjective
active

amplification
emission

amplify
emit

amplified
emitted

entertainment

entertain

extraction

extract

entertaining
extracted

generation

generate

generative

integration

integrated li ntegrative

reception

integrate
receive

recovery

recover

recovered

reliability

rely
store

reliable
stored

transmit

transm ittableItransmissi ble

storage
transmission

38

receptive

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Choose the correct word in the following sentences.

1 Transistors/inductors

are the key component in electronics.

2 They consist of three layers of silicon semiconductor/superconductor.

3 All electronic/electrical

systems consist of input, a processor and output. and usually memory.

4 The input receives/resists and converts information while the output converts and supplies
electronically processed information.
5 The memory may not be present in simple systems. but its function is the
storage/transmission
of information for the processor.
6 Continual developments in electronics give us increased reliability /recovery in electronic
devices.
7 Electronic equipment controls microprocessors/microwaves
cellular radiotelephone systems and domestic appliances.

in. for example. weapons systems.

8 Electronic devices have improved our lives by providing high quality

communication/combination
and entertainment.

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thus making it

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1 The weak audio signal entering a radio is

audible. (amplify)

2 Computer games are just one example of electronic systems being used for
(entertain)
of mobile

3 Due to developments in mobile telecommunications systems. a new

phone is now available. (generate)
4 IC stands for

circuit. (integrate)

5 Computer software is
if it does what the manual says it should. (rely)
6 One area of electronics is concerned with the
of information. (store)
7 The

of signals to satellites is made by microwaves. (transmit)

8 A computer chip is capable of holding vast amounts of

9
10
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information. (store)

of speech was first carried out through

amplitude of a radio signal. (transmit, modulate)
In a laser, energy is released in the form of

of the

light. (emit)

Complete the text about electronics by choosing a word from the boxo

Electronic circuits are built from basic components.

can be charged and discharged. The two most

(a)

common capacitors are ceramic and electrolytic.

Most electronic devices use (f)

are the most important

components. They can be used to amplify the

(IC) or microchips. Inside an IC is

strength of a signal by converting a weak signal

into a stronger one Or to switch other circuits on
or ofI (b)
(e)

reduce the flow of

through the circuit, adding

a very small piece of (g)

with
circuits built in. Today, semiconductors are usually
made of (h)
which is che aper and

resistance to that circuit. (d)

easier to manufacture than (i)

function as electronic valves allowing current to

flow in only one direction. (e)

Researchers are constantly trying to reduce the

size of transistors in.order to reduce the size of

store electricity in order to smooth the flow. They

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Electronics 2
The electronics industry creates, designs, produces, and sells devices such as radios, televisions,
stereos, video games, and computers, and components such as semiconductors, transistors, and
integrated circuits, In the second half of the 20th century, this industry had two major
influences. Firstly it transformed our lives in factories, offices, and homes; secondly it emerged as
a key economic sector. Specific advances include:
ili the development of space technology and satellite communications
.. the revolution in the computer industry that led to the personal computer
11 the introduction of computer-guided robots in factories
11 systems for storing and transmitting data electronically
11 radio systems to automobiles, ships, and other vehicles
.. navigation aids for aircraft, automatic pilots, altimeters, and radar for traffic control

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The applcatians al electronc engneerng cover almost every aspect of modern life; the industry
involves a wide range of tasks.
Applications of electronic engineering

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Tasks in electronic engineering

Electronic engineers are highly sought after, well rewarded and can be found in practically every
branch of industry and commerce. Here is an extract from a job description for an electronic
engineer:

Scope and responsibilities

Senior Electronics Design Engineer

The Senior Electronics Design
Engineer will be responsible for enhancing
and supporting the entire electronic design
process, including,but not limited to:
. electronic product development from
design to production release

. electronic

new products from product specification,

producing electronic prototypes and
preparation of all necessary design
documentation
firmware design for electronic devices
electronic circuit design and board layout

documentation

40

. interacting
support pr'

. developing
selection al

design, analysis and testing of

.
for very small devices and instruments
. accurate project and design
,

to

design

. providing

existing pI
the field

and
in

producing

. staffing and

lab

Telecoms 1
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Telecommunieations technology transmits information by electromagnetie means over media

such as telephone wires or radio waves. The information may be voice, facsimile, data, radio, or
television signals. The electronie signals that are transmitted can be either analogue or digital.
The advantages of digital transmission are high reliability and low cost. Digital switching
systems are much cheaper than analogue systems.
In analogue modulation, the signals are transmitted directly (without converting them to digital
form) by amplitude modulation or frequency modulation. For digital transmission the analogue
signals must be converted to a digital formo Then the digitized signal is passed through a source
encoder, which reduces redundant binary information. After source encoding, the digitized
signal is processed in a channel encoder, which introduces redundant information that allows
errors (degradation by noise or distortion) to be detected and corrected. The encoded signal is
made suitable for transmission by modulation onto a carrier wave. When a signal reaches its
destination, the device on the receiving end converts the electronie signal bade into an
understandable message - sound on a telephone, images on a television, or words and pietures
on a computer.

There are three main methods of electromagnetie

signal transmission:

wire transmission

wre, rado and opticaI.

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radio transmission

~~-. transponder

optical transmission

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Telecommunications is the fastest growing segment of technology today. Telecommunieations

technologists are needed to plan, install and maintain state-of-the-art telephone systems, cable
TV and computer networks. Although technologists have knawledge af thearetieal tapies, they
tend to focus on salving practical design and applicatian prablems. Training covers a wide range
af telecams-related tapies. Rere is the content fram ane such caurse:

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Part 1: Operating

Part 2: Analogue Cammunications

Systems

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Part 3: Telecommunications

Fundamentals

Part 4: Telecommunications

Fundamentals

Part 5: Digital Electronics

Part 6: Telecommunications

Lab

Networking

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Part 7: Fundamentals

of Optical Communications

Part 8: Data Communications

Networking

BDDI

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--

Match each of the foIlowing words with its definition.

wire

a device which maps the binary strings into coded bits or

waveforms for transmission

wave

a device which maps the source into a set of binary strings

analogue

a system in which data is represented as O or 1

digital

a system in which data is represented as a continuously

varying voltage

amplitude modulation

a thin piece of metal for conducting electrical current

a wave suitable for modulation by an information-bearing signa I

frequency modulation

an electric, electromagnetic, acoustic, mechanical or other

form whose physical activity rises and falls as it travels
through a medium

source encoder
channel encoder

-- ---

21

the deterioration in quality, level, or standard of performance

degradation

to fail to reproduce accurately the characteristics of the input

distort

where audio signals increase and decrease the amplitude of

the carrier wave

carrier wave

where voltage levels change the frequency of a carrier wave

The foIlowing words are taken from three modes of transmission:

each term with the most appropriate mode of transmission.

