1

BASIC TECHNOLOGY
TEXTBOOK
YEAR 10

TECHNOLOGY AND EMPLOYMENT SKILLS TRAINING

Ministry of Education
03th January, 2015

PREFACE
This text book has been written for the new YEAR 10 Integrated Basic Technology syllabus to be trialed in
Fiji secondary schools next year, 2015. It is the First edition of the Year 10 Basic Technology resource
material.
It is designed to introduce students to the fundamental techniques of technical drawing, graphics and design,
wood, metal and other common materials and processes with related knowledge on basic hand tools.

Since this is the First edition and first trial, suggestion for amendments will be welcomed.

It is hoped that for beginners for Basic Technology this text book will be relevant for them and that it
provides them the opportunity to pursue further in this field.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION,
SUVA.
06th January, 2015.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This textbook for YEAR 10 Basic Technology has been produced by the Industrial Arts Section of the
Technology & Employment Skills Training Section of the Ministry of Education.
It has been written and compiled by the Year 10 text book writers panel comprising of the following Industrial
Arts teachers:
1. Mr. Kelemedi Navukitu
2. Mr. Ashwin Chand
3. Mr. Amant A. Lal

Nabua Secondary School

Lelean Memorial School
Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Memorial School

This publication has been made possible through the support and assistance provided by the Industrial Arts
Senior Education Officer; Mr Raj I. Chand with guidance from the Principal Education Officer, TEST; Mr.
Tomasi Naborisi; Director TEST, Ms Alumeci Tuisawau and other Senior Staff of The Ministry of Education.
Above all the TEST staff and the family members of the writers are thanked for their patience and wholehearted
support.
Every effort has been made to acknowledge all copyright.
Copyright
Ministry of Education, Fiji, 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.
Any person who commits any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable for prosecution.
Published in 2015 by
Technology and Employment Skills Training
Ministry of Education
Marela House
Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SAFETY

General Workshop Safety

Personal Safety
Hand Tools Safety
Electrical and Machine Safety
First Aid/OHS Regulations
GEOMETRY
Basic Technical Drawing Equipment

Preparing A3 Sheet and Paper Layout

Using the Tee & Set Squares
Styles of Lettering and Numbering
Sketching
Polygons

DESIGN & ENTERPRISING

17

Design Process
Enterprising Skills

HAND TOOLS & MATERIALS

34

Hand Tools & Appliances

Hardware
Working with Non-Metals
Finishing
Sharpening Hand Tools

GEOMETRICAL DRAWING

46

2D Drawings
3D Drawings
Prisms & Cylinders
Pyramids & Cones

JOINTS & PROCESSES

79

Wood Work Joints

Metal Work Joints

Chapter 1

SAFETY
Outcome
s

After studying this chapter students should be able to:

Identify and follow electrical, machine safety
procedures and practices in a workshop.
Practice correct safety procedures and practices
in a workplace at all times.

Introduction
Safety is the freedom from danger or risk when
planned measures or precautions are taken into
consideration to prevent injury to a person or
others. Safe practice in school premises is very
important. Practically, every school workshop
contains many potential hazards. However, with
proper control, these hazards can be eliminated.
Safety in workshop can be achieved by
appropriate implementation and adherence to the
correct safety rules. Training students in the use of
safety equipment, safety procedures and
encouraging them to create a safe working
environment are the best ways to reduce injuries
and accidents.

Workplace Safety Rules

Safety First in the Workshop
Tools and machines used in the workshop, if not properly used or handled, may result in injury to the
workers and damage the tools and machines. Developing safe working attitudes and adopting safe
methods are the best ways of avoiding unnecessary injury to the workers, damage to the tools and
machines in the workshop.
A workshop is a building or place where facilities such as machines, tools and workbenches are
provided to enable a worker or student to carry out the practical tasks.
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Workshop safety is important because it:

Ensures free movement and a comfortable working condition.

Prevents workers from injuries.
Guides students to work in a safe environment.
Helps workers feel safe and confident.
Enables the workers to pay attention to their surroundings.

