EE301 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT

Oscillators
2.0

Introduction
An oscillator is an electronic circuit which generates an alternating voltage.
The circuit is supplied energy from D.C source. Oscillator is an electronic device
which generates an ac signal with required frequency, amplitude and wave
shape.
Oscillators have variety of applications. An oscillator generates low
frequency and very high frequencies which may range from few Hz to several
MHz. In radio and television receivers, oscillators are used to generate high
frequency carrier signals. Oscillators are widely used in radars, electronic
equipments and other electronic devices.
Oscillators are broadly classified into two types. They are
i)

Sinusoidal oscillators
The sinusoidal oscillators are used for generating only sinusoidal
signals with required frequency and required amplitude.

ii)

Non-sinusoidal oscillators (Relaxation oscillators)

The non-sinusoidal oscillators are used for producing nonsinusoidal signals like square, rectangular, triangular or sawtooth
signals with required amplitude and frequency.

2.1

Understand Sinusoidal Oscillator Circuits And

State Their Characteristics.
The name sinusoidal oscillator itself indicates the meaning that this
oscillator produces sine wave output. For any type of circuit to behave as an
oscillator, first it must satisfy the necessary and sufficient condition which is
mentioned in the previous section. Depending upon the variation in the output
waveform amplitude, there are two types of oscillations.

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1.

Damped
Damped oscillations: Oscillations, whose amplitude goes on
decreasing or increasing continuously with time, are called damped
oscillations.
If amplitude of oscillations is decreasing continuously, it is known
as underdamped as shown in figure 1. Where if amplitude of
oscillations is increasing continuously, it is known as overdamped
shown in figure 2.

Figure 2.1: Underdamped

2.

Figure 2.2: Overdamped

Undamped or (sustained)
Undamped oscillations: Oscillations, whose amplitude remains
constant with
time, are called undamped oscillations or sustain
osillations. The figure show in figure 3 below.

Figure 2.3: Undamped

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Practical Oscillators
In practice, to obtain the sustained oscillations at desired frequency
of oscillations, oscillator circuit must satisfy some of the basic
requirements such as,

i)
ii)

Circuit must have positive feedback

When positive feedback is used in the circuit, the overall circuit
gain is given by,

This equation indicates that if A is equal to 1 only then overall

gain becomes infinity. This means, there is output without any external
input. In reality, to get sustained oscillations, at the first time when the
circuit is turned on, the loop gain must be slightly greater than one. This
will ensure that oscillations build up in the circuit. However, once a
suitable level of output voltage is reached, the loop gain must decrease
automatically to unity. Only then the circuit maintains the sustained
oscillation. Otherwise, the circuit operates as over damped. This can be
achieved in the circuit either by decreasing amplifier gain A or decreasing
the feedback gain .

2.1.1 Draw block diagram of an oscillator.

The basic concept of an oscillator is illustrated in figure 4. Essentially, an
oscillator converts electrical energy in the form of dc to electrical energy in the
form of ac. The difference between positive feedback amplifier and oscillator is
that, in oscillator, there is no need of external input signal. To start the
oscillations, output signal must be fed back in proper magnitude and phase.

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Figure 2.4: Block Diagram of an oscillator

2.1.2 EXPLAIN REQUIREMENTS OF OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS.

Two conditions are required for a sustained state of oscillation:
1.
2.

The phase shift around the feedback loop must be 0 (or 360)
The voltage gain Acl, around the closed feedback loop (loop gain)
must equal 1(unity).

The voltage gain around the closed feedback loop (Acl) is the product of
the amplifier gain (Av) and the attenuation (B) of the feedback circuit. Therefore
Acl = (Av)B. For example the amplifier have gain of 100, the feedback circuit
must have an attenuation of 0.01 to make the loop gain equal to 1.

The Barkhausen Criterion states that:

1.

The total phase shift around a loop as the signal proceeds

from input through amplifier, feedback network back to
input again, completing a loop is precisely 0 or 360.

2.

The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the

amplifier (A) and the magnitude of the feedback factor is
unity i.e A = 1.