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wire, radio and optical. Link

wire
radio
optical

The foIlowing extract is taken from a description for a telecommunications

Complete the text by choosing a suitable word or phrase from the boxo

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATE

COURSE NAME

COURSE DETAlLS

Telecommunications
Fundamentals

Introduction
to the
of information

Telecommurcations
Fundamentals
Lab

Bands-on

Analogue

practical

Fundamentals
of Optical
Communications

The advantages

Fundamentals

Introduction

of

Data Communications

COURSE

to

of signals
signals

Digital Electronics

Telecommunications

experiments

transmission

Communications

technology course.

technologies

of

to

information

Networking
Networking

Sharing

between

networks

61

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A wide variety of information can be transferred through a telecommunications

system,
including voice and music, still-frame and full-motion pictures, computer files and applications,
and telegraphic data.
The telephone is an instrument used for sending and receiving voice messages and data. Most
phone calls involve two people, but the phone network can also be used to pay bills and retrieve
messages from answering machines. Private individuals will usually have their own phone line; a
large business will usually have its own switching machine, called a Private Branch Exchange
(PBX), with many !ines, all of which can be reached by dialling one number.

""III

'<
<"

:s:
"tI
]:o
2
-<

Radio transmission broadcasts signals that are intended for general public reception. With an
omnidirectional antenna, radio signals are transmitted over a wide area. In a point-to-point radio
channel. a directional transmitting antenna focuses the wave into a narrow beam, which is
directed toward a single receiver. Broadcasts may be audible only, as in radio, or visual or a
combination of both, as in television.

"tI

::o
o
""

r-

."
UI

Two applications of telecoms are telephony and televson.

Telephony
A videophone is a personal video carnera and display, a microphone
conversion device.

and speaker, and a data-

A cordless telephone is a device which plugs directly into an existing telephone jack, allowing
!imited mobility within the home, garden or office.
Telephony has been revolutionized by cellular (cell or mobile) telephones, which are personal
portable devices.
Facsimile, or fax, refer s to the transmission
radio channels or undersea cable.

of print: text, fixed images or drawings by wire or

Television

..

62

Mobile telephony is revolutionizing

by the MobiPhone.

how we use the phone. Look at the range of features offered

DD1D

-~~

--

Cirde all the correct answers that apply.

1 A telecommunications
system can transfer
d energy
a voice
b pictures
c computer files
2 The telephone is an instrument used for
c receiving messages
a sen ding messages
b switching messages
d retrieving messages
3 Broadcast signals can be
c visual
d a combination of all three
a tactile
b audible
4 A videophone combines
a a video carnera
b a display
5 Fax can be used to transmit

c a microphone

c drawings
a sounds
b moving pictures
6 A cordless phone
b allows unlimited mobility
a plugs into a jack
d is portable
'2

Match a word in the left-hand column with a word on

the right to form ten phrases from the field of
telecommunications.

<
O
(')
D)
C"
e
D)
..
'<

d a speaker
d images
c can be used within the home

answering
radio

antenna

video

jack
machine

camera

Now complete the following sentences using phrases

from the table opposite.

relay
cable

1 The telephone can be used to pay bills

and
ITom

television
retrieve

phone
set

2 With an omnidirectional

transmitting
cordless

signal
station

telephone

television

antenna.
can be transmitted

over a wide area.

(')
o
S
"O
>
Z
-<
"O
:tI
o
."
r!T'I
11)

messages

3 A videophone incorporates a
and display, a microphone and speaker.
4 A
5

-----

allows limited mobility in and around the home.

allows access to many television stations.

Below is an extract from the review of the newly released MobiPhone World. Complete the text
using the words/phrases in the box below.

MobiPhone World 1000

MobiCom. It is
packed with exciting
phone, it doubles as a
GPRS enabled, you can
while you are on
internet

to worry about

missing that important

World 1000 comes with a

meeting as the

can also

be one step ahead of the bank by checking how much

And

calls. You can even

on the built-in

(d)
amotlnt
(e)

63

-..,

Present tenses
A

Sample

sentences

The logistics department dispatches finished goods to our customers and receives raw materials
from our suppliers. Delivery documentation is enclosed with the consignment, but the shipping
papers aren't prepared in this department. In this area here the goods are loaded onto trucks;
and over there incoming goods which have just arrived are unloaded. A consignment is just
being delivered over there. We have been using plastic packaging for many years; however, next
year we are moving to more environmentally-friendly
materials.

Form
Present simple and Present contnuous
Positive

Negative

Present simple
active

We receive raw materials

The supervisor

tram our suppliers.

prepare the papers.

tinished goods?

Present simple
passive

All goods are received at

this depot.

The bill ot lading isn't

dispatched.

Where are the goods

stored?

Present continuous
active

The supervisor is checking

the delivery.

I am not sending out a bill

ot lading with this shipment.

When are we moving to the

new de pot?

Present continuous

Goods are being unloaded

At present the pallets are

passive

over there.

not being reused.

Why are those crates

being moved?

Negative

Question

They have not drained

the water yet.

How many tunnels have

they dug?

Present perfect
Positive

Question
doesn't

Where do you store

Present perfect
simple active

Our contractor has built

Present perfect
simple passive

The walls have been built.

The water has not been

drained.

Has the cable been laid?

Present perfect
continuous active

The supervisor has been

checking the walls today.

I have not be en working on

that site since last year.

How long have they been

a supporting wall.

Note: the present perfect contnuous passive is very rare

Uses
The present tenses are used to express a range of meanings.
The present contnuous describes:
1 an activity at or around the time of speaking
At present we are using plastc packaging.
2 a fixed future plan
Next year we are bulding a new depot.
The present simple describes:
a regular or characteristic happening
How often do you receiveshipments?
The present perfect describes:
1 an activity at a non-specific time in the past
Our contractor has bult a new supportng wall.
2 an activity which started in the past and continues to the present
We have been working on this project since last year.

excavating

at the site?

HI:I.DI
Choose the correct verb form in each of the following.

L-

1 In this process, the mixture is heated/is heating to 120C,

2 Once the salts are dissolving/have dissolved, the heat is reduced,
3 Several people have survived/are surviving the earthquake and are treating/are being treated
in hospital at the moment.
4 For security purposes the employees change/are changing their passwords regularly.
5 Up until now people in this area have takenltake waste plastic to recycling centres, but at
present we have tried/are trying a curbside collection system.

Ci)
..
Q)
3
3
Q)
..
e
UJ
CD
UJ

A journalist is asking some questions. Complete the answers by putting the verb in brackets into
the appropriate present tense in the active or passive.
1 A: Do you normally hold these products in stock?
B: No. They
are
normally
made

to order. (make)

2 A: Is the chief engineer here at the moment?

B: l'm afraid not. He
currently
Scotland. (inspect)
3 A: Can I see the new design?
B: Yes,of course. It

the plant in the north of

just

off the production line. (corne)

4 A: How many units do you produce a month?

B: We
5,000 units a month and only a very small number
(produce) (reject)
S A: How long have you been using imported raw materials?
B: We
- (import) rayon for many years but we
(begin) using imported polyester.
6 A: Is this the natural colour of the fabric?
B: No, this fabric
(dye).

only just

7 A: And how long will it be kept in store?

B: Not long at all. We
(dispatch) this load tomorrow afternoon.

3'

Complete the following text with the correct form of the verbs in brackets.
Over the past ten years, this area (a)

(experience) severe fIooding. Houses

(d)

(decide) to introduce a fIoodcontrol system. At present our workforce

(e)

(build) a dam on the west side of the town and dikes along the river
We must complete the work within two months, so at

present we (g)

(work) 24 hours a day.

(believe)that

will solvethe problem in the short term but on 1st May we (i)
a new watercourse. The plans (j)

already
start next week.

