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Home / Technical Articles / Quick estimation of the short-circuit current at the end of a feeder
Quick estimation of the short-circuit current at the end of a feeder (photo credit: SIEMENS)
Each length of conductor or each device in the circuit provides an impedance which helps to
reduce the short-circuit current.
Figure 1 Rule of thumb for a quick estimation of the short-circuit current at the end of a feeder
Specimen example //
Where:
UNTrafo - Rated voltage of the supply transformer on the low-tension side [V]
The value calculated above is rather conservative and includes a factor of safety as other
sources of current reduction like the arc voltage, the contact resistance and the internal
resistances of the different devices in the path of the short-circuit were not considered.
Reference: Basics of circuit breakers Rockwell
Recommended EE articles
Transformer Routine Test Partial Discharge Measurement
December 15, 2014
Article Tags //
arc voltage, cross-section, feeder, rated voltage, short-circuit, transformer, transformer
impedance,
About Author //
Edvard Csanyi
Edvard - Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for design of
LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in power substations, buildings and industry
fascilities. Designing of LV/MV switchgears. Professional in AutoCAD programming and webdesign. Present on Google+
5 Comments
1.
Mustafa
Nov 26, 2014
Good Example but I dont understand some values. How are they calculated Uk , all
R/mohm , X/mohm and all cable length and cross section best regards.
could you help me pls
best regards
(reply)
2.
T.N.Ramesh
Nov 25, 2014
Yes Im an Electrical Engineer
(reply)
3.
Girish
Nov 22, 2014
Nice article. The procedure is similar to IEC 60909 method, only the correction factor in
case of the transformer and voltage is not considered. Nevertheless, it is a good way of
estimating the short circuit current.
(reply)
4.
Vicente Martinez
Nov 21, 2014
Those are very instructive articles, they help me a lot Thank you
(reply)
5.
LALO EL HIPPIE
Nov 21, 2014
La simpleza hace hermoso los desarrollos matemticos. Calculo con Melshort de
Mitsubishi dio el mismo resultado
(reply)
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25SaturdayJan 2014
1) Tests to be conducted:
a) Continuity test:
Tests the continuity of the winding (Healthy transformer must have continuity in all the phases
but transformer with shorted windings can also have).
Testing terminals:
HV LV
RY r n
YB y n
BR b n
b) IR values:
Tests insulation resistance between windings and winding to earth. A healthy transformer should
have resistance >0 in Mega Ohms.
If HVE=0 (HV winding is earthed)
LVE=0 (LV winding is earthed)
HVLV=0 (HV and LV winding are shorted)
Any of the HV three terminals and any of the LV four terminals can be used for conducting the
tests (If continuity in winding is available).
We should never test charge a DTR/PTR if the IR values are 0 in any of the above three
parameters.
c) DC resistance test
A healthy transformer will have approximately same resistance in all the three phase in HV
winding though its value changes with the capacity of the transformer. LV winding resistance
cannot be measured with a tong tester since it has less number of turns and higher size conductor
when compared to the HV winding. Continuity of the LV winding can only be established.
For example:
a) If the resistance of coils in one phase is 30 Ohms then for a healthy transformer resistance
between RY, YB & BR terminals will be equal and 20 Ohms.
i.e. 1/R=1/30+1/60=3/60=1/20
i.e. R=20 Ohms
When resistance values are equal in all the HV phases the PTR/DTR may be
OK.
If one winding is showing resistance and others are showing open (infinity) it
can be suspected that two phases are open and one phase is healthy.
Note: But it should be kept in mind that even opening of a jumper wire leading to HV bush rod
may give similar value and can result in minor failure instead of two limb failure. So verification
of jumper connection is to be done before declaration of a failure.
The failure in windings causes erosion of winding material which results in collection of gas in
bucholz relay and transformer tank.
If the DTR/PTR is still found healthy in above tests it can be subjected for further test like 1.
ratio tests, 2. short circuit test, 3. magnetic balance test/arranging LT phase test supply to take
final decision for declaration of failure/healthiness.
Design aspects in repairing of DTR/PTR
LV & HV windings of a power transformer and LV winding of a failed distribution transformer
will be generally reinsulated during repairs. Conductor to the extent of damaged portion will be
replaced for PTRs and damaged HV winding coils will be replaced for distribution transformers.
For rewinding of coils after re-insulation the winder generally takes into consideration the diametre and height of the damaged coil. But the winder may endup with a coil with less/excess
number of turns and slight variation in height and dia-metre. Hence the AE/Winder should have
the knowledge of minimum size of conductor, number of turns, number of conductors any
capacity distribution/power transformer should have to deliver the rated output.
a) Number of turns in LV winding:
ET =KQ
ET =Voltage per turn that can be allowed
Q=Rated KVA
K=Constant (0.32 to 0.35 for aluminum transformer and 0.37 to 0.45 for copper transformer)
Example:
For 100 KVA aluminum DTR
ET =0.32 100=0.32 volts
LV turns =250V / 3.2V=78 turns (minimum)
Hence 100 KVA aluminum distribution transformer should have a minimum of 78 turns to have
voltage/turn within limits.
Similarly,
For 25 KVA aluminum DTR
ET =0.32 25=1.6
Hence LV turns=250V/1.6V=156 turns
It means lesser capacity DTR/PTR will have more number of turns when compared to higher
capacity transformer
Width of the strip is to be more than double the depth of the strip.
From the above it is evident that more number of conductor in parallel can be utilized instead of
higher sized single connector. Utilization of multiple conductors results in more flexibility during
winding and also decreases skin-effect since surface length of conductor is more with multiple
conductors.
Example:
For 100KVA aluminum transformer LV conductor of 88 sqmm cross section can be had by
having two conductors of size 44 sqmm each in parallel. Depth of strip should be minimum a
2.25mm and width can be calculated to accommodate required number of the LV turns within the
height of LV coils in single layer or double layer.
d) Diameter of the core:
Dia-metre of the core can be calculated by arriving at gross core area by using following
formula:
Ag=Et/4.44 X f X Bm X 0.97 X 10-4
f=frequency
Ag=gross core area in sqcm
Bm=maximum flex density in tesla = 1.6
Et=phase voltage/turn
0.97=stacking factor (assumed)
Once Ag is calculated dia-metre of the core can be calculated by formula
Ag=K1 X d2 X
K1=0.92 for six step core
K1=0.925 for seven step core
K1=0.93 for eight step core
K1=0.935 for nine step core etc
By Er. K Sadasiva Reddy
SE/Operation/Mahaboobnagar
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9 thoughts on Testing a Distribution/Power Transformer
1.
2.
Sir, Testing of DTRs data provided by you is very useful for us in Repairing of DTRs at
SPM Sheds and the failure of DTRs can be minimized by these testings and we will use
the data for testing of DTR at Narayanpet SPM.
Thanking You Sir,
LikeLike
Reply
3.
4.
5.