First Aid and OHS procedures in the Workshop

First aid
First Aid provides the initial and immediate attention to a person
suffering an injury or illness. In extreme cases, a quick first aid
response could mean saving a person from injury.
In many cases, first aid can reduce the severity of the injury or
illness. A quick and competent first aid response also calms the
injured person, reducing unnecessary stress and anxiety.
Some first aid tips to know in the workshop:
Always keep a First-Aid kit in the workshop and know where it is.
Get to know your working environment, in particular where to find a fire extinguisher and an
emergency stop.
Report ALL hazards, unsafe conditions and work practices.
Use the workshop in presence of a supervisor or a teacher. Avoid working alone in the
workshop.
Ensure that all passages to, from and in the workshop are completely clear.

Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)

OHS is an area concerned with the health, safety and welfare of
people engaged in work or employment. According to the OHS
Act 1996 and OHS regulation, all schools to maintain a safe and
healthy workplace for its teachers and students. The school
should have an evacuation plan which includes a map indicating
evacuation routes. This plan should be displayed on notice
boards so that it is visible when needed and using this evacuation drills to be conducted on a regular
basis.

Electrical and Machine Safety

Electrical safety in schools is achieved through the proper use
and installation of electrical equipment in workshop. Also, all
users must be properly instructed concerning electrical hazards
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in their workplaces and understand the necessary safe work practices to avoid injury.
Machine hazards are a major cause of accidents and must be identified and controlled to avoid injury
to users working on or near one of the machines. Due to the possibility of serious injury, all electrical
hazards should be reported to the immediate supervisor.
Some of the following electrical and machine safety rules can ensure a safe working environment in
the workshop.
Always wear an apron or dust coat, as it will protect your clothes and hold loose clothing such
as ties in place.
Wear goggles or safety glasses equipped with side shields when working with machines. Be
sure to have enough light to see the work after wearing the protective glasses.
Keep the top of your bench and floor around it clean and neat. End your work ten minutes
earlier to properly and safely store equipment in appropriate places and to clean your
workplace as well as the workshop.
Report any electrical faults or conditions that could cause injury to the operator or damage to
machine.
Avoid talking to or distracting the attention of anyone operating a machine. If you are the
operator, do not talk to others while working. If you are an observer, stand at a safe distance
from the machine.
Do not go beyond the danger zone lines marked near machine areas. Do not attempt to touch
any worn out machine parts, electrical wires or power cords.
All personnel operating machines must be properly trained, qualified, and competent to
perform the task.
Knowing and understanding electrical and machine safety, will help you by providing a safe working
environment.

Questions
1.
Describe how to dress properly in the workshop.
2.
Why is it important to follow instructions or direction in the workshop?
3.
Why is it important to learn how to use tools correctly?
4.
What is the most dangerous thing you can do in the workshop?
5.
Why is it important to report all accidents?

Activity
1.
2.

Prepare a poster based on one of the safety rules discussed in this chapter.
Prepare a housekeeping checklist. This list can be used during the workshop clean-up time to
help make sure tools and materials have been properly put away and the area has been cleaned.

Chapter 2

GEOMETRY
Outcome
After studying this chapter you will be able to:

Recognize and develop skills in orthographic

projection
Acquire the concepts in of 3rd and 1st angle
orthographic projection
Develop the skills in pictorial drawing

Technical Drawing Instruments and Standards

Technical drawing uses lines and various forms of letters and figures. The drawings must accurately represent
the shape of the object and all the details necessary to fix its size and its position must be included. As with
languages, technical drawing has its own rules. These are based on the correct use of lines, figures and other
signs.
Technical drawing is the common language of technology and industry. The manufacturer, designer, builder
and technician all use technical drawing for communication and construction.
Technical drawing has many advantages over words.
1. Drawings of two and three dimensional shapes try describing a tool or household utensil in words.
2. Complex mechanisms a motor cycle engine.
3. Design ideas a bracelet; a car body.
4. Standard drawing practices throughout much of the world mean there are no language barriers.
5. There are no differences in the understanding of a drawing. Different meanings may be read into words.

