Consecutive Stability Constants in Solution

! In aqueous solution, formation of a complex generally proceeds by

steps involving displacement of water molecules in the first hydration
sphere.
! Equilibrium constants K1, K2, ..., Kn associated with addition of each
ligand are called consecutive stability constants.
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + NH3 [Cu(NH3)(H2O)5]2+ + H2O
[Cu(NH3)(H2O)5]2+ + NH3 [Cu(NH3)2(H2O)4]2+ + H2O
[Cu(NH3)2(H2O)4]2+ + NH3 [Cu(NH3)3(H2O)3]2+ + H2O
[Cu(NH3)3(H2O)3]2+ + NH3 [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ + H2O

K1 = 2 x 10+4
K2 = 4 x 10+3
K3 = 1 x 10+3
K4 = 2 x 10+2

! Successive stability constants decline through the series, such that K1 >
K2 > ... > Kn.
In the first step there are six sites for NH3 substitution, but in the
reverse step there is only one site for H2O substitution; K1 % 6/1 .
In the second step there are five sites for NH3 substitution, but in the
reverse step there are two sites for H2O substitution; K2 % 5/2.
By similar reasoning we predict K3 % 4/3 and K4 % 3/4.
Ratio

Predicted

Observed

K1/K2 (6/1)/(5/2) = 2.40

K2/K3 (5/2)/(4/3) = 1.87

K3/K4 (4/3)/(3/4) = 1.78

Agreement between predicted and observed ratios is remarkably

good, considering that predictions are based only on statistical
factors.
T Statistical factors appear to be the main cause of the trend.

Cumulative Stability Constant

! The product of consecutive stability constants is the cumulative stability
constant, n.

When the overall equilibrium lies to the right the product complex is
said to be stable.
When the overall equilibrium lies to the left the product complex is
said to be unstable.
Example: [Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4NH3 [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ + 4H2O
4 = (2 x 10+4)(4 x 10+3)(1 x 10+3)(2 x 10+2) = 1.6 x 10+16
K

[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ is a very stable complex.

Stable/Unstable and Labile/Inert

! "Stable" and "unstable" refer to the thermodynamics of complex
formation (e.g., K, ).
! "Labile" and "inert" refer to the kinetics of complex formation.
! A complex whose formation equilibria are established rapidly is labile.
! A complex whose formation equilibria are established slowly is inert.
Example: [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ has a large 4 and its equilibria are
established rapidly; therefore, the complex is stable and labile.
L

As a "rule of thumb", if the half-life of a complex in a substitution

reaction is less than one minute, it is labile.1

H. Taube, Chem. Rev., 1952, 50, 69.

Stability Constants and Thermodynamic State Functions

! The stability constant for a complex is related to G, H, and S of its
formation by
G = RT lnn = H TS
! The larger n is, the more negative (favorable) G will be.
! Entropy plays an important role.
The more positive S is, the more negative G will be, and the
greater n will be.
Entropy is largely responsible for the greater stability constants
observed for chelates, compared to complexes of unidentate ligands
with the same metal ion.

Chelate Effect - Entropy Factors

! The chelate effect is the name given to the general observation that
chelate complexes have higher stability constants compared to similar
unidentate ligand complexes.
Example:

[Cd(NH2CH3)4]2+ vs. [Cd(en)2]2+

[Cd(H2O)6]2+ + 4NH2CH3 [Cd(H2O)2(NH2CH3)4]2+ + 4H2O log4 = 6.6

[Cd(H2O)6]2+ + 2en [Cd(H2O)2(en)2]2+ + 4H2O
log2 = 10.6
T

T
T
T
K

For both, H should be about the same, because the enthalpy change
is due mainly to the change in bond strengths between CdO and
CdN, so the difference in values must be due principally to
entropy differences.
For [Cd(NH2CH3)4]2+, the reaction equation has equal numbers of
particles on both sides (5), so S . 0.
For [Cd(en)2]2+, there are three (3) particles on the left and five (5) on
the right, so S > 0.
The greater positive entropy change for formation of the chelate
complex results in a more negative G and a larger value.
In general, chelates have an entropy advantage over similar
unidentate ligands.

Chelate Effect - Kinetic Factors

! We can make a mechanistic argument for the chelate effect by
comparing the following idealized mechanisms and the associated rate
constants for each step.
T

Unidentate case:

M+L

ka
kb

ML + L
T

Chelate case:

M + LL

MLL

kc
kd

ML
ML2
k'a
k'b
k'c
k'd

MLL

L
L

For the first step in each case we can predict ka . k'a and kb . k'b.