LikeLike
Reply
6.
mubeen said:
April 12, 2014 at 12:33 PM
a) Continuity test:
Tests the continuity of the winding (Healthy transformer must have continuity in all the
phases but transformer with shorted windings can also have).
my doubt is usually in sheds the first thing for a sick DTR continuity test is done ,as you
said even if the windings are shorted it shows continuity is there any alternate method
that shows the difference in continuity for shorted windings(any values)
LikeLike
Reply
7.
mubeen said:
April 12, 2014 at 12:38 PM
thank you sir for such information
LikeLike
Reply
8.
pvr said:
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Before discussing the challenges of grounding standby power systems, key terms
are explainedas defined in the 2011 National Electric Code (NEC) (NFPA 70)to
offer a better understanding of why we ground electrical systems. Unless otherwise
noted, the following definitions are cited from NEC, Article 100, Definitions.
Ground: The earth itself is taken as ground. Building grounding electrode systems
are sunken into the earth.
The connecting of current-carrying equipment to the earth is the definition of
grounding. NEC Article 250.4(A)(2) states:
Grounding of Electrical Equipment. Normally, non-current-carrying conductive
materials enclosing electrical conductors or equipment, or forming part of such
equipment, shall be connected to earth so as to limit the voltage to ground on these
materials.
This is different from bonding, where adjacent conductive surfaces that do not
normally carry electricity (such as chassis on a toaster, an x-ray, or a milling
machine) are connected to another conductive object (such as the metallic raceway
containing power wiring, nearby building steel, or an adjacent metallic water pipe)
to create an electrically continuous, low-impedance path. NEC Article 250.4(A)(3)
states:
Bonding of Electrical Equipment. Normally non-current carrying conductive
materials enclosing electrical conductors or equipment, or forming part of such
equipment, shall be connected together and to the electrical supply source in a
manner that establishes an effective ground fault-current path.
Grounding electrode: A conducting object through which a direct connection to the
earth is established.
Grounding electrodes in practice includes ground rods and (conductive) metallic
water piping, and concrete-encased building steel (e.g., steel rebar embedded in
concrete foundation in direct contact with the earth).
Grounding electrode conductor: A conductor used to connect the system-grounded
conductor or the equipment to a grounding electrode or to a point on the grounding
electrode system. This conductor connects the building grounding system to the
earth by means of the grounding electrode.
Grounded (grounding): Connected to ground without inserting resistors or
impedance devices. Grounded equipment or panels can trace a continuous
conductive path from their chassis to an equipment grounding conductor, to the
grounding electrode conductor, to the grounding electrode to the earth (ground)
itself (see Figure 1).
Equipment grounding conductor (EGC): The conductive path(s) installed to connect
normally non-current-carrying metal parts of equipment together and to the system
grounding conductor or to the grounding electrode conductor, or both.
The EGC connects objects back to the grounding electrode system and to the earth.
Ground fault current path: From NEC, Article 250.2, an electrically conductive path
from the point of a ground fault on a wiring system through normally non-currentcarrying conductors, equipment, or the earth to the electrical supply source.
Effective ground fault current path: From NEC, Article 250.2, an intentionally
constructed, low-impedance electrically conductive path designed and intended to
carry current under ground fault conditions from the point of a ground fault on a
wiring system to the electrical supply source and that facilitates the operation of the
overcurrent protective device or ground fault detectors on high impedance
grounded systems.
All current tries to return back to its source to complete the circuit. A live conductor
striking an ungrounded conductive metal surface will go through whatever, or
whoever, connects the metal object to earth, and back to the power source.
Because having large amounts of electrical current unintentionally going through
people is generally a bad thing, we want the overcurrent protection device to trip as
quickly as possible, removing the fault current before damage, injury, or death can
occur. The best means of doing this for ground fault current is to provide a low
enough impedance path such that ground fault current is high enough in magnitude
to quickly trip the overcurrent protective device.
Figure 1 shows this in practice. A ground fault in an appliance, rather than routing to
the earth through our unsuspecting victim, routes through the EGC back through
the panelboard, and ultimately to the main service (utility transformer), completing
the circuit.
More importantly, because this is an effective ground fault current path, the fault
current is high enough to allow the circuit breaker in the panelboard to open, cutting
the fault current.
Separately derived system: A premises wiring system whose power is derived from
a source of electrical energy or equipment other than a service. Such systems have
no direct connection from circuit conductors of one system to circuit conductors of
another system, other than connections through the earth, metal enclosures,
metallic raceways, or equipment grounding conductors.
When using a backup source such as a generator, note that if a generator has a
neutral conductor that is directly bonded to the utility service neutral (for example,
a 3-pole transfer switch), the generator is not separately derived. On the other
hand, if its neutral never comes in direct contact with the utility neutral (either
because the neutral is switched at the transfer switch, or the generator is a 3-wire
system without a neutral), it is a separately derived system.
System bonding jumper: The connection between the grounded circuit conductor
(often called the neutral) and the supply-side bonding jumper, or the EGC, or both,
at a separately derived system.
Simply put, the jumper ties the ground and neutral together at the generator. When
this occurs at a utility service, we now use a different term to mean the same thing:
supply-side bonding jumper.
Supply-side bonding jumper: From NEC, Article 250.2, a conductor installed on the
supply side of a service or within a service equipment enclosure(s), or for a
separately derived system, that ensures the required electrical conductivity
between metal parts required to be electrically connected.
This term, introduced in the 2011 NEC, applies to both utility services and alternate
sources of power such as a generator. This conductor is how return ground-fault
current goes from the EGC to the neutral and back to the power source, completing
the circuit, and hopefully tripping the overcurrent protection in minimal time.
Grounding standby power systems
Grounding systems are created to allow overcurrent devices to quickly open when a
line-to-ground fault occurs. For this reason, bonding between the neutral and
ground bus (or chassis) in the generator should not occur when a 3-pole transfer
switch is used that directly bonds the main service panel neutral to the neutral bus
of the generator.
Figure 2 shows the problem with this approach. Return current from the electrical
load travels down to the transfer switch and then splits with part heading back to
the utility service and part heading down to the generator. At the generator, this
current then returns through the neutral-ground bond back over the grounding
system to the utility service, leading to stray current potentially traveling over
metallic raceway, piping, and even building structural steel to return to its source.
An added problem of connecting the neutral to ground at both the main service and
the generator without transferring the neutral occurs with ground fault protection
(GFP), which is required by NEC Article 240.13 on overcurrent protection at 480 V
and more than 1,000 A.
GFP devices operate by measuring the outgoing and incoming current and looking
at differences between the two, with the assumption that any current difference is
stray return current that is traveling over the building grounding system. If the
measured current difference is high enough, the GFP device is then set to trip open,
cutting power to downstream loads and the ground fault causing the stray return
current.
However, if stray return current is caused for other reasons, such as a condition
where return neutral current from the load can travel over the neutral-to-ground
bond at the generator, the GFP device can also trip, because the current difference
can be the same as in an actual ground fault, especially if the generator is relatively
close to the service.
If the GFP is then dialed to a higher current setting to minimize interruptions, one is
left with current regularly running over the ground system from standby loads, and
has reduced the protection from the GFP in the event of a real line-to-ground fault.