Preparing an A3 Sheet

The TITLE BLOCK

This title block is for an A3 drawing sheet
EXAMPLE
Given below is an isometric view and orthographic projection of a simple solid with dimensions

Steps in setting your DRAWINGS

1. Draw a horizontal line with a Tee-Square

2. Measure 70mm and draw the second horizontal line with a Tee-square
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3. Draw the horizontal line with a T-Square

4. Measure 50mm and draw the fourth horizontal line with a Tee-Square

5. Draw the first vertical with the longer edge of the 30/60 set square

6. Measure 70mm and draw the vertical line with the Set-Square

7. Draw the verticle line with the set-square

8. Measure 10mm and draw verticle the line with set squares

9. Now we are left with 3 views illustrated below.

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LETTERING

BASIC STROKES
EXAMPLES
Application of Basic Stroke

Uppercase Numbers and Numerals

1. Straight Line Letters

2. Curved Line Letters

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3. Curved Line Letters and Numerals

4. Lower Case Letters

Good and Poor Lettering

GOOD
NOT UNIFORM IN STYLE

NOT UNIFORM IN HEIGHT

NOT UNIFORMLY VERTICALLY OR INCLINED

SENTENCE COMPOSITION
Leave the space between words equal to the space required for writing the letter O.
Example

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DESIGN PATTERNS

ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION

Plane figures which are either enlarged or reduced use ratios and scale for changing the size and proportion of
their geometry. The ratios are added to determine the enlarged or reduced scale.
EXAMPLE 1

ENLARGEMENT and REDUCTION OF POLYGONS

Plain figures which are either enlarged or reduced use ratio's and scale for changing the size and proportion of their geometry. The ratio's are added to
determine the enlarged or reduced scale.

For Example;
Enlarge the Regular
Pentagon below to the ratio 2:5. Once the pentagon is constructed, the scale division of five
Reduce the given Hexagon from the ration 5:2.
Enlarge the regular Pentagon below to the ratio 2: 3. The ration 2 + 3 = 5
is taken from anydivisions
points
ononthe
side
ofthethe
pentagon.
is placed
the scale.
Once
pentagon
is constructed, the scale

division of five is taken from any points on the side of the pentagon.

D'

C'

E'

E'

D'

A0

C'

F'

A
12

B
3

B'

B'
1

14

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

ENLARGEMENT and REDUCTION OF POLYGONS

Plain figures which are either enlarged or reduced use ratio's and scale for changing the size and proportion of their geometry. The ratio's are added to
determine the enlarged or reduced scale.

EXAMPLE 2

For Example;

given Hexagon from the ration 5:2.

Reduce the given Hexagon from the Reduce
ratiothe9:4

Enlarge the regular Pentagon below to the ratio 2: 3. The ration 2 + 3 = 5

divisions is placed on the scale. Once the pentagon is constructed, the scale
division of five is taken from any points on the side of the pentagon.

D'

C'

E'

E'

D'

A0

C'

F'

A
12

B
3

B'

B'
1

3
4
5
6
7
8

METHOD

1. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR PENTAGON WITH A CIRCLE GIVEN. ENLARGE TO THE RATIO 2:3

2. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR HEXAGON WITH A CIRCLE GIVEN. ENLARGE TO THE RATIO 2:3

3. CONSTRUCT AN IRREGULAR PENTAGON WITH GIVEN BASE CD:

SIDE DE = 41mm, EF=43mm, FG= 52mm and GC=47mm. DIAGONALS ARE CE=53mm and CG=57mm.
ENLARGE
TO SCALE 3:4

5
4
2
3
1

15
C

EXAMPLE 3

EXAMPLE 4

EXERCISE
1. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR OCTOGON WITH A SIDE 25mm IN LENGTH. ENLARGE TO SCALE 3:4
2. CONSTRUCT A REGULAR OCTOGON WITH A SIDE 35mm IN LENGTH. ENLARGE TO SCALE 2:3
3. CONSTRUCT AN IRREGULAR PENTAGON WITH GIVEN BASE CD:
SIDE DE = 42mm, EF=44mm, FG= 54mm and GC=48mm. DIAGONALS ARE CE=52mm and
CG=56mm. ENLARGE TO SCALE 3:4
4. CONSTRUCT A CIRCLE OF RADIUS 25mm AND CONSTRUCT A REGULAR HEPTAGON WITHIN
THIS CIRCLE SUCH THAT EACH CORNER FALLS ON THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE CIRCLE.
ENLARGE ITS OVERALL SIZE PROPORTIONALLY BY A RATIO OF 2:3
5. CONSTRUCT AN IRREGULAR HEXAGON, GIVEN THE BASE, SUCH THAT THREE OF ITS
INTERNAL ANGLES ARE 110 EACH AND ALL THE SIX SIDES ARE EQUAL IN LENGTH. ENLARGE
ITS OVERALL SIZE PROPORTIONALLY BY A RATIO OF 3:4.