67
I

....

--.....

Past tenses

Q
...

Last year we began a study of airbags on our four wheel drive vehicles. First we analysed the
results of the tests that we had carried out. After the results had be en compiled. we used

Q)

3
3

modelling software to evaluate the performance of the airbags. This showed how well they had
performed under different conditions. While we were evaluating the physical performance.
another study was assessing the materials that we were using. All the results were then recorded
into a database.

Q)

...

(J)
CI>
(J)

u-

~-

Form
Past simple and Past continuous
Positive

Negative

Question

Past simple
active

Last year we began a new

study.

We didn't develop the software

ourselves.

Where did you record

the results?

Past simple
passive
Past continuous
active

The performance of the air

The results weren't recorded.

Where were the fndings

published?

Whle the analyst was carrying

out the test...

... the other technicians

were not recording the results.

What were you doing

Past continuo us
passive

While the test was being

... the results were not being

recorded.

Why were the findings

being written down?

Negative

Question

Because they had not

recorded the data...

Had they carried out all

the tests?

bags was assessed.

carried

out

...

Past perfect
Positive

during the test phase?

Past perfect
simple active

After we had compi/ed the

resu Its...

Past perfect
simple passive

... after the results had

... beca use

been compi/ed.

not been recorded.

Had all the tests been

carried out?

Past perfect
continuous

The analyst had been

checking the walls yesterday

We had not been evaluating

the physical characteristics ...

How long had you be en

working on the project?

...

the data had

active

Note: the

rL

---

past perfect contnuous actve is quite unusual

and the past perfect cont nuo us passve is very rare

Uses
Allthe past tensesare used to express activities at a definite time in the past.
The past simple describes:
an activity at a definite time in the past
The study of airbags was started last year.
The past continuous describes:
an activity which is a time frame for another activity
WhiIe we were studying the airbags. we made a significant discovery.
WhiIe our team was studying performance. another team was looking at the characteristics.
The past perfect describes:
an activity that happened earlier than another activity in the past
Our studies showed how weII the equipment had performed.

68

Notes:
We use the past tenseswith these expressions:
yesterday
yesterday morninglafternoon,!evening
last
last nightlweeklmonthlyear
ago
onehourltwo weekslthreemonthslfour years ago
in

in 20051the 1990'slthe

19th certury

BD1DI
Six of the folIowing sentences contain mistakes. Find the mistakes and correct them.
1 Sydney Harbour Bridge was building in 1932.
2 While they were carrying out tests in the laboratories. researchers were analysing past
resuUs.
3 The first real road builders in Britain was the Romans.
4 The Romans built roads of layers of broken stones of various sizes and were covering them
with flat stones.
5 The system didn't working because the loudspeaker had been wrongly connected.
6 Before factories were told to stop polluting the environment, waste was being dumped in
rivers and in the sea.
7 Louis Pasteur was discovering the action of germs while he was studying fermentation
wines.
8 The production
found.
9
10

G)
..
Q)
3
3
Q)
..

e
tn
CD
tn

in

process had already been shut down when the leak in the fuel tank was

Nuclear energy began to be used from the mid-1950s.

In the second half of the 20th century, the electronics industry transforming
work in factories.

the way we

Make past tense questions and answers using the words given.
1: When were fibre optics first developed?
1 When / be / fibre optics / first / develop?
2 The boxes / break / because they / make / of low quality materials.
3 The power supply / cut off / because / cables / corne down / during the storm.
4

They / not complete / the foundations

/ by the time the building materials / arrive.

5 When / they / install / the solar panels?

6 be / this / the first hydroelectric scheme/ in Scotland?
7 They / not use / wood chip / for heating / when the engineer / visit / the factory.
8 How / they / produce / gas / before they / discover / North Sea gas?
9 be / the oil pollution along the coastline / cause / by an oil tanker spillage?
10

--

How / they prepare access to this mine?

I
I

Complete the folIowing report of an accident which happened in a factory with the correct form
of the verbs in brackets.

On Friday morning at 9.25 a worker in the chemical plant (a)

(find) bya femalecolleague. He (b)
(e)
(check) that he (d)
(breathe) and then (e)
(f)

(Iie) on the floor. His colleague

still
(call) the emergency services. The injured man

(take) to hospital where he later (g)

An investigation at the factory (h)

dangerous chemicalliquid (i)

J.

(Ieave) open. Vapour from theliquid

U)

(escape) into the air. While he had been working in the room he

(k)

(become)unwell. He (I)

then (m)

(,

(recover).

(find) that a bottle containing a

everyone who (n)

(becorne)drowsy and

(fall) unconscious. Investigating officers ore interviewing

(work) in the factory that morning.

69

..

3
G')
...

Future forms
A

Q)

Sample sentences
A: When are we going to treat the first patients with the new drug?
B: The results from the tests won't be available before next year.
A: When is PharEurop going to register the drug?
B: They are preparing the preliminary forms next month. So they'll be ready before the summer.
A: And when are you going to publish that paper on the results?
B: 1arn submitting it to the medical journal after the summer.

3
3
Q)

...

en
CD

en

Form
1 There is no to after wll or shal1:
rhe results of the tests wll be ready after the summer.
2 You need the verb to be with the present contnuous and the going to forms:
l am submttng it to the medical journal after the summer.
When is PharEurop going to register the drug?

e Uses
Look at the differences in meanings between the following pairs of sentences:
l am going to upload the new web page next week. (I intend to do it: future with going to)
l am uploading the new web page next week. (U is my fixed plan to do it: future with present
continuous)
We are going to digtize the pictures so that we can upload them to our website. (We intend to digitize
them: future with going to)
rhe digital pictures wll be uploaded to our website on 1st June. (The upload date is a fact: future with
wll)

Now look at this mini-dialogue. Notice the different shades of meaning between the three future
forms:
A: When will the hardware be installed?
B: We are going to lay the network cables next Tuesday.
A: l'm seeing the electrical contractor tomorrow. We're going to review the site plan.
B: Good. So when do you think the system will go live.
A: The file server will be delivered on Friday.
B: And the work stations?
A: They're coming at the beginning of the following week.
Notes:

1 The present contnuousneeds an expression of future time to give it a future meaning.

rhe work statons are coming. (now)
rhe work statons are coming at the beginning of next week. (in the future)
2 Typical expressions of future time are:
tomorrow morning/ afternoon/ evening but tonight
next week/month/year
in two weeks/months/years
in the shortlmedium/long term
3 The negative of wll is won't:

rhe results won't be readythis week.

70

IIBJ:DI
--- -

Match these present tense situations with the future intention.

1 The building materials are being delivered.

a We're going to replace the faulty machine.

2 There is a backlog of orders.

b We're going to build a new warehouse.

3 We're shutting down production.

e The assembly line is going to be inspected.

4 The workers need different interesting jobs to do.

d We're going to automate it in the near future.

S This is a very slow manual processo

e The workers are going to work overtime.

6 There have been too many faulty goods recently.

2'

We're going to introduce job rotation.

G')
...
S
3
3
S
...

e
fi)
(1)
fi)

In the following situations choose the correct sentence, a) or b).