Note that the current routed from neutral to ground at the generator can be similar
in magnitude to a line-to-ground fault at the standby loadespecially if the
impedance of the path from the load to the generator is relatively low. Thus, setting
the GFP protection to a higher trip setting can mean that a real line-to-ground fault
at the load may not cause the breaker to open, leading to a sustained ground fault
in the electrical system.
This leads us to our first rule of standby power system grounding:
Rule No. 1: For a 3-phase, 4-wire system, do not bond the neutral and ground bus
together at the generator unless the neutral is switched at the transfer switch
together with the phase conductors.
Transferring the neutral can be accomplished by one of two means:
A 4-pole transfer switch that switches the load neutral between the utility source to
the standby source
A 3-pole transfer switch with overlapping contacts for the neutral that overlaps the
utility and standby neutrals very briefly at the time of switching.
Note that the bonding of a generators neutral and ground bus should not be
confused with the question of whether a generator should have a grounding
electrode system. If the generator is a separately derived system, the NEC requires
a grounding electrode system at the generator per NEC Articles 250.30 and
250.52(A).
If the system is not separately derived, the grounding electrode system may be
installed as a supplemental grounding electrode system, providing it is also bonded
to the equipment ground conductor (NEC Article 250.54).
This leads us to the second rule of standby power system grounding:
Rule No. 2: A standby power source should have its own grounding electrode system
to facilitate ground fault current returning to the generator if a line-to-ground fault
Since outgoing phase and incoming neutral current are not the same, the GFP for
both branches may perceive a line-to-ground fault and trip one or more branches
offline. Again, adjusting the trip setting to a higher amperage level compromises the
effectiveness of the GFP when a real line-to-ground fault occurs.
This leads us to the third rule of standby power system grounding:
Rule No. 3: When using more than one transfer switch on a 3-phase, 4-wire system
where any one transfer switch may have two or more levels of GFP protection
upstream of itself, the generator should be grounded as a separately derived
system, and transfer switches that can switch the neutral should be used for all
transfer switches.
Because it is much less expensive to specify the generator with the proper
grounding and install the correct transfer switches initially than do so as a retrofit,
consideration of this approach should be used if there is a possibility that a future
upgrade could create this condition that doesnt exist initially in the building.
For example, if an owner advises the engineer on a project with a small life safety
generator that it may be replaced in the future with a large generator capable of
backing up most of the building, and that upgrade would require two levels of GFP
for the non-life safety branch, the engineer will want to specify a 4-pole transfer
switch for the life safety branch to avoid needing to replace that transfer switch
during the future upgrade.
Because the problem of neutral currentwhether under normal conditions or lineto-ground fault conditionsemerges where multiple transfer switches are used in
one facility, we can generalize Rule No. 3 as follows:
Generalized Rule No. 3: When using more than one transfer switch on a 3-phase, 4wire system where any one transfer switch may have two or more levels of GFP
protection upstream of itself, all generators should be grounded as separately
derived systems, and transfer switches that can switch the neutral should be used
for all transfer switches. In the discussion to this point, all mention of GFP has been
assumed to be on the utility side of the transfer switches. While generators can be
specified with an output circuit breaker with GFP, this is normally avoided with good
reason, because a ground fault trip would result in the loss of the standby power
source when it is critically needed.
Instead, where a GFP would otherwise be required, generators should be specified
with a ground fault annunciation feature on the output circuit breaker, to notify via
the generator control panel and annunciator when a ground fault condition has
occurred while the facility is running on backup power. This allows the facility
manager to hunt down the source of the ground fault without cutting power to
critical loads.
The oddballs you must know
There are numerous cases where a 3-phase, 3-wire system (no neutral) is used on
the generator side.
Case No. 1solidly grounded, 3-phase, 3-wire standby power system: In this case, a
transformer may be used on the load side of the 3-pole transfer switch to derive a
neutral for any line-to-ground loads on the standby power system (see Figure 4).
However, the transfer switch sees only phase and ground connections from the
utility, generator, and load connections to itself. Because there is no way for line-toground current to return on any path except the ground plane, we do not see a
splitting of return ground fault current between a neutral and ground. Thus, a GFP
can monitor just the phase conductors and trip properly if the current does not
return through the same phase conductors.
Case No. 2solidly grounded, 3-phase, 3-wire standby power system with
interlocked circuit breakers used for load transfer: By definition, because the circuit
breakers (unless they are 4-pole) can only switch the phase conductors and not the
neutral, we would have the same problem of neutral current from the standby load
returning on two pathways. One way of avoiding this problem is to connect only 3phase, 3-wire loads (no neutral) to the common distribution board served from both
sources (see Figure 5).
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Home / Technical Articles / Protection and Relays Used In Main Circuit Board at a Power Grid
Substation
Protection and Relays Used In Main Circuit Board at a Power Grid Substation
Posted Feb 17 2012 by Bipul Raman in High Voltage, Medium Voltage, Protection
with 5 Comments
The DMH type relay provides high speed biased differential protection for two or three winding
transformers. The relay is immune to high inrush current and has a high degree of stability
against through faults. It requires a max of two cycles operating time for current above twice
relay rated current. Instantaneous overcurrent protection clears heavy internal faults
immediately. This relay is available in two forms.
Firstly for use with time Cts, the ratios of line which are matched to the load current to give zero
differential current under normal working conditions. Secondly with tapped interposing
transformers for use with standard line current transformers of any ratio.
2. Directional inverse time overcurrent and earth fault relays
The CDD type relays are applied for directional or earth fault protection of ring mains, parallel
transformers or parallel feeders with the time graded principle. It is induction disc type relay with
induction cup used to add directional feature.
The type VAG relay is an instantaneous protection against abnormal voltage conditions such as
over voltage, under voltage or no voltage in AC and DC circuits and for definite time operation
when used with a timer. It is an attracted armature type relay.
4. Auxiliary relays
The VAA/CAA type auxiliary relays are applied for control alarm, indication and other auxiliary
duties in AC or DC systems. CAA is a current operated and VAA is a voltage operated relay.. it is
attracted armature type.
5. High speed tripping relays
This VAJH type relay is employed with a high speed tripping duties where a number of
simultaneous switching operations are required. This is a fast operating multi contact attracted
armature relay.
6. Definite time delay relay
This VAT type relay is used in auto reclosing and control schemes and to provide a definite time
feature for instantaneous protective relay. It is an Electro mechanical definite time relay. It has
two pair of contacts. The shorter time setting is provided by a passing contact and longer time
setting by the final contact.
7. Trip circuit supervision relay
This VAX relay is applied for after closing or continuous supervision of the trip circuit of circuit
breakers.
They detect the following conditions:
1. Failure of trip relay
2. Open circuit of trip coil
3. Failure of mechanism to complete the tripping operation
8. Instantaneous over current and earth fault relay
An instantaneous phase or earth fault protection and for definite time operation when used with a
timer. It is a CAG 12/12G standard attracted armature relay with adjustable settings. It may be a
single pole or triple pole relay.