But for the second steps

kc < k'c random vs. directed second substitution
kd $ k'd chelate bond breaking same or harder

Stability constants are defined in terms of the rate constants as

From the relationships among the k values, uni < chel.

In general, chelates have a kinetic advantage over comparable
unidentate ligands.

Labile vs. Inert

! Stable/unstable are thermodynamic terms, and labile/inert are kinetic
terms, which can be applied in all possible combinations to various
complexes.
T

[Co(NH3)6]3+ is unstable with respect to aquation but inert.

3+

[Co(NH3)6] + 6H3O
T

slow

[Co(H2O)6]3+ + 6NH4+

K . 10+25

[Ni(CN)4]2 is stable with respect to exchange with labeled CN but

labile because the equilibrium is established quickly.
2

[Ni(CN)4] + CN*

fast

[Ni(CN)3CN*]2 + CN

K . 1022

! Most first-row transition metal complexes are labile, but

Cr3+ (d 3, S = 3/2) and low-spin Co3+ (d 6, S = 0) are usually inert.
! Inert octahedral complexes tend to be those with highest CFSE; viz., d 3,
low-spin d 4 d 6.
ML6 complexes of both d 3 (4A2g) and low-spin d 6 (1A1g) are immune
from Jahn-Teller distortions and therefore can be perfect Oh.
ML6 d 3 has CFSE = (6/5)o and low-spin d 6 has CFSE = (12/5)o
+ 3P.
! d 7 d 10, with filling of eg* levels, are labile.
These configurations tend to have large Jahn-Teller distortions and/or
low CFSEs.
d 7, d 9, and d 10 cases are more labile than d 8.
d 8 has a 3A2g ground state, which is immune to Jahn-Teller distortion.
With strong-field ligands, d 8 may be square planar, often being inert.

Substitution Mechanisms
! Ligand substitutions follow the general stoichiometry
ML5X + Y ML5Y + X
! Kinetic studies of the rates of such reactions provide data that suggest
the detailed mechanisms by which substitution occurs.
! Two extreme models can be postulated:
dissociation (D)
association (A).

Dissociation Mechanism (D) SN1

ML5X

k1
k-1

ML5 + X
ML5 + Y

fast
k2

ML5Y

slow

Rate = k2[ML5][Y]
! The rate-determining step involves addition of Y to a CN5 intermediate
formed by a rapid equilibrium in the first step.
! Assuming a steady state in [ML5], we can write
= 0 = k1[ML5X] k1[ML5][X] k2[ML5][Y]
! Solving for [ML5], we have

! Substituting into Rate = k2[ML5][Y] gives

! If product formation is fast (k2 >> k1), or if the system has very large
[Y] (>>[X]), then rate becomes first-order in [ML5X]; i.e.,
Rate . k1[ML5X]
! Thus, the SN1 mechanism is first-order in [ML5X].

Association Mechanism (A) SN2

ML5X + Y

k1
k-1

ML5XY
ML5XY

fast
k2

ML5Y + X

slow

Rate = k2[ML5XY]
! Applying a steady-state approximation for [ML5XY] we have
= 0 = k1[ML5X][Y] k1[ML5XY] k2[ML5XY]
! Solving for [ML5XY] we obtain

! Substituting into Rate = k2[ML5XY] gives

where k = k1k2/(k1 + k2).

! Thus, the SN2 mechanism is second-order overall; i.e., first-order in
[ML5X] and first-order in [Y].

Interchange Mechanism (I)

! It is too simplistic to assume that a first-order rate law implies D (SN1)
and a second-order rate law implies A (SN2).
Most substitution reactions probably involve a mechanism that is
intermediate between these extremes, a mechanism called
interchange (I).
! In an interchange mechanism the intermediate involves an association
between the original ML5X complex and the attacking Y ligand.
The Y ligand remains outside the coordination sphere of ML5X,
unlike the SN2 mechanism, so the intermediate is not seven
coordinate.
L
L

L
M

Y
L

ML5X + Y

k1
k-1

ML5XY
ML5XY

fast
k2

ML5Y + X

slow

! It can be shown2 that the rate is given by

where [ML5X]o and [Y]o are initial concentrations.

At high [Y], [Y] . [Y]o and k1N[Y]o >> 1, and the rate is first-order in
[ML5X].
At lower [Y] the rate is second order.

Miessler & Tarr, 3rd ed., p. 418.