1 You are reminding a colleague about the programme for tomorrow.
a Remember that you'll meet the supplier at 12 o'elock.
b Remember that you're meeting the supplier at 12 o'elock.
2 Two colleagues are discussing the future visit by inspectors.
a The inspectors won't allow us to store chemicals in this cupboard.
b The inspectors are not allowing us to store chemicals in this cupboard.
3 Designers are discussing the car models with airbags.
a The use of airbags is going to save more lives in the future.
b The use of airbags is saving more lives in the future.
4 Two managers need the results from some research before November.
a They won't be able to complete the research before November.
b They aren't completing the research before November.
5 A senior manager isn't looking forward to next week because he's worried about the tests.
a Tests will be carried out next week.
b Tests are being carried out next week.

A salesman is describing a new product to a customer. Complete what they say with will or
won't and a verb from the boxo
give

. operate. deal . take . be . contact

install . provide

need

revolutionize

warm

$: This is an excellent new material which

see
the use of solar panels.

I see, and how many hours of sunshine (b)

produce energy?

we

necessary to have sunshine.

to

in dayUght only.

enough energy to warm 1he building in winter?

may need additional heating when it is very

$: It (f)
cold.
c: What about installation?
$: We (g)

it for YOU.
effective

long and
We

guarantee and if there are My problems we (k)

When

you be able to install it?

$: As soon as we receive your order we

...

a three year
them immediately.

a suitable date.

71

.....

Conditionals
Ci)

..

1---

Sample sentences

If you follow these measures, the risk of bums will be substantially reduced.
If you combined these two substances together there would be a serious risk of explosion.
If you hadn't sealed the container, the vapour would have contaminated the environment.
If you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately.
In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water.

3
3
S

..
e

en
(I)
en

__fil,

Form
A conditional sentence has two clauses: the if clause and the main clause.
There are four principal types of conditional sentences: conditional I. conditional lI,
conditional III and universal conditions.
Conditional

if cIause

main cIause

present simple

future with will

II

past simple

conditional with would

III

past perfect

past conditional with would have

Universal

present simple

present simple

Note that the following contractions are common in speech:

wnI- 'lI,e.g. l'lI
would have- would've,e.g. we would 've

would/had - 'd, e.g. they'd

Uses
We use conditional sentences to talk about the relationship
consequences:

If

our survey

between events and their

indicatesthepossibWtyof on (event), then we wll do some drlling (consequence).

Conditional I
Rere the speaker sees the event as a real possibility:
If the onfield is productve,we wll recoverour exploratoncostsin a short tme.
Conditional 11
Rere the speaker sees the event as a remote possibility:
If there wasa blowout, we would evacuatethe rig immediately.
Conditional III
Rere the speaker recognizes that the event is an impossibility, Le. cannot be fulfilled:
If wehadn'tmadethisfind, we would haveleasedout our tankers.
Universal Conditions
Rere the speaker indicates that the consequence

If a rock is permeable,

always follows the event:

t allows water or other jIuids, such as on, to pass through it.

Notes:

1 These expressions mean 'i! and 'only j':

72

provided/provding(that) on condWonthat so lang as

Provdedthat the resultsof our surveysareposWve,we wll contnue to drll here.
2 These expressions indicate that a future event may or may not happen.
in case in the caseof in the eventthat in the eventof
In caseof corrosion, stopall actvty.
nat'
3 unless means 'if
Do nat return to the rig unlessthe supervisorgivesinstructons to do so.

lD.'D1DI
~

~ ~

Match two parts to form conditional sentences.

1 If these tests produce positive results,

a the accident would never have happened.

2 If rubber is cooled to -200 C,

b download them onto your computer.

3 If safety measures had been followed,

4 If you want to study the files fram the internet,

e we'd be able to do all the technical specifications

in half the time.

5 If we bought a new software package,

d we could estimate the experimental error.

6 If you want to use this software package on

more than one system,

7 If the goods had been sent by sea,

g we'll continue with clinical trials.

8 If we ran an additional test,

h you'lI have to get a site licence.

e they would have taken nearly two months.

Ci)
..
C)
3
3
C)
..

e
t,
en
t,

it becomes brittle and will break.

Complete these sentences using the words in brackets.

1 The tests won't be continued unies s

(there/be/better

2 He wouldn't have be en injured if

(he/follow/the

3 In the event of a collision,

correct procedures).

(the airbag/inflate).

4 If all vehicles were fitted with a catalytic converter,

5 The reaction would be speeded up if
6 If heat is applied,

(we/introduce/a

(infections/not

8 If iron is left in contact with air and water,

catalyst).

bel pass on).

(it/rust).

Two site workers are discussing the weather. Complete the conversation with the correct form of
the verbs in brackets.
A: We'lI
B:

(there/be/less/pollution).

(the substance/decompose).

7 As long as disinfectant is used,

r---

safety measures).

work when the conditions

weather was going to be

WeB,

(improve).
(delay) the

get the foundations laid by

Do you remember building that bridge last year? If we

of sandbags, the
have flooded the
town.
.

it in

potholesin the

Provided it (g)
If they'd chosen another time of year, we (h)
It would

able to start preparing the timber.

(not have) these prablems.
at this time of year!

73

...

,....

3
G')
...
tU

Verb phrases
A

Sample sentences
Next month the production department will start to control stock levels every week.
Next month the production department will start controlling stock levels every week.
Do you like working on the assembly line?
Do you like to work on the assembly line?

3
3tU
...

fi)
(I)
fi)

Form
After some verbs we can use:
Verb ...ing or infinitive + to, e.g.
We will continue to automate the processo
We will continue automating the processo
You should never try to operate ths machnery unless you are wearng protective clothng.
You should never try operating ths machnery unless you are wearng protective clothng.

c"

Uses
Sometimes the meaning is the same; sometimes it is different.
1 The same meaning:
We can use both forms after these verbs:
begin

continue .intend

prefer

start

Weprefer to nspectstocklevelson a monthly bass.

Weprefer nspectingthem twce a month.
2 A different meaning:
We can use both forms after these verbs, but with a different meaning:

forget

remember

try

Pleaserememberto checkthe bill of materals. (Don't forget)

l remember checldng the bill of materials. (I checked it and l remember it)
We tred to mx the two chemcals that you delvered (we attempted to do it)
Wetred mxng the two chemcalsthat you delvered.(we experimented with it)
3 A slight difference of meaning:
Theemployeeslke rotating jobs, as t ncreasesther motivation. (They enjoy it)
We lke to usea subcontractorto mantan ths equpment. (rt is a good thing to do)
Notes:
1 We would lke
2

(as S)

We prefer to use organc products rather than chemcal ones.

We prefer organc products rather than chemCal ones.
We prefer carryng out thorough lab tests to feld trals.
We prefer carryng out thorough lab tests to trallng the products n the field.

We would lke to ntroduce qualty Crcles next year.

74

(not we wouldlkentroduCng)

DID:JI
. ..-Choose the correct sentence in each of the following.
l This new telephone system has been such a success.
a l really regret nat making a change a lang time ago.
b l really regret to nat make a change a lang time ago.

G)
..
Q)
:3
:3
Q)
..
e
tJ)
C1>
tJ)

2 This unit is extremely heavy.

a Could you try moving it, please?
b Could you try to move it, please?
3 Security is very important.
a Don't forget changing your password regularly.
b Don't forget to change your password regularly.
4 This sounds as though it could work!
a Would you like setting up trials?
b Would you like to set up trials?
5 It was several years ago but
a l remember discussing the advantages of videoconferencing.
b l remember to discuss the advantages of videoconferencing.