6. CONTRUCT A TRIANGLE ABCD, GIVEN BASE AB, IF AC=50mm AND BC=90mm. ENLARGE THIS
TRIANGLE TO A SCALE OF 2:3
7. CONSTRUCT A 60mm x 50mm PARALLELOGRAM WITH AN INTERNAL ANGLE OF 60.
ENLARGE THIS PARALLELOGRAM TO A SCALE OF 3:4

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Chapter 3

DESIGN AND ENTERPRISING

Outcome
s
After studying this chapter students will:

Identify,understand and interpret the relevance of the

cycle in designing.
Identify and differenciate the traditional local design.
Recognise the important of recycling and
sustainbility in design.
Recognise and develop enterprising skills and
characteristic through planned tasks and projects.

Introduction
The designing process is seen by many as a constant search for better solutions to our needs.For
example , good industry employers constantly use the designing process as they try to improve
products and processes.It involves working through a series of linked steps that lead to solving a
problem or satisfy a need.
Developing skills with this designing process takes practice.While using the process in different
situation learners will gain confidence and success. Most people get a lot of enjoyment from designing
and making something useful,or solving a problem or reaching a decision about a difficult situation.
Designing and Problem Solving.
They both use the same designing strategy or process to reach a solution. The designing process
usually results in an actual product or process involving materials and information.
Problem solving uses the designing process to lead to a decision or solution.This may not involve a
product.Problem-solving or decision making is not always concerned with technology and is useful in
situtions such as buying of tool, planning a party or festival, choosing a study program, planning a
holiday or trip, making choices, finding an engine problem and working out how to do something.
In these examples,the outcomes do not involve the production of a final product or process.

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Technicians in the appliance service and automotive industries are very involved in problemsolving,
but less so in designing.
SUMMARY
Designing usually leads to actual products.
Problem solving uses the designing process to find a solution or decision that may not involve
a product.

Important of Using Design Process

Solutions to designing tasks are rarely reached in a disorganised way. You rarely find good solutions
by chance.
The use of an orderly process always leads to better decision or solutions. This process helps ensure
that important things are not overlooked.
Designers are more likely to produce better results as they develop confidence, experience, and
practice skills with the designing process.
What is the designing process?

The designing process involves four linked main stages:

Investigating the problem, ideas for solutions, and information about ideas.
Designing solutions
Producing the final solution
Evaluating the outcomes.

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You can use this process for most designing tasks, no matter how complex. Some design tasks are
relatively quick and simple-others can be complex and difficult.

INVESTIGATING
o

o
o
o

Investigating the design brief:

oINVESTIGATING
Clarify the problem
o Note expectations or specification
about solution;
o Explore issues about the problem
Investigate ideas of solutions
Find information about ideas
Evaluate and document your Design Folio

DESIGNING

EVALUATING
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o

Think about the outcome

Does it meet the design brief?
How well does it work?
Could it be improved?
What remains to be done?
Complete your design folio

Identify the most likely ideas.