9. Inverse time over current and earth fault relay
This CDG 11-type relay is applied for selective phase and earth fault protection in time graded
systems for AC machines. Transformers, feeders etc. this is a non-directional relay with a
definite minimum time which has an adjustable inverse time/current characteristics. It may be a
single pole or triple pole relay.
10. Fuse failure relay
This VAP type relay is used to detect the failure or inadvertent removal of voltage transformer
sec. fuses and to prevent incorrect tripping of circuit breaker. It is three units, instantaneous
attracted armature type relay the coil of each unit connected across one of the VTs.
The secondary fuses under healthy conditions, the coil is SC by fuses and cant be energized. But
one or more fuses blow the coil is energized and relay operates.
11. Instantaneous high stability circulating current relay
This CAG type relay is a standard attracted armature relay. In circulating current protection
schemes, the sudden and often asymmetrical growth of the system current during external fault
conditions can cause the protection current transformers to go into saturation, resulting in high
unbalance current to insure stability under these conditions.
The modern practice is to use a voltage operated high impedance relay, set to operate at a voltage
slightly higher than that developed by CT under max fault conditions. Hence this type of relay is
used with a stabilizing resistor.
12. Local breaker back up relay
this is a CTIG type three phase or two phase earth fault instantaneous over current unit intended
for use with a time delay unit to give back up protection in the event of a circuit breaker failure.
13. Poly-phase directional relay
The PGD relay is a high speed induction cup unit used to give directional properties to three
phase IDMT over-current relays, for the protection of parallel feeders, inter connected networks
and parallel transformers against phase to phase and three phase faults. Owing to low sensitivity
on phase to earth faults the relay is used with discretion on solidly earthed systems.
14. Auto reclose relay
this scheme consists of the following relays, XCG22-3 for phase to phase and 3 for phase to
ground, YCG17, mho starting unit one in each place, VAT51 along with timing unit for zone 2
and 3, 86-X aux. tripping relay and 30G, H, and J for 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Zone indication VAA51,
CAG12 and VAA31. These schemes provide three zone phase and earth fault protection using
reactance relays type XCG22 and also starting relays YCG17.
They are applicable to important line sections where high values of arc resistance would
otherwise affect the accuracy of measurement and where high speed tripping is essential. Highspeed protection is provided for phase and earth faults on 80-90% of the line section and faults
on the remaining section are cleared in second zone, time. The third zone provides backup
protection after further time interval.
Each mho starting unit Y3 and its auxiliary Y3 X is associated with one phase and operates for
all faults involving this phase. Each reactance unit X is connected to measure phase or earth fault
distance, but is prevented from operating by short circuit across the polarizing coils. Under the
phase fault conditions, the Y3 X units unblock the appropriate X1 reactance units, which initiate
tripping immediately for faults within their setting.
Operation of the earth auxiliary relay 64 in conjunction with the Y3 X units selects the
appropriate reactance units for measurement of earth faults. The reach of reactance units is
extended by the timer, 2 after successive intervals to cover faults in zone 2 and 3.
Discrimination is not affected by changing faults, for example a zone 2 earth fault which
develops into a double phase to earth fault will be cleared correctly by the X1 (phase fault) units
in zone 2 time. In the rare event of two faults occurring simultaneously at different points on the
line; the scheme will measure to a distance approximately half way.
Source: Internet and several books of Electrical Engineering
Recommended EE articles
Article Tags //
auxiliary relays, differential relay, earth fault, grid, main circuit board, overcurrent,
power substation, relays,
Filed Under Category //
Bipul Raman
Bipul Raman - Bipul Raman (@BipulRaman), a graduate in Electrical Engineering had
presented two research papers in National Conferences. He has overtaken and successfully
completed a project to design an Automated CB Test-Rig for Light Combat Aircraft at Aircraft
Research and Design Center (HAL). Apart from this, he has done several projects at NTPC and
Grid Substation. Not only limited to Electrical Engineering, He is also very much passionate in
Software Development. He has contributed few of his code to 'Codeplex' ( a Microsoft
OpenSource software hosting website ). Visit his complete profile at http://bipul.in/about
1.
sanjay goyal
Nov 12, 2014
We want a aux. relay for transformer protection. The relay details are as under. Auxiliary
relay, Type: VAA. Model no: SPECM2ZG76B. Volts: 110VDC. Make: E.E. So kindly
provide the dealer or shop from where we can purchase this relay.
(reply)
2.
jobert moleno
Oct 20, 2014
4.
jeewangarg
May 03, 2013
[...] 3 Nos O/C relay for overcurrent and earth fault protectionIts used for:3-phase faults
the overcurrent relays in all the 3-phases act.Phase to phase faults the relays in only the
affected phases operate.Single [...]
(reply)
RSS Feed for Comments
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Home / Technical Articles / Protection and Relays Used In Main Circuit Board at a Power Grid
Substation
Protection and Relays Used In Main Circuit Board at a Power Grid Substation
Posted Feb 17 2012 by Bipul Raman in High Voltage, Medium Voltage, Protection
with 5 Comments
The DMH type relay provides high speed biased differential protection for two or three winding
transformers. The relay is immune to high inrush current and has a high degree of stability
against through faults. It requires a max of two cycles operating time for current above twice
relay rated current. Instantaneous overcurrent protection clears heavy internal faults
immediately. This relay is available in two forms.
Firstly for use with time Cts, the ratios of line which are matched to the load current to give zero
differential current under normal working conditions. Secondly with tapped interposing
transformers for use with standard line current transformers of any ratio.
2. Directional inverse time overcurrent and earth fault relays
The CDD type relays are applied for directional or earth fault protection of ring mains, parallel
transformers or parallel feeders with the time graded principle. It is induction disc type relay with
induction cup used to add directional feature.
The type VAG relay is an instantaneous protection against abnormal voltage conditions such as
over voltage, under voltage or no voltage in AC and DC circuits and for definite time operation
when used with a timer. It is an attracted armature type relay.
4. Auxiliary relays
The VAA/CAA type auxiliary relays are applied for control alarm, indication and other auxiliary
duties in AC or DC systems. CAA is a current operated and VAA is a voltage operated relay.. it is
attracted armature type.
5. High speed tripping relays
This VAJH type relay is employed with a high speed tripping duties where a number of
simultaneous switching operations are required. This is a fast operating multi contact attracted
armature relay.
6. Definite time delay relay
This VAT type relay is used in auto reclosing and control schemes and to provide a definite time
feature for instantaneous protective relay. It is an Electro mechanical definite time relay. It has
two pair of contacts. The shorter time setting is provided by a passing contact and longer time
setting by the final contact.
7. Trip circuit supervision relay
This VAX relay is applied for after closing or continuous supervision of the trip circuit of circuit
breakers.
They detect the following conditions:
1. Failure of trip relay
2. Open circuit of trip coil
3. Failure of mechanism to complete the tripping operation
8. Instantaneous over current and earth fault relay
An instantaneous phase or earth fault protection and for definite time operation when used with a
timer. It is a CAG 12/12G standard attracted armature relay with adjustable settings. It may be a
single pole or triple pole relay.