---- .
Complete the following sentences with either to + infinitive or verb + ...ing. Choose from the
verbs in the boxo

produce,

scratcb"

visit

...

overload.. de/iver . increase

l Installing another machine could risk

2 Tellhim
off the power supply.
3 We expect
4 We'll finish

the electricity supply.

that model in November.

---

the amount of packaging.

the disc.

6 Pleaseavoid7 The firm refuse

8 We want our customers

- -

redOce .. switch

production by 15%.

S The suppliers have agreed

~--

..

without payment in advance.

our website for further information.

This is part of a memo sent from a computer consultant to a manufacturing company. Complete
the memo using the words in brackets.
To:

l
(d)

-(use)
The idea will involve (f)

(link) all the modules

order processing, bill of materials to invoicing. When we link them in this way
l'd

he agrees
le of the programme

by July. l don't want (k)

(delay)
will
(arrange) a suitab1e time to discuss this

..

(run) the demonstration and

75

3
Ci)
~
S

Active vs passive
A

Sample sentences
For our research studies we normally produce a preliminary analysis. We then publish the
findings and circulate them to various experts. This is exactly what we did when we applied for
the current patent. We are therefore very surprised that you have contacted us in this matter. We
can assure you that we completed all the relevant documentation. In the meantime we will
investigate yourclaims further.

3
3
S
~

e
en
(D
en

For our research studies a preliminary analysis is normally produced. The findings are then
published and circulated to vario us experts. This is exactly what was done when the current
patent was applied for. We are therefore very surprised that we have been contacted in this
matter. We can assure you that all the relevant documentation was completed. In the meantime
your claims will be investigated further.

Form
Every active sentence has at least two parts:
a subject [1] + an active verb form [2]
We normally produce a preliminary analysis.

[1]
[ 2 ]
Every passive sentence has at least two parts:
a subject [1] + a passive verb form [2]
A preliminaryanalysis is normallyproduced.
[
1
] [
2
]

-~-~ Uses
We use the activeverb form in speech and writing to describe actions and events. For example:
Paper still plays a vital role in our lives - newspapers tell us the events of the day. and books
entertain and educate us. Paper has been with us since 105 A.D. The Chinese first used it to
make records; later it spread to all parts of the world.
We can use the passive in the following situations:
1 We are not interested in the doer.
Ancient paper was made entirely of rags; modern paper is made from wood pulp

- a faster

and cheaper

alternative.
2 In process descriptions.
First the logs are stripped of bark, cut into sm aller sections, and made into chips. The chips are put
into a large tank called a digester and allowed to stew in a chemical mix under pressure. The wood
pulp that is created by this process is then washed to remove any chemicals and pressed through
screens to remove chunks andforeign objects. Thepulp is then drained of water to form a mass that is
then bleached and washed again.
The first two corresponding active senten ces would be:
First we strip the logs of bark, then we cut them in to smaller sections, and make them into chips. We
then put the chips into a large tank called a digester and allow them to stew in a chemical mix under

pressure.

76

3 In impersonallanguage.
Thechemicalsin this processare toxic:safety clothingmust be worn.
This is the typical style of a written order or instruction. The corresponding activesentence
would be:
Thechemicalsare toxic:wear safety clothing.

BI:ID

In the following sentences underline the verbs and decide if they are active or passve.
1 A repeater boosts the electrical signal so that longer cables can be used.
2 Men's ties are usually made of silk or polyester.

3 Nearly all paper can be recycled if it is sorted and contaminants are removed.
4 Geothermal energy is produced below the earth's surface.
5 The main sources of ,greenhouse gas emissions include fossilfuel generating plant s and
transportation vehicles.
6 Manufacturers choose plastic container s for many different reasons.
7 Oil was formed in underground rocks millions of years ago.

Ci)
..
C)
3
3
C)
..

e
(/)
(I)
(/)

Here is a list of changes which have taken place in a town between 1960 and today. Use these
notes and the verbs given to write sentences to describe these changes.

Example: Four hotels havebeenbult.

1960

today

verb

no hotels

four hotels

build

wet land

no wet land

drain

small library

new library extension

open

three factories

no factories

close

river pOlluted

river clean

clean

few offices

new office block

build

no parks

two parks

establish

no airport

plans for airport

plan

In the following description of how plastics are shaped, put the verb in brackets in the correct formo

Iniection moulding

There aremany

Laminating

Blow moulding

Tube making

ways o~ shaping plastics. The most connon way is by moulding.

(use) to make bottles. In this process, air (b)

into a bl()b ofmdltenplastic inside a hoHow :fJl01.11d
and the plastic (c)

m01.1lding (a)

(force) againstthe

extrusion

Blow(blow)

sides of themould.

Toys and boMs

(make) by injection

moulding.

'Iher:fJloplastic chips

first
(heat) until they melt and then forced into a watercoolednojjld ul1der preSS1.1re.
'Ihis :fJleth:od(f)
(suit) to :fJlassproduction.
Laminati:t)g (g)
(produce) the heat-prooflaminate which (h)
(e)

(use), for exawplei for work sUt~aces in kitchens.

In this process, a kind of sandwich

o layers of paper or cloth which U)
(soak) in resin

(i)
solution.

'Ihey (k)

then

Thermoplastics can (I)

(squeeze) together in a heated press.

(shape) byextrusion. Moltenplastic (m)-

(force) thro1.1gh a shaped hole or die. Fibres for textiles and sheet plastic may
(make) by extrusion.

77

..,...

Causation
Ci)

..
m
3
3
m
..
e

The application of civil engineering techniques has led to more secure structures.
Tighter environmental controls have made many companies use cleaner sources of energy.
These stains result from the extensive use of dyes.
We have moved over to water turbines because they offer significant cost savings.
Many accidents in mining happen due to poar security procedures.

t/)

CD
t/)

Sample sentences

Form
We can express the relationship between a cause and an effect in a number of ways.
1 Verbsand verb ph rases
Modern civl engineeringtechniqueshave Ied to the useof better construction methods.

ILB~I

A = the cause; B = the verb linking the cause to the effect; C =the effect.

Here

Here are other verbs and verb ph rases with a similar meaning.

account for cause.

result in.

bring about.

give rise to

be responsible for

Alternatively we can reverse the elements in the sentence:

The use of better construction methods resuIts from modern civl engineering techniques.

IL-B~I

A =the effect;

Here

Here are other

verbs

and

B =the verb linking the effect to the cause;

I
C = the cause.

verb ph rases with a similar meaning.

arise fram " be attributable to-

stem fram

2 Clausesof cause
Wehavemovedover to water turbines because they offer significant costsavings.
Here a subordinating conjunction links the effect and the cause.
Here are the other main subordinating conjunctions:
as

since

3 Phrasesof cause

Many accidentsin mining happendue topoorsecurityprocedures.

Here an adverbph raseintroduces the cause.
Other expressions with a similar meaning are:
as a consequenceof

. becaseof- on accontor - oWlngto

Uses
Look at the following text which shows the above language in use.
Combustion is a reaction in which the oxidization of an element or compound Ieads to the
release of energy. If the combustion resuIts in aflame, it is called burning. Since combustion
can be dangerous, it is important to take precautions against injury. However, nat all
combustions resuIt in flames. For example, the combustion of carbon in oxygen causes an
intense red-white light but no flame. Petroleum, on the other hand, requires special handling on

account ofits volatility.