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2.2 Know Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator

There are three basic types of oscillators such as RC oscillator, LC
oscillator and crystal oscillator.
1. RC oscillators:
They use a resistance-Capacitance network to determine the oscillator
frequency. They are suitable for low (audio range) and moderate frequency
applications (5Hz to 1MHz). They are further divided as,
a. RC phase shift oscillator
b. Wien bridge oscillator and
c. Twin-T oscillator
2. LC oscillators:
Here, inductors and capacitors are used either in series or parallel to
determine the frequency. They are more suitable for radio frequency (1 to 500
MHz) and further classified as,
a.
b.
c.
d.

Hartley
Colpitts
Clapp and
Armstrong oscillators

3. Crystal oscillator:
Like LC oscillators it is suitable for radio frequency applications. But it has
very high degree of stability and accuracy as compared to other oscillators.

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2.2.1 Construct The Following Oscillator Circuits :

a. Hartley Oscillator

Figure 2.5: Hartley Oscillator

b. Colpitts Oscillator

Figure 2.6: Colpitts Oscillator

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c. Phase Shift (RC) Oscillator

Figure 2.7: Phase Shift (RC) Oscillator

d. Crystal Oscillator

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Figure 2.8: Crystal Oscillator

e. Amstrong

Figure 2.9: Amstrong Oscillator

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2.2.2 Explain the operation of each oscillator.

a.

Hartley Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator is a L.C oscillator. It is uses tapped inductor coil.
Circuit diagram of Hartley oscillator using N-P-N transistor is illustrated in
Figure 2.5. This oscillator contains a CE amplifier, feedback network and a
tank circuit made up of L1, L2 and C. The resistor R1 and R2 provide
necessary bias to the amplifier. The capacitor C1 and C0 are used to block
the D.C components. The capacitor CE is a bypass capacitor. The resistor
RE provides negative feedback to the amplifier to improve its stability. The
RF choke (RFC) provides a path for collector bias current but offers high
impedance for oscillating signal.
Principal of operation
When the supply is turned ON, the capacitor C is charged. When
this capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through the coils L1 and L2
setting up an oscillation. The output voltage of the amplifier appears
across L1 and the feedback voltage appears across L2. The voltage across
L2 is 180 out of phase with the output voltage. It is the feedback signal. A
phase shift of another 180 is produced by CE amplifier. Hence the total
phase shift between input and output is 180 + 180 = 360. This results in
positive feedback which makes the oscillation as continuous undamped.
The frequency of the oscillation is given by, f =

1
2 LeqC

where Leq = L1 + L2.

If there exists mutual inductance M between two inductors, it must
be considered while calculating equivalent inductor.
Therefore Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
Hartley Oscillators are widely used in the radio receivers as local
oscillator.

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LC oscillator using 2 inductors and 1 capacitor in the

tank circuit is called Hartley Oscillator.
The frequency of oscillations is,

f=

1
2 LeqC

, where Leq = L1 + L2

If L1 and L2 are wound on same core, mutual inductance M must be

considered. Then,
Leq = L1 + L2 2M
+ve sign is used for series aiding while ve sign for series opposition
connection of winding

b.

Colpitts Oscillator

The Colpitts oscillator is same as Hartley oscillator. The circuit

diagram of colpitts oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.6. the major
difference between the two is that the colpitts oscillator uses a tapped
capacitor whereas the Hartley oscillator uses a tapped inductor.
The tank circuit is made up of C1, C2 and L. The resistors R1 and R2
provide proper bias and RE with CE provides stabilization. The RF choke
(RFC) gives high impedance for high frequency oscillating signal.
The frequency of the oscillation is given by f =
Where Ceq =
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1
2 LCeq

C1.C 2
C1 C 2
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Principal of operation
When the supply is turned ON, the capacitor C1 and C2 are
charged. Then these capacitors discharged through the coil L. So
oscillations are produced. The oscillations across C2 are applied to the
input of the CE amplifier. The amplified output is available at the collector
terminal of the transistor.
The amount of feedback depends upon the capacitance values of
C1 and C2. The capacitor feedback circuit provides 180 phase shift. The
transistor amplifier (CE) provides another 180 phase shift, which provides
positive feedback. Therefore continuous undamped oscillation is
produced.
The Colpitts oscillator is very commonly used as local oscillator in
superheterodyne radio receiver.
LC oscillator using C1, C2 and L in the tank circuit is
called Colpitts oscillator.
The frequency of oscillations is,

c.