9. Inverse time over current and earth fault relay
This CDG 11-type relay is applied for selective phase and earth fault protection in time graded
systems for AC machines. Transformers, feeders etc. this is a non-directional relay with a
definite minimum time which has an adjustable inverse time/current characteristics. It may be a
single pole or triple pole relay.
10. Fuse failure relay
This VAP type relay is used to detect the failure or inadvertent removal of voltage transformer
sec. fuses and to prevent incorrect tripping of circuit breaker. It is three units, instantaneous
attracted armature type relay the coil of each unit connected across one of the VTs.
The secondary fuses under healthy conditions, the coil is SC by fuses and cant be energized. But
one or more fuses blow the coil is energized and relay operates.
11. Instantaneous high stability circulating current relay
This CAG type relay is a standard attracted armature relay. In circulating current protection
schemes, the sudden and often asymmetrical growth of the system current during external fault
conditions can cause the protection current transformers to go into saturation, resulting in high
unbalance current to insure stability under these conditions.
The modern practice is to use a voltage operated high impedance relay, set to operate at a voltage
slightly higher than that developed by CT under max fault conditions. Hence this type of relay is
used with a stabilizing resistor.
12. Local breaker back up relay
this is a CTIG type three phase or two phase earth fault instantaneous over current unit intended
for use with a time delay unit to give back up protection in the event of a circuit breaker failure.
13. Poly-phase directional relay
The PGD relay is a high speed induction cup unit used to give directional properties to three
phase IDMT over-current relays, for the protection of parallel feeders, inter connected networks
and parallel transformers against phase to phase and three phase faults. Owing to low sensitivity
on phase to earth faults the relay is used with discretion on solidly earthed systems.
14. Auto reclose relay
this scheme consists of the following relays, XCG22-3 for phase to phase and 3 for phase to
ground, YCG17, mho starting unit one in each place, VAT51 along with timing unit for zone 2
and 3, 86-X aux. tripping relay and 30G, H, and J for 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Zone indication VAA51,
CAG12 and VAA31. These schemes provide three zone phase and earth fault protection using
reactance relays type XCG22 and also starting relays YCG17.
They are applicable to important line sections where high values of arc resistance would
otherwise affect the accuracy of measurement and where high speed tripping is essential. Highspeed protection is provided for phase and earth faults on 80-90% of the line section and faults
on the remaining section are cleared in second zone, time. The third zone provides backup
protection after further time interval.
Each mho starting unit Y3 and its auxiliary Y3 X is associated with one phase and operates for
all faults involving this phase. Each reactance unit X is connected to measure phase or earth fault
distance, but is prevented from operating by short circuit across the polarizing coils. Under the
phase fault conditions, the Y3 X units unblock the appropriate X1 reactance units, which initiate
tripping immediately for faults within their setting.
Operation of the earth auxiliary relay 64 in conjunction with the Y3 X units selects the
appropriate reactance units for measurement of earth faults. The reach of reactance units is
extended by the timer, 2 after successive intervals to cover faults in zone 2 and 3.
Discrimination is not affected by changing faults, for example a zone 2 earth fault which
develops into a double phase to earth fault will be cleared correctly by the X1 (phase fault) units
in zone 2 time. In the rare event of two faults occurring simultaneously at different points on the
line; the scheme will measure to a distance approximately half way.
Source: Internet and several books of Electrical Engineering
Recommended EE articles
Article Tags //
auxiliary relays, differential relay, earth fault, grid, main circuit board, overcurrent,
power substation, relays,
Filed Under Category //
Bipul Raman
Bipul Raman - Bipul Raman (@BipulRaman), a graduate in Electrical Engineering had
presented two research papers in National Conferences. He has overtaken and successfully
completed a project to design an Automated CB Test-Rig for Light Combat Aircraft at Aircraft
Research and Design Center (HAL). Apart from this, he has done several projects at NTPC and
Grid Substation. Not only limited to Electrical Engineering, He is also very much passionate in
Software Development. He has contributed few of his code to 'Codeplex' ( a Microsoft
OpenSource software hosting website ). Visit his complete profile at http://bipul.in/about
1.
sanjay goyal
Nov 12, 2014
We want a aux. relay for transformer protection. The relay details are as under. Auxiliary
relay, Type: VAA. Model no: SPECM2ZG76B. Volts: 110VDC. Make: E.E. So kindly
provide the dealer or shop from where we can purchase this relay.
(reply)
2.
jobert moleno
Oct 20, 2014
4.
jeewangarg
May 03, 2013
[...] 3 Nos O/C relay for overcurrent and earth fault protectionIts used for:3-phase faults
the overcurrent relays in all the 3-phases act.Phase to phase faults the relays in only the
affected phases operate.Single [...]
(reply)
RSS Feed for Comments
Leave a Comment
Email *
Website
FOLLOW EEP!
Electrical Engineering
Daily Dose
Our mission is to be the leading provider of scientific information in the field of power and
engineering in general. We publish, we share and we spread the knowledge.
You're welcome to read, write and contribute to EEP in any way!
Energy Efficency
We see the results of power usage all around us. Every day, the generation and usage of energy
produces more pollution than any other single industry.
It's our time to use energy on smart and more efficent way. EEP is on your side!
Electrical Software
Electrical design without appropriate software and tools is impossible to imagine. This section
covers professional engineering software for design, MV and LV network and photometric
calculations, voltage drop and short circuit calculations etc.
2014 EEP - Electrical Engineering Portal. All Rights Reserved | Privacy Policy | 34
queries in 0.210 seconds.
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Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme
By Admin On April 9, 2011 Add Comment
The Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB) scheme is the most popular pilot
relaying scheme, implemented to protect extra high voltage power lines. This
scheme is more dependable than permissive transfer trip schemes because it trips
the breaker even when there is no carrier signal from the remote end pilot relay.
Ofcourse, the protective relays need to see the fault first.
Equipment needed for DCB scheme
Distance relay like the Schweitzer 421 and the carrier equipment Pulsar TC-10B.
Power line carrier equipment: line tuner, wave-traps, and hybrids. Output from the
carrier equipment is coupled to the power line using line tuners. Hybrids are
required to multiplex signals (Tx/Rx) from the carrier equipment. Wave-traps limit
the carrier signals to the intended line section.
Implementation
Lets examine the DCB scheme using the figure below and its scenarios.
can be assigned to the 85 device at CB1 so that it can key the Direct Transfer Trip
signal. See figure 2 for the oneline implementation of this scheme.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 General Analysis and Background Theory
2.1 Protection Against Direct Over Voltage
2.2 Protection Against Travelling Waves
3.0 Method of Study
4.0 Results
5.0 Discussion
6.0 Recommendation
7.0 Conclusion
8.0 References
SUBSTATION FAULTS AND PROTECTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of this work is to establish the type of faults that may result when substations are
sited in the region of the Niger Delta due to the prevailing climatic conditions. This will aimed at
ensuring as far as possible a small probability of damage to substation insulations.