Develop and refine the idea.
Devise the proposed solution
Model or trial the proposal
Evaluate and documents
your Design Folio

PRODUCING.
Produce the solution that can involve any making
activity example
o
o
o
o
o

Built and test a protoype

Implement a decision
Construct, establish, build, etc
Repair tasks
Evaluate and document your design folio
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A large designing task can have many small designing tasks embedded in it. For example, the process
of designing a car or a building can have hundreds of small design tasks, for various parts, within the
main task.
Designing is much more than simply drawing plans, shaping, styling or decorating. These activities are
important, but they are only a small part of the designing process.
Are all stages of the process necessary?
All stages of the designing process are important, and each
stage must be included in any designing task. For some tasks
you may need to spend more time on one stage of the
designing process than others. For example, an electric
security lock on door could take a lot of planning and
development work, but the final solution may quite easy to
build.
Where does the process start?
All designing or problem-solving tasks start with a need. However, different tasks may require the
designer to enter the designing process at different points.
For example, a designer can start with a new design brief, and move through the investigatingdevising-producing-evaluating process. Another situation may start with an existing product that
needs to be repaired, modified or improved. In this case, the designing process is evaluatinginvestigating-devising-producing-evaluating.
Review progress at each stage
At each stage of the process, you have to make many judgements and decisions. It is important that
you evaluate your process and the decisions made at each stage. Do not wait for the final evaluation
stage.
Working with others
Wherever possible, work with others throughout the
designing process. Discussion and cooperative activity
will normally produce better results.
When working with others decisions will be shared or
sometimes settle conflicts as the group works through
the process.
Documentation
Keep records of all stages in all stages in the designing
process. Do not throw anything away, even rough ideas
sketches, brainstorming notes, or results of test or
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experiments made. It is necessary for every designer to document every material in Design Folio for
assessment as evidence of the process used.
The type of documentation needed will depend upon the task for the audience or client. This will be
clear at the design brief stages. Documentation will be done on some certain stages and for other task
Design Folio to be prepared to cover he total process.
For oral presentation about the proposed solution different material such as charts, or pictures to be
presented. Graphics are an important part of the designing process. The type of graphic used must suit
the task and the stages of the design process. At the investigating and designing stages, for example,
you may only need thumbnail concept sketches or flow charts. Your final drawing must comply with
normal drawing conventions.
INVESTIGATING THE BRIEF
The design brief is a statement about the needs or problem and any expectations or specifications
required for the solution. A design brief is like a contract, because it sets out all the conditions and
specifications that to a situation. The design brief outlines the problem or need, the task expected to be
undertaken, any specifications for the solution, and any special conditions
The design task is easier to tackle if the design brief is clear and precise. If the brief is not clear, design
work may be misdirected. In some cases the design brief will list some essential outcomes that must be
met. It may also list some desirable outcomes. These are not absolutely essential.
Clarify the problem or the need.
Investigating and clarifying the problem is the first important step along the path to a solution.
Thinking and discussion of the problem should have some background reading.
Specifications and limitations
In designing tasks, some factors are set and beyond the designers control. This will place limits on the
designing process. These could include:
Time: the solution may be needed by certain date.
Processes: the tools and equipment available may influence the processes to be used.
Materials: the choice of materials may be defined, or be limited to those available.
Cost: there may be limited budget.
Performance specification: the solution may have to satisfy some performance requirements.
Operational requirements: where and how the solution will be used.
Discussion
What does this statement mean?
Dont ask the designers to build a bridge .Ask them how to get across the river.

Check list-The design brief

Do you know what is expected of you?
Details about the folio required?
Are requirements about the task clear?
Due date for drafts and final report.

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INVESTIGATING IDEAS
The investigating ideas stage of the designing process is vital.
Good solutions depend upon good ideas. Some background
reading or discussion with others may help you with
understanding the problem set in the design brief. Internet,
encyclopaedia, magazines and textbooks can be useful.
A range of ideas gives the designer many options for possible
solutions to the problem. Investigate a lot of ideas, no matter
how unlikely they may be seem and often, these ideas can lead
to surprising and creative solutions.
Work with others where possible, and discuss as many ideas as you can think of.
Good designers try to be creative.
The easiest way to get ideas is from our own background and this will improve with experience and
confidence. There are many ways to get new or better ideas
Successful designers try to think creatively about problems. They question the obvious or traditional
ways of dealing with things, and try to look at situation from different angles. They do not limit there
thinking by using traditional solutions.
Good designers try to be imaginative, and approach their work with a sense of fun.
Designers always look for better ideas and solution that are simple, elegant and effective.
Effective designers are hardly ever satisfied with their first ideas, and search for better ideas.
Brainstorming is a useful and enjoyable way to produce creative ideas. Usually it involves a group,
where everybody contributes ideas.
Check list-Investigating ideas
Is the design brief clear?
Is the task clear?
How will you find good ideas?
How will you find creative ideas?
Will you contact or interview resource people for ideas? (who)
Will you use range of resources to get ideas?
How have others handled this problem? Are there any existing ideas or solutions that
could help you with the task?
Evaluation of the Investigating Ideas stage
Have you found useful range of ideas?
Have you found several creative ideas?
Have you found several ideas that appear to be likely solutions?
Have other people been involved in developing ideas?
Have you discussed the ideas with others?
Have you made notes and sketches about the ideas?