Variations on I
! Two minor variations on the I mechanism are Id (dissociative
interchange) and Ia (associative interchange) interchange.
! If breaking the MX bond is more important, the mechanism is Id.
! If bond formation between ML5X and Y is significant, the mechanism is
Ia.
! Difference between Id and Ia is subtle and does not necessarily
correspond to whether the observed rate law is first or second order.

Substitution Reactions in Solvent Water

! Many substitution reactions occurring in solvent water may have firstorder kinetics regardless of whether their initial steps are primarily D or
A.
For example, this occurs if aquation is a precursor rate determining
step.
ML5X + H2O

D or A

ML5(H2O) + X
ML5(H2O) + Y ML5Y + H2O

slow
fast

If D, Rate = k[ML5X].
If A, Rate = k[ML5X][H2O], but with solvent water [H2O] is constant
and Rate = kN[ML5X].
L

Both mechanisms lead to apparent first-order kinetics in solvent

water.

Factors Favoring D or Id
! For most octahedral complexes, steric factors inhibit formation of a
CN7 intermediate, which suggests a dissociative mechanism (D or Id) is
more plausible.
Even cases showing second-order kinetics may not be A for this
reason.
! For example, aquation of the ammine-halide complexes [Co(NH3)5X]2+
is second order with a first-order dependence in [OH].
Although this might suggest A, that appears unlikely.
[Co(NH3)5X]2+ + H2O [Co(NH3)5(H2O)]3+ + X
Rate = k1 [Co(NH3)5X2+] + k2 [Co(NH3)5X2+][OH]
If k2 >> k1 the rate is approximately Rate . k2 [Co(NH3)5X]2+[OH].
From the second-order kinetics, this appears to be A, but it is more
likely an alternative mechanism called SN1CB, where "CB" stands for
"conjugate base."

SN1CB Mechanism
! The postulated SN1CB mechanism involves the following steps:
2+

[Co(NH3)5X] + OH
[Co(NH3)4(NH2)X]+

D
slow

[Co(NH3)4(NH2)]2+ + H2O
[Co(NH3)4(OH)]2+ + H+

[Co(NH3)4(NH2)X]+ + H2O
[Co(NH3)4(NH2)]2+ + X
fast

fast

[Co(NH3)4(OH)]2+ + NH3
[Co(NH3)5(H2O)]3+

! The second step, which is rate determining, is D (SN1), for which

But

Rate = k [Co(NH3)4(NH2)X+]

(No [H2O] because water is solvent.)

Solving K gives
[Co(NH3)4(NH2)X+] = K [Co(NH3)5X2+][OH]
Substituting into the expression for Rate gives
Rate = kK [Co(NH3)5X2+][OH]
L

This is the same as the observed rate

Rate = k1 [Co(NH3)5X2+] + k2 [Co(NH3)5X2+][OH]
when k2 >> k1; i.e.,
Rate = k2 [Co(NH3)5X2+][OH]

! Although steric factors favor D-type mechanisms for octahedral

complexes, square planar ML4 complexes are not so inhibited.
For square planar ML4 complexes, an associative (A) mechanism, in
which a CN5 intermediate is formed, is plausible.

Trans Effect
! Substitution of square planar complexes, such as PtLX3, leads to a
mixture of trans and cis isomers.

X
L Pt Y

X
L Pt X
X

+ Y-

X
X

+ X-

L Pt X
Y

! The rate law is

Rate = k1[PtLX3] + k2[PtLX3][Y]

k2 > k1

Suggests two paths, where the first term may be pseudo-first-order

due to excess solvent acting as an attacking group.
! The ratio of trans and cis isomers is found to vary with the ability of L
to act as a trans-directing ligand.
! The increasing order of trans-directing ability is
H2O < OH < py . NH3 < Cl < Br < I < NO2 < PR3 . SH2
<< CO . C2H4 . CN
! The effect is kinetic rather than thermodynamic.
! Two factors are cited to explain the effect:
Weakening of the PtX bond trans to the directing ligand;
Stabilization of the presumed CN5 intermediate.

M-X Bond Weakening

! For ligands at the left of the series, weakening of the trans PtX bond
may be most important.
! The trans-directing ligand polarizes the metal ion, inducing a slight
repulsion for the leaving ligand in the trans position.

X
L

+ Pt X +
X

weakened by induced repulsion

! The more polarizable the L ligand, the better trans-director it is; e.g.,
I > Br > Cl.