For most transmission lines, relatively large numbers of yearly flashovers are permitted but such
number of insulation damages is absolutely not allowed for substations. Flashover of insulation
at substation means a short circuit on the busbar which even with the modern means of relay
protection can cause most sever system damages. Substations unlike lines have very low
probability of damage therefore a quantitative idea of the probability, the so called index of
lightning resistance of a substation is used. It is equal to the calculated number of years during
which a voltage dangerous for the substation installation does not occur. For modern high
voltage substations, the index of lightning resistance is calculated as hundred or even as thousand
years which is a proof of attempts made by designers to ensure the largest degree of lightning
resistance of substation (Rao,2008,U.S Dept of Agri.2001,Martinez and Castro 2003).
Substations must be protected from the direct lightning strokes and voltage waves travelling
from the line as well as switching surges. In transmission lines the induced strokes (indirect
strokes) due to lightning are important for 11kv lines only. For high voltage transmission lines
(up to 220kv) the surges due direct lightning strokes determine the line insulations design. For
extra high voltage (400kv and above) the severity of swiching surges is much more than that due
to lightning (Gupta, 2008). Whether external or internal over voltage, for reliable operations of
substation proper protection is necessary. There are factors that may not produce over voltage but
are capable of affecting the operation of the equipments as well as lowering the flashover, these
are humidity, rain temperature, pressure and to some extent contamination on the surface of
insulator and equipments (outdoor).
For proper consideration of these factors with the external and internal over voltages, a proper
selection of protective devices may be made for the safe operation of substation
2.0 GENERAL ANALYSIS AND BACKGROUND THEORY:
Substations can simply be seen as a combination of apparatus that transforms the characteristics
of electrical energy from one form or level to another form with the provision of facilities for
switching. There are various types of substations and are classified according to their services,
design, voltage level and functions. Whatever function a substation is meant for, it is the most
sensitive part of the supply system.
For any reliable operation of substation the basic functions must be performed.
- Protection against direct stroke
- Protection over travelling surges
- Proper earthing scheme must be maintained
2.1 Protection Against Direct Over Voltage:
The effectiveness of lightning protection schemes for high and extra high voltage (ehv) stations
depends upon the degree of overhead shielding against direct strokes to the station area.
Quantitatively, information on shielding efficiency in terms of shielding failure exposures as a
function of shielding angle has been given in several literatures.
The two ways of protecting the equipment from direct stroke is one of the following ways:
(i) Overhead shielding screen (earthed) covering the outdoor substation and the overhead lines
approaching the substation.
(ii) Lightning masts installed at strategic location in the station. Lightning masts are preferred for
outdoor stations up to 33kv. For 66kv and above the lightning masts become too tall and
uneconomical. The overhead shielding wires are preferred because they give adequate protection
and the height of structures in the station provided with overhead shielding wires is
comparatively less than that of lightning masts (Rao, 2008 Mousa 1991).
The height above the surface of ground at which the leader discharge finally orients itself on one
of the objects on earth is called the height of orientation of lightning H, which in the first
instance depend on the height of the lightning conductor h. It is customary to consider that for
lightning conductor up to a height of 30m will be, H = kh, where the proportionality k has a
value of 10-20 (Razevig 2003 Uppal and Rao 2009)
[...]
Excerpt out of 17 pages - scroll top
Year
2011
Pages
17
Archive No.
V213055
ISBN (eBook)
978-3-656-41136-9
ISBN (Book)
978-3-656-41233-5
File size
901 KB
Language
English
Tags
substationfaultsprotection
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Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip Scheme (POTT)
By Admin On January 9, 2012 Add Comment
POTT scheme relies on receiving a trip signal from the remote end relay and the
local relay to initiate breaker trip. The signal is keyed using a Frequency-Shift Keying
(FSK) transmitter/receiver.
Under normal conditions, the relay transmits a guard frequency. This frequency
disengages the relay from operating.
Under abnormal conditions, the relay switches to a higher or a lower frequency to
transmit a trip signal. When relays on both ends of the line shift to the trip
frequency, only then are the breakers tripped. The guard/trip frequencies are
maintained and specified by the utility such that no two lines in the system use the
same frequency.
Usually POTT schemes are not implemented using the power line carrier. A fault on
the T-line may short out the trip signal and therefore inhibit relay operation. In this
scenario, multi-phase coupling of the carrier signal provides the necessary
redundancy for the secure operation of this scheme.
*****
Tagged with FSK permissive over reaching transfer trip POTT POTT scheme
Power Line Carrier
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Power Systems Engineering
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where,
= Line to line voltage in kV
= Interrupting current in kA
Close & Latch Rating or Making Current
Again, used for high voltage and medium voltage circuit breakers. It is the capability
of the breaker to close into a fault and stay in that position without destroying its
poles. This rating is same as the peak asymmetrical current (during the first cycle)
after the breaker closes.
Typically, in HV systems, the circuit breakers are programmed to automatically
reclose after opening for approximately 15 to 50 cycles (depending on the operating
voltage.) If the fault condition disappears in this duration then the breaker will
remain closed otherwise the breaker is tripped and blocked from reclosing.
Essentially, this rating determines if the breaker can stay closed or not.
One cycle is
Tagged with asymmetrical current close and latch rating interrupting rating
momentary rating short circuit MVA short circuit rating symmetrical current
dilip says:
November 23, 2013 at 9:09 pm
i want to check asymmetrical waveform in my relay with current source, how it is
possible
Admin says:
January 30, 2013 at 10:58 pm
Got it.
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Ranveer
Lightining Arrester Why we take the rating of surge arrestor( KV) always less then
system voltage? what's calculation involved?
definitely depend on system characteristics. If LA suitable for directly grounded system are used
at same system voltage at insulated neutral system they will operate on the healthy phases at each
ground fault.
Arshad Siddiqui Actually surge arrestor should be rated as 80% maximum of the system
voltage just like we take for the breakers loading as a tolerance factor. i.e 0.80xsystem
voltage.Michael also has given this concept mathematically.But this is not applicable for isolated
neutral. In that case LA will be more than the system voltage.
Flag as Inappropriate
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Chandra Sekhar
Chandra Sekhar ..
Naomi
Naomi M.
Maintenance Engineer at ZAMBIA National Broadcastinng Corporation
a question in line with this,how is the rating of a surge arrestor determined? example:
single phase load: 220Vac,30A,at 700w or 3phase 400Vac,90A,and 700w
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1. What is a SIS?
A SIS is a Safety Instrumented System. It is designed to prevent or mitigate hazardous events by taking the process
to a safe state when predetermined conditions are violated. A SIS is composed of a combination of logic solver(s),
sensor(s), and final element(s). Other common terms for SISs are safety interlock systems, emergency shutdown
systems (ESD), and safety shutdown systems (SSD). A SIS can be one or more Safety Instrumented Functions (SIF).
2. What is a SIF?
SIF stands for Safety Instrumented Function. A SIF is designed to prevent or mitigate a hazardous event by taking a
process to a tolerable risk level. A SIF is composed of a combination of logic solver(s), sensor(s), and final
element(s). A SIF has an assigned SIL level depending on the amount of risk that needs to be reduced. One or more
SIFs comprise a SIS.
