Chapter 2: Relational Model

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

Chapter 2: Relational Model

Structure of Relational Databases
Fundamental Relational-Algebra-Operations
Additional Relational-Algebra-Operations
Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Null Values
Modification of the Database

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Example of a Relation

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Basic Structure
Formally, given sets D1, D2, . Dn a relation r is a subset of

D1 x D2 x x D n
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, , an) where each ai Di
Example: If

customer_name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay}

customer_street = {Main, North, Park}
customer_city

= {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield}

Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison),

(Smith, North, Rye),
(Curry, North, Rye),
(Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield) }
is a relation over
customer_name x customer_street x customer_city

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Attribute Types
Each attribute of a relation has a name
The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain of the

attribute
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is, indivisible
z

Note: multivalued attribute values are not atomic

Note: composite attribute values are not atomic

The special value null is a member of every domain

The null value causes complications in the definition of many operations
z

We shall ignore the effect of null values in our main presentation

and consider their effect later

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Relation Schema
A1, A2, , An are attributes
R = (A1, A2, , An ) is a relation schema

Example:
Customer_schema = (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)

r(R) is a relation on the relation schema R

Example:
customer (Customer_schema)

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Relation Instance
The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by

a table
An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table

attributes
(or columns)
customer_name customer_street customer_city
Jones
Smith
Curry
Lindsay

Main
North
North
Park

Harrison
Rye
Rye
Pittsfield

tuples
(or rows)

customer

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Relations are Unordered

Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)
Example: account relation with unordered tuples

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Database
A database consists of multiple relations
Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each

relation storing one part of the information

account : stores information about accounts
depositor : stores information about which customer
owns which account
customer : stores information about customers
Storing all information as a single relation such as

bank(account_number, balance, customer_name, ..)

results in
z

repetition of information (e.g., two customers own an account)

the need for null values (e.g., represent a customer without an

account)

Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design relational

schemas
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The customer Relation

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The depositor Relation

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Keys
Let K R
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique

tuple of each possible relation r(R)

z

by possible r we mean a relation r that could exist in the enterprise

we are modeling.

Example: {customer_name, customer_street} and

{customer_name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can possibly
have the same name.

K is a candidate key if K is minimal

Example: {customer_name} is a candidate key for Customer, since it is a

superkey (assuming no two customers can possibly have the same
name), and no subset of it is a superkey.
Primary Key

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Query Languages
Language in which user requests information from the database.
Categories of languages
z

Procedural

Non-procedural, or declarative

Pure languages:
z

Relational algebra

Tuple relational calculus

Domain relational calculus

Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that people

use.

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Relational Algebra
Procedural language
Six basic operators
z

select:

project:

union:

set difference:

Cartesian product: x

rename:

The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new

relation as a result.

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Select Operation Example

Relation r

A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

12

23 10

23 10

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Select Operation

Notation: p(r)
p is called the selection predicate

Defined as:

p(r) = {t | t r and p(t)}

Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms
connected by : (and), (or), (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute>

op <attribute> or <constant>

where op is one of: =, , >, . <.

Example of selection:

branch_name=Perryridge(account)

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Project Operation Example

Relation r:

A,C (r)

10

20

30

40

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Project Operation
Notation:

A1 , A2 ,K, Ak

(r )

where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.

The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing

the columns that are not listed

Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
Example: To eliminate the branch_name attribute of account

account_number, balance (account)

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Union Operation Example

Relations r, s:

r s:

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Union Operation
Notation: r s
Defined as:

r s = {t | t r or t s}
For r s to be valid.

1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)

2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)
Example: to find all customers with either an account or a loan

customer_name (depositor) customer_name (borrower)

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Set Difference Operation Example

Relations r, s:

r
r s:

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Set Difference Operation

Notation r s
Defined as:

r s = {t | t r and t s}
Set differences must be taken between compatible

relations.
z

r and s must have the same arity

attribute domains of r and s must be compatible

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Cartesian-Product Operation Example

Relations r, s:

10
10
20
10

a
a
b
b

r x s:
A

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2

10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10

a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b

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Cartesian-Product Operation
Notation r x s
Defined as:

r x s = {t q | t r and q s}
Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is, R S = ).
If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming must be

used.

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Composition of Operations
Can build expressions using multiple operations
Example: A=C(r x s)
rxs

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2

10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10

a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b

1
2
2

10
10
20

a
a
b

A=C(r x s)

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Rename Operation
Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-

algebra expressions.
Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
Example:

x (E)
returns the expression E under the name X
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

x(A

1 ,A2

,..., A n )

(E )

returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , ., An .