Phase Shift (RC) Oscillator

The RC oscillators produce good frequency stability signal ang also

operate at very low frequencies. The circuit diagram of RC phase shift
oscillator is shown in Figure 2.7. The oscillator consists of three stages of
RC networks (R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3). The resistor R5 provides bias and RE
with CE provides stabilization.

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The frequency of the oscillation is given by

f=

1
2RC 6

Principal of operation
When the supply is ON, the random variations of base current
caused by noise variations in the transistor and voltage variations in the
power source produce oscillation. The variation is amplified by the CE
amplifier.
The feedback network consists of three stages of RC networks.
The three stages are identical. The feedback section provides 180 phase
shift because each RC network provides 60 phase shift (3 x 60 = 180).
The CE amplifier provides another 180 phase shift. Hence the total phase
shift is 360, which provides positive feedback. Therefore continous
undamped oscillation is produced.

R-C Oscillators are used for low frequency range called audio
frequency range.

It uses op-amp in inverting mode which introduces 180

phase shift between input and output.

The feedback network has 3 R-C sections, each adjusted for

60 phase shift. Hence total phase shift due to feedback
network is 180.

Hence total phase shift around a loop is 180 + 180 = 360

To satisfy A 1, the gain of op-amp circuit A 29

The frequency oscillation is given by

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d.

Crystal Oscillator
Principal of operation
The circuit diagram of crystal oscillator is illustrated in Figure 2.8.
The natural frequency of the LC circuit is made nearly equal to the natural
frequency of the crystal. When the supply is switched ON, the capacitor C 1
is going to charged. When the capacitor C1 is fully charged, it discharges
through crystal which produces oscillation.
The frequency of the oscillation depends upon the values of C1,
C2, and the RLC equivalent values of crystal. If the frequency of the
oscillationis equal to its crystal resonant frequency, the circuit produces
more stable oscillation. The crystal frequency is independent of
temperature.
The C2 feedback network provides 180 phase shift, and alsi the
CE amplifier provides another 180phase shift. Hence the total phase shift
is 360, which provides positive feedback. Therefore continous undamped
oscillation is produced. A crystal oscillator always generates high
frequency oscillations range from 20KHz to 20MHz.

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e.

Amstrong Oscillator
The armstrong oscillator is used to produce a sine-wave output of
constant amplitude and of fairly constant frequency within the RF range. It
is generally used as a local oscillator in receivers, as a source in signal
generators, and as a radio-frequency oscillator in the medium- and highfrequency range.
The identifying characteristics of the Armstrong oscillator are that:
a.
b.
c.

It uses an LC tuned circuit to establish the frequency of

oscillation,
Feedback is accomplished by mutual inductive coupling
between the tickler coil and the LC tuned circuit.
It uses a class C amplifier with self-bias. Its frequency is
fairly stable, and the output amplitude is relatively constant.

The armstrong oscillator uses transformer coupling for the feedback

signal. The secondary winding is also called tickler coil, because it
feedbacks the signal that sustains the oscillations. The LC tank circuit is
driven by the collector. The feedback signal is taken from the small
secondary winding and feedback to the base. There is a phase shift of
180 in the transformer. If the loading effect of the base is ignored, the
M
feedback fraction is =
, where M is the mutual inductance and L is
L
the inductance of the primary winding. Here the voltage gain must be
1
greater than
for starting the oscillations.

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2.2.3 Determine the oscillation frequency by using the formula:

a.