78

DD:.D
1

Choose the correct phrase in each of the following.

1 Just-in-time manufacturing

methods result from/result in a saving on storage costs.

2 The reject rate has fallen as a result of/giving rise to quality control.

Ci)
..
D)
3
3
D)
..
c:
fi)
(I)
fi)

3 Poor quality materials were responsible for/stem from product defects.

4

The machine broke down and resulted in/because

S Steel was used in the construction

of po or maintenance.

caused by/on account ofits strength.

6 Data was damaged as a result of/giving rise to a virus in the system.

7 Transport costs have increased accounting

for/due to a rise in oil prices.

Stopping the use of certain chemicals in the process has brought about/arises
reduction in the number of cases of allergic skin reactions.

from a

Most British coal mines have be en closed beca use/on account ofthey have become
uneconomic.

10

The regeneration of plants and wildlife in rivers and waterways accounts for/is attributable
to new legislation to stop pollution by industry.

11

There has be en a large increase in the number of people who want to buy organic food
products since/as a consequence offears about chemicals in food.

12

Environmental problems resulting from the disposal of plastics led to/due to the
development of biodegradable plastics.

Rewrite the following sentences using the verb or phrase in brackets.

1: Modern communication

systems have resulted in more and more people working from home.

1 More and more people working from home is a consequence

systems. (have resulted in)
2

Cold weather leads to a rise in the volume of electricity required by consumers.

3 Reduced transportation
4

of modern telecommunications
(is caused by)

costs stem from the use of more lightweight parts. (brings about)

Increased energy efficiency accounts for an annu al saving of electricity. (is attributable

S Friction during drilling causes the production

to)

of heat. (results from)

6 A reduction in the amount of waste being discharged into rivers has resulted in rivers
beginning to support fish again. (is attributable to)
7 Cars and aero planes are partIy responsible for air pollution. (partIy stems from)
8 Water flowing through the turbines causes them to spin. (due to)

~:

Place the preposition of, for, from, about, on, in, to or no oreposition in each space below to
complete the following description of global warming.
account (b)

he earth is kept warm (a)

However, human activity has brpught

heat and cause a riseiu

temprature.

the burning

changes wiU take place because (f)

about 25%

weather will also be attributble

remlt (i)

U)

an iuqease

(e)

in greenhouse

gases which trap more

nearly halfof global

Scentists blieve that CO;! accounts (d)

warming. CO2 results (e)

(g)

a .layer of gases which surrounds it.

o[ fossil [uels and forests, No one knbws exactly what

this warming.ln
global warmiqg

(h)

more evaporation

addition to C02' CfCs

may be responsible

in the futpre. Most scentists belive that more extrerp.es in the

globahvarming.

Jihey also expect .higher temperatures

to

from the seas and an increase in rainfall. As a consequence

heating, water expands and this will give rise (k)

a rise in ocean levels.

79

...,...

Obligation and requirements

G)
...
C)

A'

Sample sentences
Our quality policy is to develop, produce, and deliver on time. In order to do this, we have
implemented quality systems and processes that demand continuous improvement. To achieve this
we need to constantly strive to upgrade our performance and inspire others by example. The
competitive marketplace in which we operate requires us to be responsive to custorner needs. On
the other hand, peer needs must not be ignored. Staff have to be trained to enable them to carry out
their tasks. Everyone will be encouraged to take on responsibility. Rowever, no-one will be forced.

3
3

C)

...

tJ)

(1)
tJ)

BO
w;.-,

Form
We can view the noti on of obligation under the following headings:
11 obligation to do something
11 obligation not to do something, Le.prohibition
11 no obligation
We can also view the notion from the point of view of the person/situation causing the obligation
(the obliger), and the person receiving the obligation (the obliged).
For the use of the verbs below see e 1-6.
Rere is the range of verbs for the obliger:

1 Obligesomeone to do something

cornpel
demand
oblige . require

2 Obligesomeone not to do something

ban.

3 Not oblige someone to do something

not compel
not require

force.

make

forbid .prohibit

not force.

. .

not make

Rere is the range of verbsforthe obliged: be forced to.. be reqtHredto . be supposed to

4 Obligedto dosomething
have to
must
need to

be prohibited frorn
cannot .. may not
must not .. not be aUowed to
not be pennitted to

6 Not oblige someone to do something

do not need to..

We require the general contractor to supervise

and co-ordinate the projecto
The general contractor made the sub-contractor sign a
compensation clause for delays. (not:
made the sub-contractor
2

To oblige someone

fe sign)

not to do something:

The use of asbestos is banned.

Fire regulations prohibit builders from using jIammable
materials.

neednot . not have to

4 To be obliged to do something:
Thecontractor must applyjIameretardant chemicalsto slow down the
spreadof fire.
S To be obliged not to do something:
A nonload-bearing wall must not
support any other load except its own
weight.
6 Not obliged:
In this type of soil we needn't dig the

The construction engineers don't normally force

foundations deeper than 10 metres.

Architects don't have to/need to have the

painters, plasterers and plumbers to use specific

same qualifica tions as quantity

products.

surveyors.

3 Not to oblige someone

Uses
1 Toobligesomeoneto dosomething:

80

S Obligednot to do something

to do something:

8:lD:DI
L~

~
10.\;&

4 .-

..
. . .
.

3'.

,lm

~)i.

G)
...
m
3
3

Choose one correct sentence for each picture, There are more sentences than you need,

m
...

a You must go to this point if there is a fire.

e
en
~
en

b You are required to wear a hard hat in this area.

c Authorized personnel are obliged to enter.
d You mustn't consume these.
e A fire extinguisher needs to be placed here.
f People without authorization are prohibited from entering.
g You can get fire fighting equipment here.
h Smoking is not allowed after this point.
Each of the following sentences contains a mistake, Find the mistakes and correct them,
1 You needn't to enclose the invoice.1t will be sent separately.
2 The cus torner will be needed to pay import duty before he can get the goods.
3 When bacteria were found in the food plant, the government made the company to shut down
production.
4

They don't required to wear safety clothes in this area.

5 Without just-in-time manufacturing,

components.

we would be permitted to hold large stocks of

6 Children are not allowed entering this area.

Below is an extract from a letter from an insurance agent to a manufacturing company about
regulations, Complete the extract by choosing the correct word ITomthe boxo
needn't

.. . .

permitted

prohibited

require

.. . .
forcing

must (2)

have

supposed

banned

Following my visit to your factorylast week, 1 arn writing to confirm what we discussed. Itis important
these points are followed; otherwise theinsurance
cover will not be valido
11 All empty crates (a)

notbe stacked in the production

problem and we will not (b)

11 The governmenthas
(d)

that

area. Theyare a health and safety

you to leave them there.

(e)

the dumping of waste chemicalsin

waste sites and are

companies to apply for a licence for waste disposal. However, prior to disposal. these

chemicals (e)

to. be stored in sealed containers in a designated area away from the main

plant.

. Containersthat contain llammablematerials(f)

be at least 100 metres from the building.

make any changes there.