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Banking Example
branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)
customer (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
account (account_number, branch_name, balance)
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)
depositor (customer_name, account_number)
borrower (customer_name, loan_number)

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Example Queries
Find all loans of over $1200

amount > 1200 (loan)

Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than

$1200

loan_number (amount > 1200 (loan))

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Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both,

from the bank

customer_name (borrower) customer_name (depositor)

Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at

bank.

customer_name (borrower) customer_name (depositor)

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Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge

branch.

customer_name (branch_name=Perryridge
(borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x
loan)))

Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the

Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of

the bank.

customer_name (branch_name = Perryridge

(borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x loan)))
customer_name(depositor)

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Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.

Query 1

customer_name (branch_name = Perryridge (

borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number (borrower x loan)))
z

Query 2

customer_name(loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number (
(branch_name = Perryridge (loan)) x borrower))

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Example Queries

Find the largest account balance

z

Strategy:


Find those balances that are not the largest

Rename account relation as d so that we can compare each
account balance with all others

Use set difference to find those account balances that were not found
in the earlier step.

The query is:

balance(account) - account.balance
(account.balance < d.balance (account x d (account)))

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Formal Definition
A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of the

following:
z

A relation in the database

A constant relation

Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are all

relational-algebra expressions:
z

E1 E2

E1 E2

E1 x E2

p (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1

s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1

x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

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Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any power to the
relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.
Set intersection
Natural join
Division
Assignment

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Set-Intersection Operation
Notation: r s
Defined as:
r s = { t | t r and t s }
Assume:
z

r, s have the same arity

attributes of r and s are compatible

Note: r s = r (r s)

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Set-Intersection Operation Example

Relation r, s:

1
2
1

2
3
s

rs

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Natural-Join Operation

Notation: r

Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.

s is a relation on schema R S obtained as follows:

Then, r
z

Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.

If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R S, add

a tuple t to the result, where
t

has the same value as tr on r

t

has the same value as ts on s

Example:

R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
z

Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)

s is defined as:

r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B r.D = s.D (r x s))

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Natural Join Operation Example

Relations r, s:

1
2
4
1
2

a
a
b
a
b

1
3
1
2
3

a
a
a
b
b

r
r

s
A

1
1
1
1
2

a
a
a
a
b

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Division Operation
Notation:

rs

Suited to queries that include the phrase for all.

Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively
where
z

R = (A1, , Am , B1, , Bn )

S = (B1, , Bn)

The result of r s is a relation on schema

R S = (A1, , Am)
r s = { t | t R-S (r) u s ( tu r ) }
Where tu means the concatenation of tuples t and u to
produce a single tuple

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Division Operation Example

Relations r, s:

r s:

1
2
3
1
1
1
3
4
6
1
2

1
2
s

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Another Division Example

Relations r, s:
A

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

a
a
b
a
b
a
b
b

1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1

a
b

1
1
s

r
r s:
A

a
a

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Division Operation (Cont.)

Property
z

Let q = r s

Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s r

Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation

Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S R
r s = R-S (r ) R-S ( ( R-S (r ) x s ) R-S,S(r ))
To see why
z

R-S,S (r) simply reorders attributes of r

R-S (R-S (r ) x s ) R-S,S(r) ) gives those tuples t in

R-S (r ) such that for some tuple u s, tu r.

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Assignment Operation

The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to express

complex queries.
z

Write query as a sequential program consisting of



a series of assignments

followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a result of

the query.

Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.

Example: Write r s as
temp1 R-S (r )
temp2 R-S ((temp1 x s ) R-S,S (r ))
result = temp1 temp2
z

The result to the right of the is assigned to the relation variable on

the left of the .

May use variable in subsequent expressions.

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Bank Example Queries

Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at

bank.

customer_name (borrower) customer_name (depositor)

Find the name of all customers who have a loan at the bank and the

loan amount

customer-name, loan-number, amount (borrower

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loan )

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Bank Example Queries

Find all customers who have an account from at least the Downtown

and the Uptown branches.

z Query 1
customer_name (branch_name = Downtown (depositor

account ))

customer_name (branch_name = Uptown (depositor

z

account))

Query 2
customer_name, branch_name (depositor
account)
temp(branch_name) ({(Downtown ), (Uptown )})

Note that Query 2 uses a constant relation.

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Example Queries
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in

Brooklyn city.

customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)

branch_name (branch_city = Brooklyn (branch))

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Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Generalized Projection
Aggregate Functions
Outer Join

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Generalized Projection
Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be

used in the projection list.

F ,F ,...,F (E)
1

E is any relational-algebra expression

Each of F1, F2, , Fn are are arithmetic expressions involving constants

and attributes in the schema of E.

Given relation credit_info(customer_name, limit, credit_balance), find

how much more each person can spend:

customer_name, limit credit_balance (credit_info)

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Aggregate Functions and Operations

Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single

value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate operation in relational algebra
G1 ,G2 ,K,Gn

F ( A ),F ( A ,K,F ( A ) (E )
1

E is any relational-algebra expression

z

G1, G2 , Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)

Each Fi is an aggregate function

Each Ai is an attribute name

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Aggregate Operation Example

Relation r:

g sum(c) (r)

7
7
3
10

sum(c )
27

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Aggregate Operation Example

Relation account grouped by branch-name:

branch_name account_number
Perryridge
Perryridge
Brighton
Brighton
Redwood

branch_name

balance

A-102
A-201
A-217
A-215
A-222

400
900
750
750
700

g sum(balance) (account)
branch_name
Perryridge
Brighton
Redwood

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sum(balance)
1300
1500
700

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Aggregate Functions (Cont.)