Hartley Oscillator
Example 1:
Calculate the frequency of oscillations of a Hartley oscillator having
L1=0.5mH, L2 = 1mH and C = 0.2F
Solution:
The given values are,
L1 = 0.5mH, L2 = 1mH, C = 0.2F
Formula :

f=

1
2 LeqC

where

Leq = L1 + L2 = 0.5m + 1m = 1.5mH

Therefore

f=

1
2 1.5 x10 3 x0.2 x10 6

= 9.19 kHz

Example 2:
In a transistorized Hartley oscillator the two inductances are 2mH and
20H while the frequency is to be change 950 kHz to 2050 kHz. Calculate
the range over which the capacitor is to be varied.
Solution:
The frequency is given by,

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f=

1
2 LeqC

where

Leq = L1 + L2 = 2m + 20 = 0.00202

For

f = fmax = 2050kHz

2050x103 =
Therefore

2 0.00202 xC
C = 2.98pF

For

f = fmin = 950kHz
950x103 =

Therefore

2 0.00202 xC
C = 13.89pF

Hence C must be varied from 2.98pF to 13.89pF, to get the required

frequency variation.

Self Review Questions

1. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of Hartley Oscillator.
2. A Hartley oscillator circuit has L1 =L2 =100H. The frequency of
oscillations required is 50kHz. Calculate value of the capacitance required.
(Ans: 0.0507F)
3. Find the operating frequency of a Hartley oscillator if L1=0.1mH, L2=1mH
and C=200pF.
(Ans: 339.32kHz)
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations of Hartley oscillator having
L1=0.5m, L2=1mH and C=0.22F.
(Ans: 8.761kHz)

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b.

Colpitts
Example 1:
By referring to the Colpitts oscillator circuit shown in the figure 3 below:
i. What is approximate frequency?
ii. What will be the new frequency if the value of L is doubled?

Solution:
i.
f=

where

1
2 CeqL

Ceq =

C1xC 2
= C1= C2 = 0.001F
C1 C 2

0.001x10 6 x0.001x10 6
Ceq =
= 5 x 10-10F
0.001x10 6 0.001x10 6
L = 5F

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Therefore

ii.

f=

1
2 5 x10 10 x5

= 3.183MHz

Now L is double, therefore L = 10H

f

2 5 x10 10 x10

= 2.25MHz

New frequency = 2 x 3.183 = 6.366MHz

6.366x106 =

1
2 5 x10 10 xL

Therefore L = 1.25H

Example 2:

Design the value of an inductor to be used in Colpitts oscillator to generate

a frequency of 10 MHz. The circuit is used a value of C1 = 100 pF and C2
= 50 pF.
Solution:
Given, C1 = 100 pF, C2 = 50pF, f = 10MHz, L =?
Ceq =

100 px50 p
C1xC 2
=
= 33.33pF
C1 C 2 100 p 50 p

10M

Therefore L =

1
2 CeqL
1
2 33.33 pxL

7.6H

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Self Review Questions

1. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of Colpitts Oscillator.
2. In a Colpitts oscillator, L = 100H, C1 = 0.005F and C2 = 0.01F. Calculate
the frequency of oscillation generated.
(Ans: 275.67 kHz)
3. In a Colpitts oscillator , C1 = C2 = 500pF and L = 1mH. Calculate the
frequency of oscillation generated.
(Ans: 318.31 kHz)
4. Determine the oscillaton frequency of Colpitts oscillator if the tank circuit
parameters are: C1 = 750pF, C2 = 2500pF and L = 40H
(Ans: 1.048 MHz)

c.

Phase Shift (RC)

Example 1:
In a RC phase shift oscillator, the phase shift network uses the resistances
each of 4.7k and that capacitors each of 0.47F. Find the frequency of
oscillations.
Solution:
The given values are, R = 4.7k and C = 0.47F
1
1
f=
=
= 29.413 Hz
2 6 RC 2 6 x 4.7kx0.47u
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Example 2:
Design R-C phase shift oscillator using op-amp for frequency of 900 kHz.
Solution:
Let
Therefore

f = 900 kHz
C = 1pF
1
f =
2 6 RC
900k =

Therefore

1
2 6 Rx1 p

= 72.194 k

The gain of op-amp must be 29.

Rf
29
R1
Therefore
Rf = 29 R1
By choosing R1= 1k
Rf = 29 k
Hence the designed circuit is shown in the figure 4 below.

Figure 4: Designed circuit.