11 Present air conditioning systems are adequate, so you (g)

11 Walls are (h)
to be keptclear
the walls dusted and cleaned.
11 The use of water fire extinguishers
near or on electrical equipment.

is still(j)

of dust, so we (i)
, but they are (k)

you to arrange to have

from use

81

'JIIIIII

Cause and effect

G)
...

A'
~. Sample sentences

r
3
3
r
...

We are going to convert the assembly line because we believe it will improve overall effectiveness.
Due to the frequent fauUs in finished products, we are going to install new machinery.
As a result of the high cost of local raw materials, we are going to start importing from China.
Plastics are a versatile family of materials; therefore they are suitable for a wide range of
packaging applications.
Since PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a clear, tough polymer, it is ideal for use in soft drink
bottles.

c:
(/)
(I)
(/)

'I

JlJ Form
l

Clausesof cause:

Rere a subordinatngconjunction linksthe effectand the cause:

Theautomotveindustry usesplastcsbecausethey are durable,resistant to corrosionandlightweight.
Rere are the other main subordinating conjunctions:
as

since

2 Phrasesof cause:
Rere an adverbphraseintroduces the cause:
Polystyrenemanufacturersphasedout the useof chloroj1uorocarbons(CFCs) in the late 1980s
because of concernsabout the ozonelayer.
Other expressions with a similar meaning are:

as a consequence of

due to

or account of

owingto

We always put a noun phrase after these expressions:

Because of the large number of back orders, we have put extra workers on the night shift. (not: eetmsenf th.~ mlmh.~r nf had, nrd;:rs is arae)

3 Sentence
connectors
of cause:
Rere a cause in one sentence is linked to an effect in the following sentence by a connector.
Themaintenanceteamare here;thereforewe'll needto shut down the machinery after this shift.

The connector'therefore' points backwards to the cause and forwards to the effect. Other
connecting words and expressions are:
accordiogly
hence

(formal)

..

as a consequeocejresult

becase of this

consequently

so .. that's why (informal) . tl;)at's (the reason) . therefore

thus (formal)

Uses
Look at the following dialogue which demonstrates the use of expressions of cause and effect:
~

Why are we reviewing our quality control practices?

Because management is thinking of introducing a zero defect production initiative.

So we are starting a project group to look at current practices in production.
So, that's why everyone has been called to the meeting.
We've scheduled a

meeting on

oewinitiative.

levels had increased.

82

but because of this

risen, too.

IID:JDI
~ -

~ .1-~

Match one part of a sentence from A and one ITomB to form sentences of cause and effect.
A

The reject rate has fallen

There is now a backlog of orders
They want to understand why customers
buy a product.
We have developed an improved product
Computer software has been made easier
to use

owing to extensive research and development.

due to more effective quality control.
Consequently, users can share files and
resources.
therefore, all workers should wear masks.
That's why they're studying customer
attitudes.
That's the reason he had an accident.

They have set up a computer network.

We are having to increase our prices
This is a very dusty environment,
He was not following safety regulations.

, - :i

G')
..
S
3
3
S
..

e
UJ
a>
UJ

as a result of machinery breakdowns.

so more people use computers daily.
as a consequence of increased carriage
charges.

The foIlowing sentences contain a mistake. Find the mistake and correct it.
1 Owing a danger of falling objects, workers must wear a hard hat.
2 The driver wasn't badly injured in the accident on account from the airbag.
3 The car is cheap but reliable and that's the result for its popularity.
4 The manufacture of paper uses bleach and other chemicals. Consequently of this, the waste
must be treated before it can be disposed of.
5 Due to oil is used in the manufacture of so many useful substances, it is avaluable raw material.
6 Optical fibres carry more information more quickly than copper wires, since copper wires are
being replaced by optical fibres.

Here is part of a dialogue between an architect and

someone who is interested in a local housing
development. Fill in the blanks with words ITom the boxo

result . becase (2) . why

consequence . due . account
consequently . reason . so

A: So, these are the finished plans for the housing development. The site was previously
used by heavy industry
of this we will have to remove a thick
layer of soil. As a (b)
of this, costs will be higher than expected. As far
as
concerned, the houses
all have a regular shape as you can
see here on
plan
of cost considerations.
Why does that affect cost?
A:

surface area of the walls, you'lI see that buildings with an irregular
shape
a greater surface area. As a (d)
required and, (e)
, it will cost more.

B: I see.

about the foundations?

the soH is very

sufficient.
will be wooden frame
houses can be erected very
B:

materials will be

That's

concrete foundations will be

the

externat wall cladding will also be made of wood.

damage the wood?

A: That's

'e will use pre-treated wood. As for the roofs - well,

planning regulations,
roofs will have to be made of blue
slate. It's the traditional stone fram this area and (j)
we have to

83

,...

4
Ci)

Ability and inability

AI! Sample sentences

..S
3
3
S
..

With the new version of Web Discoverer you can specifybetter search criteria.
Applications are computer programs and systems which enable people to interface with the
computer.
Anti-virus software is designed to prevent programs from damaging your data or halting
operations on your system.
You can't make this type of jacket out of wool. It'll crease too easily.
This cloth is capable of being dyed; but this one doesn't dye well.

cc
fi)

CD
fi)

-"

B>

Form
We can view the concepts of ability and inability in terms of:
1 making someone able or something possible
ThedatabaseaIIows you to searchfor client namesandaddresses.
2 being able
This newmonitor can display more than two million colours.
3

making someone unable or something impossible

The climate stops people fram wearing this type of heavy jacket

it's just too hot.

4 being unable

Youcan't press

this material with a hot iran as it is too senstve.

Let's look at the use of language for the concepts 1-4 above:

C'

1
make able
enable
allow

2
be able
can
abte to

3
make unable

permit

capable ot

prohibit
prevent
stop

4
be unable
cannot
not ablejunable to
incapable ot

Uses
Now look at the following short text which demonstrates the use of these verbs.
Now you can create your own website. So simple, anyone is capable ofproducing

a quality site in

minutes. You'll be ableto add graphics and photos. This new software allowsyou to work with all

typesof graphicfiles.The text editingfunction enablesyou to workdirectlyfromyour word

processar. Remember: only one registered user is permitted to use this software.
Note:

1 We use the infinitive with to after ablelunable, e.g.

You'll beabIe to add graphics and photos.
SyntheUc
fibreis unabIe to replacenatural fibre.
2 After capable/incapable
we useof + verb ing,e.g.
Anyone is capabIe of praducinga quality site in minutes.
Theyare incapabIe 01producing these shirts in a wider rangeof colours.

3 After prohibit,

prevent

Local regulaUons

and stop, we use the following constructions:

prevent/stop

us fram imporUng tee shirts fram certain countries.

(from +

verb...ing)
Local regulaUons prevent/prohibit
84

the importaUon of tee shirts from certain countries. (noun)

~
1,

Match one part of a sentence from A and one from B to form sentences of ability and inability.
A

Improving quality control will enable us

Shortage of space prevents us from
Regulations prohibit
A machine breakdown means that we can't

the storage of chemicals in plastic containers.

carrying the volume of data required today.
see the person you are talking to.
producing more product lines.
now be used to send emails.