Result of aggregation does not have a name
z

Can use rename operation to give it a name

For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate

operation

branch_name

sum(balance) as sum_balance (account)

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Outer Join
An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not

match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.

Uses null values:
z

null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist

All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by

definition.
 We

shall study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later

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Outer Join Example

Relation loan

loan_number branch_name
L-170
L-230
L-260

Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge

amount
3000
4000
1700

Relation borrower

customer_name loan_number
Jones
Smith
Hayes

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L-170
L-230
L-155

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Outer Join Example

Inner Join
loan

Borrower

loan_number

branch_name

L-170
L-230

Downtown
Redwood

amount customer_name
3000
4000

Jones
Smith

Left Outer Join

loan

Borrower
loan_number

branch_name

L-170
L-230
L-260

Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge

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amount customer_name
3000
4000
1700

2.55

Jones
Smith
null

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Outer Join Example

Right Outer Join

loan

borrower

loan_number

branch_name

L-170
L-230
L-155

Downtown
Redwood
null

amount customer_name
3000
4000
null

Jones
Smith
Hayes

Full Outer Join

loan

borrower

loan_number

branch_name

L-170
L-230
L-260
L-155

Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
null

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amount customer_name
3000
4000
1700
null

2.56

Jones
Smith
null
Hayes

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Null Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some

of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in SQL)
For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other

value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same (as in SQL)

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Null Values
Comparisons with null values return the special truth value: unknown
z

If false was used instead of unknown, then

would not be equivalent to

not (A < 5)
A >= 5

Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:

z

OR: (unknown or true)

= true,
(unknown or false)
= unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown

AND: (true and unknown)

= unknown,
(false and unknown)
= false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown

NOT: (not unknown) = unknown

In SQL P is unknown evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to

unknown

Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown

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Modification of the Database

The content of the database may be modified using the following

operations:
z

Deletion

Insertion

Updating

All these operations are expressed using the assignment

operator.

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Deletion
A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except

instead of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are

removed from the database.
Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only

particular attributes
A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:

rrE
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.

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Deletion Examples
Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.

account account branch_name = Perryridge (account )

Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50

loan loan amount 0 and amount 50 (loan)

Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.

r1 branch_city = Needham (account

branch )

r2 branch_name, account_number, balance (r1)

r3 customer_name, account_number (r2

depositor)

account account r2
depositor depositor r3

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Insertion
To insert data into a relation, we either:
z

specify a tuple to be inserted

write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted

in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:

r r E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a constant

relation containing one tuple.

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Insertion Examples
Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in

account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.

account account {(Perryridge, A-973, 1200)}

depositor depositor {(Smith, A-973)}

Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge

branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve

as the account number for the new savings account.

r1 (branch_name = Perryridge (borrower

loan))

account account branch_name, loan_number,200 (r1)

depositor depositor customer_name, loan_number (r1)

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Updating
A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all values in

the tuple
Use the generalized projection operator to do this task

r F ,F ,K,F , (r )
1

Each Fi is either
z

the I th attribute of r, if the I th attribute is not updated, or,

if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression, involving only

constants and the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the
attribute

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Update Examples
Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.

account account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account)

Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest

and pay all others 5 percent

account account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 ( BAL > 10000 (account ))
account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (BAL 10000 (account))

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End of Chapter 2

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

Figure 2.3. The branch relation

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Figure 2.6: The loan relation

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Figure 2.7: The borrower relation

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Figure 2.8: Schema diagram

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Figure 2.9

Result of branch_name = Perryridge (loan)

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Figure 2.10:
Loan number and the amount of the loan

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Figure 2.11: Names of all customers who

have either an account or an loan

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Figure 2.12:
Customers with an account but no loan

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Figure 2.13: Result of borrower |X| loan

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Figure 2.14

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Figure 2.15

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Figure 2.16

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Figure 2.17
Largest account balance in the bank

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Figure 2.18: Customers who live on the

same street and in the same city as
Smith

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Figure 2.19: Customers with both an

account and a loan at the bank

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Figure 2.20

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Figure 2.21

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Figure 2.22

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Figure 2.23

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Figure 2.24: The credit_info relation

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Figure 2.25

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Figure 2.26: The pt_works relation

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Figure 2.27
The pt_works relation after regrouping

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Figure 2.28

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Figure 2.29

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Figure 2.30
The employee and ft_works relations

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Figure 2.31

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Figure 2.32

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Figure 2.33

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Figure 2.34

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