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Example 3:
Estimate the values of R and C for an output frequency of 1kHz in a RC
phase shift oscillator.
Solution:
Given:

f = 1kHz

Now

f=

Choose

2 6 RC
C = 0.1F

Therefore

1k =

2 6 Rx 0.1u
R = 649.747 680

Example 4:
In R-C phase shift oscillator R = 5000 and C = 0.1F. Calculate the
frequency of oscillations.
Solution:
1
1
f=
=
=129.949 Hz
2 6 RC 2 6 x5000 x0.1

Self Review Questions

1. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of RC phase shift.
2. What is the expression for the frequency of a RC phase shift oscillator?
State the op-amp gain required for the oscillations.

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d.

Crystal
Example 1:
A crystal has L =0.1 H, C = 0.01 pF, R = 10k and C M=1pF. Find the
series resonance and Q factor.
Solution:
fs =

Q=

1
2 LC

sL
R

1
2 0.1x0.01x10 12

= 5.032 MHz

2fsL 2x5.032 x10 6 x0.1

316.22
R
10 x10 3

Example 2:
A crystal has the following parameters:
L = 0.5H, Cs = 0.06pF, Cp=1pF and R=5k. Find the series and parallel
resonant frequencies and Q-factor of the crystal.
Solution:
a)

The series resonant frequency of the crystal is

fs =

1
2 LCs

1
2 0.5 x0.06 x10 12

= 918.9kHz

Q-factor of the crystal at

sL

2fsL 2x918.9 x10 3 x0.5

577
fs =
R
R
5 x10 3
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b)

The parallel resonant frequencu of the crystal is

fr =

1
2

1.06 x10 12
946kHz
0.5 x0.06 x10 12 x1x10 12

Cs Cp
1

LCsCp 2

Q-factor of the crystal at fp =

pL
R

2fpL 2x946 x10 3 x0.5

594
R
5 x10 3

2.2.3 Determine The Effect Of Varying The Values Of The L And C To

The Oscillation Frequency.

Effect of Frequency on Inductive Reactance

In an a.c. circuit, an inductor produces inductive reactance which causes
the current to lag the voltage by 90 degrees. Because the inductor "reacts" to a
changing current, it is known as a reactive component. The opposition that an
inductor presents to a.c. is called inductive reactance (XL). This opposition is
caused by the inductor "reacting" to the changing current of the a.c. source. Both
the inductance and the frequency determine the magnitude of this reactance.
This relationship is stated by the formula:

As shown in the equation, any increase in frequency, or "f," will cause a

corresponding increase of inductive reactance, or "XL." Therefore, the
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE VARIES DIRECTLY WITH THE FREQUENCY. As
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you can see, the higher the frequency, the greater the inductive reactance; the
lower the frequency, the less the inductive reactance for a given inductor. This
relationship is illustrated in figure 5. Increasing values of XL are plotted in terms
of increasing frequency. Starting at the lower left corner with zero frequency, the
inductive reactance is zero.
As the frequency is increased (reading to the right), the inductive
reactance is shown to increase in direct proportion.
.

Figure 5 - Effect of frequency on inductive reactance

Effect of Frequency on Capacitive Reactance

In an a.c. circuit, a capacitor produces a reactance which causes the
current to lead the voltage by 90 degrees. Because the capacitor "reacts" to a
changing voltage, it is known as a reactive component. The opposition a
capacitor presents to a.c. is called capacitive reactance (XC). The opposition is
caused by the capacitor "reacting" to the changing voltage of the a.c. source. The
formula for capacitive reactance is:

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In contrast to the inductive reactance, this equation indicates that the

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE VARIES INVERSELY WITH THE FREQUENCY.
When f = 0, XC is infinite and decreases as frequency increases. That is, the
lower the frequency, the greater the capacitive reactance; the higher the
frequency, the less the reactance for a given capacitor.
As shown in figure 6, the effect of capacitance is opposite to that of
inductance. Remember, capacitance causes the current to lead the voltage by 90
degrees, while inductance causes the current to lag the voltage by 90 degrees.

Figure 6 - Effect of frequency on capacitive reactance

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Extra notes:
Compare RC phase shift and crystal oscillator.
Answer:

Self Review Questions

1. Compare The Performance Of The Oscillators In Section 2.2.1

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