G)
...
Q)
3
3
Q)
...

to become more profitable.

unauthorized users accessing a network.
finish the order this week.

e
fi)
CD
fi)

Oid copper cables are incapable of

Using a videophone allows you to
Mobile phones can
A firewall is used to stop

-~--2 There
l

is a mistake in each of the following sentences. Underline the mistake and correct it.

All unauthorized

personnel are prohibited to entering this area.

2 Building regulations do not allow of the use of asbestos in public buildings.

3 Only fully qualified electricians should be permitted repairing these appliances.
4 Deep pile foundations

are capable to support a high building.

S Water is unable to passing through the vapour barrier.

6 Designers can to design complex structures

using computer-aided

design tools.

7 Scientists are not yet able of curing cancer.

8 Aspirin is known to prevent people of having a heart attack.

Read the following extract from a brochure advertising car features. Look at the prompts in bold
and change them for a verb or verb phrase from the opposite page, changing the grammar to fit
the sentence.

ne feature common to all our models is

the airbag.
the driver is involved in a
crash, the airbag inflates and make unable
stops/preveots the driver or the passenger
hitting the steering
or front paneI.
It (a) make uoable serious injury.
The anti-Iock brake
equips the
vehicle with speed sensors. If a driver brakes
hard, this system(b) make unablewheellockup.
Valves control the brake pressure and (e) make
able the driver to steer the
safely.
All our models are fitted with disc brakes,
which means the car (d) be able operate more
efficiently in wet weather.
brakes also
(e) make able better performance
temperatures.
The catalytic converter is part
the car's
exhaust system and (f) make able the exhaust
gases to be converted into less harmflil

produets. With a catalyst the car (g) be able of

meeting
international pollution levels.
A very popular feature is four-wheel drive.
In this range of vehiclesthe driver (h) be able
select two
four wheel drive. Together with
these off-road tyres, the vehicle (i) be able
perform weB on rough ground.
But
you are more concerned about
economical driving, you may be interested in
the overdrive facility. Here the highest gear
ratio
less
a one-to-one ratio.
This (j) make able you to save fuel and as a
make uoable the engine wearing
The turbocharger forces more air into the
cylinderthan it can normallydraw and (I) make
able the engine to burn more fueI. As a result,
the car is capable of greater speed and faster
acceleration.

85

...

I
I

l-

""

Scale of lil(elihood
Ci)

..Q)
3
3
Q)
..
e

Sample sentences
The term engineering can have different meanings.
A scientist is unlikely to be able to solveengineering problems.
We are likelyto see significant advances in robotics in the coming years.
The generators and turbines are bound to use a lot of electrical power.
These rainproof seals can't possibly let water into the switchboard.

fi)

C'D
fi)
~

B,
",

Form and uses

If we consider that the scale of likelihood goes from 100% certainty to 0% certainty, we can
identify the following segments. (The numbers below are only a general indication. not exact
values. )
certainty (100%)
probability (75%)
possibility (50%)
improbability (25%)
impossibility (0%)
Now let's look at the language for each of these categories.

-~-

certainty

I am (absolutely) sure/certain/positive that power requirements will increase.

Power requirements will definitely/certainly increase.
Power requirements are certain/sure/bound to increase.

probability

It is (very) likely/probable that the pumps will use more electricity.

The pumps are (quite) likely to use more electricity.
They could use more electricity.

possibility

We may/might need more pumps on site.

improbability

It is
The
The
The

impossibility

I am sure/certain/positive
that power requirements won't increase.
Power requirements definitely/certainly won't increase.
Power requirements can't (possibly) increase.

(very/highly) unlikely/improbable that the pumps will use more electricity.

pumps probably won't use more electricity.
pumps are (quite) unlikelyto use more electricity.
pumps shouldn 't use more electricity.

Uses
1 DefinUely and certainly

Notice the position of the adverbs in certainty and impossibility:

We wiII definitelylcertainly
replace thefuses. (after wiII)
Thefuses definitelyl certainly won't fan. (before won't)
2 Likely and unIikely

These adjectives can take two constructions:

lt is likelylun1i1wly that the pumps wiII use more
The pumps are likelylun1i1wly

86

electricUy.

to use more electrCty.

(adjective

(adjective

to

+ that + clause)
+ infinitive)

3 May and might

Some speakers feel there is a slight difference in the strength of these two words:
We may need more pumps on sUe. (50% likelihood)
We might need more pumps on sUe. (45% likelihood)

HD:D
~

Put the following words in the correct order to form sentences.

1 The goods/ until next week/ won't /be delivered/ probably.
2 l'm/ these era tes/ sure/ are strong enough/ absolutely/ that.
3 The goods/ to remain in the warehouse/

G)

..
D)
3
3
D)
..

unlikely / for long/ are.

4 U/ take long/ to load the ship/ shouldn't.

5 They/ be sent by air freight/ won't/ definitely.
6 The goods/ in transiti bel for four days/ may.

e
fi)
(I)
fi)

7 They're/ the volume of imports/ quite/ to increase/ likely.

Rewrite the following sentences so that the meaning does not change. For example:
The local authorities probably won't accept the plans for a concrete arch bridge.
Thelocal authortes are unHkelyto accepttheplansfor a concretearch bridge.

1 l'm absolutely sure that there will be advances in heat-exchange technology.

2 U's unlikely that we will see more robots being used in the home in the next ten years.
3 Glass fibre optics will very probably be replaced by plastic in the near future.
4 Washing machines and dishwashers are certain to become more energy-efficient.
5 A mat foundation can't possibly support a high building.
6 We may need extra sound-deadening material in these walls.
7 They definitely won't want to use wood for the ceiling.
8 U is very probable that she's suffering from an allergy.
9 Research being carried out at the moment may help find a cure for cancer.
31

Complete the following text about future sources of energy by choosing a suitable verb or phrase
ITom the table in B on the opposite page. The figure in brackets indicates the likelihood.
t present most of the energy we use comes from oil and gas, and scientists are becoming
increasingly concemed about our future energy needs. Many scientists believe that fossil fuels are

(a) certain bound (100%) to run out by the middle of this century, while others think that they
are (b)
(e)

(75%) to run out before then. Whatever the time scale, fossil fuels
(100%) run out sooner or later, and we must consider altemative sources of energy.

In the short term, it (d)

(25%) that altemative energy will be able to supply the world's

needs, however, in the long term, our energy needs (e)

(0%) be met by fossil fuels.

The future of nuclear power is also uncertain. It (f)

public opinion is (g)

(50%) provi de enough power, but

(75%) to prevent any expansiono Some countries have promised

to stop nuclear power production but it seems increasingly (h)

(25%) that they will be

able to do so. Atomic power is considered much safer and we (i)

(50%) see an

expansion of this in the future. Altemative sources of energy are U)

but they (k)
thermal power will (I)

(100%) be one of our future sources, but no one is sure what

percentage it will provide. The US Department

(m)

of Energy thinks that solar power plants are

(75%) be able to produce electricity almost as cheaply as fossil fuel plants within

the next 50 years. However, due to global warming there (n)

pattem of sunshine as changes in climate are (o)
(50%) be more cloud in the future which is (q)
concentrat ors.

....

(100%) increase

(25%) won't provide 100% of our needs within the next 50 years. Solar

(50%) be changes in the

(75%). There (p)
(100%) to have a serious effect on solar

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