3. What is SIL?
SIL stands for Safety Integrity Level. A SIL is a measure of safety system performance, or probability of failure on
demand (PFD) for a SIF or SIS. There are four discrete integrity levels associated with SIL. The higher the SIL level,
the lower the probability of failure on demand for the safety system and the better the system performance. It is
important to also note that as the SIL level increases, typically the cost and complexity of the system also increase.
A SIL level applies to an entire system. Individual products or components do not have SIL ratings. SIL levels are
used when implementing a SIF that must reduce an existing intolerable process risk level to a tolerable risk range.
4. What does functional safety mean?
Functional safety is a term used to describe the safety system that is dependent on the correct functioning of the logic
solver, sensors, and final elements to achieve the desired risk reduction level. Functional safety is achieved when
every SIF is successfully carried out and the process risk is reduced to the desired level.
5. Wh y were the ANSI/IS A 84, IEC 61508, and IEC 61511 standards developed?
The standards were a natural evolution for the need to reduce process risk and improve safety through a more
formalized and quantifiable methodology. Additionally, and specifically for IEC 61508, as the application and usage of
software has evolved and proliferated, there was an increased need to develop a standard to guide system / product
designers and developers in what they needed to do to ensure and claim that their systems / products were
acceptably safe for their intended uses.
14. What type of communication buses or protocols are applicable for SIL 2 or SIL 3
systems?
The type of communication protocol that is suitable for a SIL 2 or SIL 3 system is really dependent on the type of
platform that is being used. Options include, but are not limited to: 4-20 mA output signal, ControlNet (Allen Bradley),
DeviceNet Safety (Allen Bradley), SafetyNet (MTL), and PROFIsafe. Currently, the ISA SP84 committee is working on
developing guidelines for a safety bus, to make sure that the foundations comply with IEC 61508, and IEC 61511
standards. The first devices with a safety bus should be available by 2008. The Fieldbus Foundation is actively
involved in the committee and working on establishing Foundation Fieldbus Safety Instrumented Systems (FFSIS)
project to work with vendors and end users to develop safety bus specifications.
15. For General Monitors, how can I access the PFD and MTBF data for the products?
The General Monitors SIL certificates have the PFD, SFF, and SIL numbers that correspond to each product. MTBF
data can be provided by request.
16. Can a manufacturer state their products are SIL X certified rather than suitable for use
in a SIL X system?
Individual products are only suitable for use in a SIL environment. A SIL level applies to a Safety Instrumented
Function / Safety Instrumented System.
Product certificates are issued either by the manufacturer (self-certification), or other independent agency to show
that the appropriate process is followed, calculations have been performed, and analysis has been completed on the
individual products to indicate that they are compatible for use within a system of a given SIL level.
Full IEC 61508 certification can apply to a manufacturers processes. Full certification implies that a manufacturers
product development process meets the standards set forth in the appropriate parts of sections 2 3 of IEC 61508
(including hardware / system and software). Receiving full certification from an accredited notifying body gives the
end user confidence that the manufacturers engineering process has been reviewed and its products electrical
content, firmware and logic have been assessed and conform to the guidelines set forth in the standard.
There are very few nationally accredited bodies that can issue nationally accredited certifications. Other consulting
firms issue certificates that indicate that the product and / or process has been reviewed by an independent third
party.
17. Can a manufacturer state their products meet all parts of the requirements of IEC 61508
parts 1 to 7?
IEC 61508 consists of the following parts, under the general title Functional Safety of
electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems:
Part 1: General requirements
Part 2: Requirements for electrical / electronic/programmable electronic
safety-related systems
Part 3: Software requirements
Part 4: Definitions and abbreviations
Part 5: Examples of methods for the determination of safety integrity levels
Part 6: Guidelines on the application of parts 2 and 3
Part 7: Overview of techniques and measures
To be in compliance with the standard, it is necessary to conform to Parts 1 3. Parts 4 8 are informative only and
can be useful in understanding and applying the standard, but do not have requirements for conformance.
Manufacturers of products generally meet Section 2 requirements to determine through a FMEDA analysis that their
products are suitable for use within a given SIL level.
Companies choosing to certify their engineering processes and receive full IEC 61508 certification will also comply
with Section 3 as it relates to software development.
18. What does SIL X suitable mean, is this a valid statement as per the standard IEC 61508 or
can an y other w ording be used?
SIL stands for Safety Integrity Level. A SIL is a measure of safety system performance, or probability of failure on
demand (PFD) for a SIF or SIS. There are four discrete integrity levels associated with SIL. The higher the SIL level,
the lower the probability of failure on demand for the safety system and the better the system performance. It is
important to also note that as the SIL level increases, typically the cost and complexity of the system also increase.
A SIL level applies to an entire system if it reduces the risk in the amount corresponding to an appropriate SIL level.
Individual products or components do not have SIL ratings. SIL levels are used when implementing a SIF that must
reduce an existing intolerable process risk level to a tolerable risk range.
To be compliant with the standards. It is up to the user to ensure that procedures have been followed properly, the
proof testing is conducted correctly, and suitable documentation of the design, process, and procedures exists. The
equipment or system must be used in the manner in which it was intended in order to successfully obtain the desired
risk reduction level. Just buying SIL 2 or SIL 3 suitable components does not ensure a SIL 2 or SIL 3 system.
..
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Arun Khilnani
Larsen and Toubro
In an industrial set-up, why are the capacitors in a APFC Bank in LV systems connected in
Delta, while in HV they are connected in Star?
Why do we use a delta connected capacitor bank for LV systems and a star connected capacitor
bank for HV systems? Is it because the Shor Circuit current on LV side is more than HV ? Or has it
something to do with in-rush currents ?
TOPICS
Electrical Design
7QUESTIONS
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Nov 5, 2014
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POPULAR ANSWERS
Dear Arun Khilnani, as the price of capacitors go up with the voltage rating, it is economical to use low voltage
capacitors in delta connection. In order to use the same cheap capacitors for HV systems, we connect the capacitors
in series and in star arrangement to have smaller voltage across each capacitor. As you know the voltage for a
phase of a star is 1 over 1.73 the line voltage.
Nov 7, 2014
Views 203
Followers 10
Answers 7
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Technology Updates
Zero cross over turn on - SCR firing card for Capacitor Bank
Libratherm offers SCR firing card model TSC-306 which is specially designed for
APFC control applications to switch ON and OFF 3 phase capacitor banks, based on
the command from the automatic power factor controller (APFC). These cards are
developed to replace the electro-mechanical contactor based capacitor bank switch
with the solid state switch using silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or thyristors. The
firing pulses are generated using zero cross over firing techniques and two sets of
gate / cathode pulses are isolated using the on card ferrite core pulse transformers.
Each card can simultaneously trigger 2 sets of back to back SCRs or 2 thyristor
modules to switch 3 phase capacitor bank. TSC-306 accepts control signal in the
form of relay contact or DC pulse from APFC, there by turning on or off the SCRs to
connect or disconnect the capacitor bank to the incoming 3 phase power lines.