-Acceptor Ligands
! The strongest trans-directors are good -acceptor ligands; e.g., CO,
C2H4, CN.
! Assuming an A (SN2) mechanism, substitution involves a trigonal
bipyramidal transition state.
! The trans intermediate (activated complex) is more favorable for acceptor ligands, because it permits -delocalization in the trigonal
plane.
Stabilizing the reaction intermediate lowers the activation energy, Ea,
for the reaction.
In the cis intermediate, L lies above the trigonal plane, which
decreases its ability to stabilize the activated complex through
delocalization.

X
L Pt X + YX

trans
cis

X
L Pt
X

X
Y

Y X
L Pt X
X

Synthetic Use of the Trans Effect

! The synthetic utility of the trans effect can be illustrated by the selective
production of cis or trans Pt(NH3)2Cl2, using the greater trans-directing
ability of Cl relative to NH3.
To make cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2, start with [PtCl4]2:

Cl
Cl

Pt Cl

Cl
NH3

Cl

Cl

NH3

Cl

Pt NH3
Cl

Cl

In the second step, the greater trans-directing ability of Cl causes

preferential substitution of NH3 in the trans position to one of the
existing Cl ligands, resulting in the cis isomer.
To make trans-Pt(NH3)2Cl2, start with [Pt(NH3)4]2+:
NH3

H3N Pt NH3
NH3

Pt NH3

NH3

NH3
Cl

H3N Pt Cl
NH3

NH3
Cl

Cl

Pt Cl
NH3

In the second step, the greater trans-directing ability of Cl causes

preferential substitution of Cl in the trans position to the first Cl,
resulting in the trans isomer.

Electron Transfer Reactions

Outer Sphere Mechanism
! Transition-metal complexes can engage in redox reactions with one
another, primarily by one of two mechanisms: outer-sphere and innersphere.
! In an outer-sphere reaction the coordination spheres of the reacting
complexes remain intact.
Outer-sphere reactions are extremely fast.
Redox occurs before ligand substitution can take place.
[FeII(CN)6]4 + [IrIVCl6]2 [FeIII(CN)6]3 + [IrIIICl6]3
inert
inert

Example:

! As the charge on the metal increases, the ML bond distance decreases.

The effect is most pronounced when electrons are removed from an
eg* MO; e.g.,
Co2+ (t2g5eg2) Co3+ (t2g6) + e
high-spin
low-spin
long ML
shorter ML
Electron loss from eg* stabilizes the complex.
L

The outer-sphere mechanism is certain to be the correct one when

both species participating in the reaction undergo ligand-exchange
reactions more slowly than they participate in the electron transfer
process.3

F. A. Cotton, G. Wilkinson, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed., Wiley, NY, 1980, p.

1206.

Electron Transfer Reactions

Inner Sphere Mechanism
! Inner-sphere mechanisms generally proceed in three steps:

Substitution resulting in two complexes being linked through a

bridging ligand.

Electron transfer, sometimes with ligand transfer.

Separation of products.

! This is sometimes called a ligand-bridged mechanism, because of the

formation of the bridged intermediate.
K

Inner-sphere mechanism requires that one of the participating species

have a ligand capable of functioning as a bridge.
For example, H2O and NH3 cannot function as bridging ligands,
but Cl and CN can.

! Inner-sphere redox is slower than outer-sphere.

Example of Inner Sphere Redox

+

[CrII(H2O)6]2+ + [CoIII(NH3)5Cl]2+

H /H2O
+

NH4

d4 high spin (labile) d6 low spin (inert)

[CrIII(H2O)5Cl]2+ + [CoII(H2O)6]2+
d3 (inert)

d7 high spin (labile)

Mechanism:
[CrII(H2O)6]2+ + [CoIII(NH3)5Cl]2+ [(H2O)5CrII@@@Cl@@@CoIII(NH3)5]4+ + H2O
e transfer

[(H2O)5CrIII@@@Cl@@@CoII(NH3)5]4+
[(H2O)5CrIII@@@Cl@@@CoII(NH3)5]4+ + H2O [CrIII(H2O)5Cl]2+ + [CoII(NH3)5(H2O)]2+
Co(II) complexes are labile, so [CoII(NH3)5(H2O)]2+ undergoes rapid aquation:
[CoII(NH3)5(H2O)]2+ + 5H2O [CoII(H2O)6]2+ + 5NH3

This reaction cannot be explained as an outer-sphere mechanism

followed by Cl substitution, because adding labeled Cl* to the
solution yields no labeled product.
This is expected, because all Cr(III) complexes are inert to
substitution.