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INVESTIGATING INFORMATION ABOUT IDEAS.

An idea is only a starting point or option for a solution.
Before an idea to be considered as a likely solution,
there is a need to more about it. For example using an
idea involving certain material; the following
information about the cost, sizes, availability, and
properties is needed. These are factors to help in
analyses.
The investigating ideas stage and investigating the
information about ideas stage are closely linked, and you may need to move backwards and forward
between two stages many times-as you make decision about information you are analysing.
Sometimes the ideas will be rejected because of the information found; it may be too costly, material
may not be available in the sizes needed, or the idea may be unrealistic or not practical. This is the
analysis stage or thinking stages.
The information will be gathered by talking, listening and observing, internet and reading reference
book. The more literature available, the more important it is to know where and how to find useful
information. Often the information you find can lead to new ideas.
Evaluation of the investigating information stage
Have you got all the information you need?
Was enough information available for you to make decisions about using the idea?
Is the information opinion or fact?
Is the information detail enough
Have you cross-checked important information?
Do you need more information?
Is the information useful?
What evidence supports the information?
Is the information up-to-date?

DESIGNING MOST LIKELY SOLUTION

Designing process you have to sort out likely solutions and make some careful judgement.
At this stage, you should have considered many ideas, and gathered information about all ideas that
could be likely solutions.
You must choose the idea that seems most likely to be successful. The designer has to predict the way
this idea will work, or how it will work or how it will look.
You may have to choose the best of the several potentially good solutions. It may be that none of the
ideas may be ideal, but choose the best at this stage, unless you consider it to be unsatisfactory because
it does not meet the design brief.
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At this stage you need to develop and refine the idea, taking it from an idea stage to a more detailed
proposal. You may need to test the proposed solution (eg. building a model or mock up).
Evaluating the proposed solution
Does the proposed solution meet the design brief?
Why have you selected this solution?
Have you tested, modelled, or simulated the proposed solution?
What were the results of these tests?
Were any changes required?
How readily can the solution be produced?
Have you selected the most suitable materials?
Have you considered the properties and appearance of materials?
Is the cost of materials acceptable?
Does the solution need packaging or labels?
Are there any dangerous parts?
What will happen if the product breaks?
Can the product be stored properly?

Traditional Knowledge in design

Although classified as non-scientific, the traditional knowledge has been accumulated after centuries
of extensive trial and error experiences from which people have learned. In the sub-tropical conditions
in the Pacific Islands, people have used traditional knowledge to live off the environment on which
they depend for food, supplies, medicine and culture. An appreciation of some of the traditional
knowledge will provide an insight into how the people use and depend on their environment and its
resources. Traditional knowledge can be the basis on which scientific research is utilised to explain the
details that up to now may be unknown or unexplained.
Traditional method of building
Pacific islanders have been dealing with a changing environment for centuries. Adaptation to change is
part of the lifestyles of the Pacific community, and traditional knowledge, values, and practicesor
intangible cultural heritage (ICH)underpins the ability of the Pacific community to successfully live
and thrive in the Pacific environment. In synergy with other scientific knowledge, ICH may enhance
the communities resilience against natural disasters and climate change. Consideration for culture
should be integrated into reducing disaster risk and adapting climate change policies, plans, and action.
Traditional Navigation System
The Pacific, with its land and oceanic areas, spans one third
of the planet. Traditional navigation systems are the most
important ICH elements shared by Pacific communities. For
centuries, Pacific navigators have used a wide range of
traditional knowledge and techniques related to weather
patterns and signs to guide their long ocean voyages. Such
techniques rely upon following observations.
Safeguarding traditional navigation systems reminds not
only the Pacific community but also the entire world of the
ancient knowledge and skills of humanity and of the respect to nature and universe.
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Traditional Farming Systems