TSC-306-S
TSC-360-D
Each TSC-306 card has the provision to accept 2 external thermostat contacts,
which can be used to operate the cooling fan mounted on the heat sinks and to trip
the circuit in case of over - heating. On card LED indicates the on/off status of
incoming DC power supply, firing of capacitor banks and over temperature.
Normally, each of the power factor controller gives 6 to 12 outputs to select that
many capacitor banks of different KVAR depending on the total KVAR demand to
maintain the unity power factor. Hence, for each output from APFC it will be required
to use 6 to 12 nos. of TSC-306 cards.
The APFC panel builders can use TSC-306 as an independent firing card and can
wire the SCR modules separately mounted on the heat sink in the panel. The
physical isolation of electronic cards and SCR modules makes the overall system
more safe, reliable and it becomes easy to maintain and service. Libratherm has
supplied more than 5000 cards, which are installed on the field giving satisfactory
performance for power factor control application.
Technical Specifications:
Item
Model
Control
Command
Triggering
Pulses
Triggering
Technique
Gate Current
Switching time
Load
Configuration
Over
Temperature
Protection
LED Indications
For Power ON, THY1 ON, THY2 ON, FAN ON, CB ON, Over
Temperature.
Aux. Supply
Voltage
Three Phase
Voltage
Mounting
Card Size
150 (l) x 109 (w) x 60 (h) mm. (with DIN rail frame)
Application:
Following diagram shows one of the application of using ZERO CROSS OVER firing
card model: TSC-306 for Automatic power factor control for selecting the capacitor
bank using back to back connected SCRs. One such card will be required for each of
the capacitor bank, which can be selected through APFC controller by giving relay
contacts or DC pulse to this card. TSC-306 cards can be used by APFC panel builders
and OEMs. Using this card, one can make their own thyristor switch module for
desired KVAR by appropriately choosing SCRs, Heat sinks and RC snubber circuits.
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Mainathan
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Comments: Nested
Why PF improvement
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#1
Re: Why PF improvement
capacitors are in Delta
connected? y not in Star?
12/20/2011 11:58 AM
Isn't this in your text book?
Location: Want to
be: 34 34' 21.60"
N, 92 55' 42.28"
W Really am in
Arizona
__________________
Luck comes and goes. Skill is
what you make of it. The
supply of fools will always
outstrip the demand .
Posts: 30741
Good Answers:
1165
Mainathan
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#2
Posts: 6
12/21/2011 12:29 PM
hello.......lyn..... i know about
pf. understand my
question...ok. dont answer as
like that........
Register to Reply
2
Ron Nombri
Power-User
#3
Re: Why PF improvement
capacitors are in Delta
connected? y not in Star?
12/22/2011 7:23 AM
#4
Posts: 2015
Good Answers:
163
12/29/2011 6:33 AM
Draw the equivalent circuit of a
delta connected capacitor. You
will find that for the same cell
capacitance (C), delta
connection will give 1.5C
between any two lines,
whereas if they are star
connected, you would only get
0.5C between any two lines.
Which is cost effective?
Having said that, please note
that this delta connection of
capacitors is practised only in
low voltage. All HV capacitors
are invariably Star connected.
Because, if HV capacitors too
are Delta connected (for the
total capacitance advantage,
as in the case of LV
Capacitors), the insulation has
to be done for line voltage.
Whereas if you connect it in
star, you need only the phase
voltage insultaion, which would
greatly reduce the cost.
In, LV there is no big cost
difference between phase
voltage (240V) insulation and
Line Voltage (415V) insulation;
so, you get cost-effective by
going for delta connection so
that you get a bigger line
capacitance with a smaller cell
capacitance.
Whereas in HV, there is
considerable cost difference
between phase voltage
insulation and line voltage
insultaion and this cost
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Connection to the MV utility distribution network
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LV Distribution
Protection against electric shocks and electric fires
Sizing and protection of conductors
LV switchgear: functions and selection
Overvoltage protection
Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
Power Factor Correction
Power harmonics management
Characteristics of particular sources and loads
Contents
[hide]
1- Reduction of losses
3- Meters
Reduction of losses
Although the ideal condition noted in the first possibility mentioned above cannot
be realized in practice, many tariff structures are based partly on kVA demand, as
well as on kWh consumed. Since, for a given kW loading, the minimum value of
kVA occurs at unity power factor, the consumer can minimize billing costs by
taking steps to improve the power factor of the load (as discussed in Chapter L).
The kVA demand generally used for tariff purposes is the maximum average kVA
demand occurring during each billing period, and is based on average kVA
demands, over fixed periods (generally 10, 30 or 60 minute periods) and selecting
the highest of these values. The principle is described below in principle of kVA
maximum-demand metering.
Reduction of peak power demand
The second aim, i.e. that of reducing peak power demands, while increasing
demand at low-load periods, has resulted in tariffs which offer substantial
reduction in the cost of energy at:
year, and that for the lowest-load period of the year, may be as much as 10: 1.
Meters
(1) Ripple control is a system of signalling in which a voice frequency current (commo
injected into the LV mains at appropriate substations. The signal is injected as coded i
which are tuned to the signal frequency and which recognize the particular code will o
required function. In this way, up to 960 discrete control signals are available.
Figure C10 shows a typical kVA demand curve over a period of two hours divided
into succeeding periods of 10 minutes. The meter measures the average value of
kVA during each of these 10 minute periods.
A kVAh meter is similar in all essentials to a kWh meter but the current and
voltage phase relationship has been modified so that it effectively measures kVAh
(kilo-volt-ampere-hours). Furthermore, instead of having a set of decade counter
dials, as in the case of a conventional kWh meter, this instrument has a rotating
pointer. When the pointer turns it is measuring kVAh and pushing a red indicator
before it. At the end of 10 minutes the pointer will have moved part way round the
dial (it is designed so that it can never complete one revolution in 10 minutes) and
is then electrically reset to the zero position, to start another 10 minute period. The
red indicator remains at the position reached by the measuring pointer, and that
position, corresponds to the number of kVAh (kilo-volt-ampere-hours) taken by
the load in 10 minutes. Instead of the dial being marked in kVAh at that point
however it can be marked in units of average kVA. The following figures will
clarify the matter.
Supposing the point at which the red indicator reached corresponds to 5 kVAh. It is
known that a varying amount of kVA of apparent power has been flowing for 10
minutes, i.e. 1/6 hour.
If now, the 5 kVAh is divided by the number of hours, then the average kVA for
the period is obtained.
In this case the average kVA for the period will be:
Every point around the dial will be similarly marked i.e. the figure for average
kVA will be 6 times greater than the kVAh value at any given point. Similar
reasoning can be applied to any other reset-time interval.
At the end of the billing period, the red indicator will be at the maximum of all the
average values occurring in the billing period.
The red indicator will be reset to zero at the beginning of each billing period.
Electro-mechanical meters of the kind described are rapidly being replaced by
electronic instruments. The basic measuring principles on which these electronic
meters depend however, are the same as those described above.
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