The traditional farming systems in the Pacific have a
number of mechanisms that allow for sustainable
production and a supply of agricultural products. These
mechanisms include the production of surpluses, the use of
emergency food resources, control of food consumption,
and the maintenance of agricultural resilience through
diversifying crops. These systems have enabled Pacific
island communities to mitigate the risks and effects of
climatological extremes and to ensure food security. The
common examples of traditional knowledge across the
Pacific are traditional calendars that guide agricultural
planning and harvesting of forest and agriculture products. Tongan farmers have their own calendar
around which farming activities revolved. According to this traditional calendar, the year comprises
thirteen lunar months, where each lunar month consists of twenty-eight days. The Tongan calendar
plays a role when smallholders make decisions about planning, harvesting, and other
Traditional Fishery Systems
Several traditional fishing control practices have
been put in place in the Pacific through different
types of customary marine tenure. These practices
include limiting access, closing fisheries during
certain seasons, establishing no-Examples include
the no-fishing or tabu areas of Fiji,Vanuatu, and
Kiribati; the raui in Cook Islands; the masalai in
Papua New Guinea; and the bul in Palau. These
traditional fishery-management practices have
served as measures for sustainable resource
management and ecosystem protection. They have
also constituted important living food reserves for
communities.
Traditional architecture
There are many examples of traditional building
methods in Pacific islands. Due to the frequency of
natural disasters in the region, many building styles
demonstrate the traditional Fijian bure, which is
mounted on a high stone foundation to prevent
flooding and storm surges. It has a high dome ceiling
to combat humidity and has open sides to allow
winds to pass through. Such traditional dwellings
incorporate architectural styles that enable them to
withstand extreme weather and strong winds. Even
in the event of the structure failing, replacement
materials are readily available and sustainable, and the collapse generally would not injure the
inhabitants. Many of the traditional aspects of vernacular housings in the Pacific have eroded with the
introduction of Western building techniques and materials, Including corrugated iron and concrete.
25

Construction is often unregulated, and buildings are not built according proper building standards and
codes. This makes the Western-style buildings more vulnerable to environment.

Design for recycling

What is design for recycling?
The designed-for-recycling1 method incorporates
recycling and recyclability criteria into the design
phase of products, with the aim of obtaining recycled
and/or recyclable products. The environmental
variable is just another requirement of the product that
is added to all the others, such as its cost, its safety, its
manufacturability, its use, etc. The application of this
variable does not affect the rest of the properties of the
product, and price and environmental improvement
are combined with the aim of manufacturing products
with a reduced environmental impact associated to its entire life cycle and competitive prices.
What are products designed for recycling, or in other words, recycled and/or recyclable
products?
Recycled products are those which are manufactured using recycled materials or components from
products no longer in use. Recyclable products are those that are manufactured to be recycled at the
end of their useful life. In other words, mono-materials are used, the toxic and hazardous substances
are eliminated and a modular manufacturing system is used that produces easily-dismantled products,
compatible materials are used, material that is difficult to use is identified by means of codes, and so
on.
Why recycle?
Recycling is a daily activity for more than 100 million Americans and a great way to protect our
environment and stimulate our economy. Recycling saves resources, prevents pollution, supports
public health, and creates jobs. It saves money, avoids landfills, and best of all, its easy. To
understand the value of recycling, we must look at the entire lifecycle of a product from the
extraction and processing of raw materials, to the manufacture of the product, to its final disposal.
Recycling creates a closed-loop system where unwanted products are returned back to manufacturers
for use in new products. This prevents the pollution and destruction that occurs when virgin materials
like trees and precious metals are extracted from the ear.
Benefits of Recycling

Reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerators;

Conserves natural resources such as timber, water, and minerals;
Prevents pollution by reducing the need to collect new raw materials;
Saves energy; gas emissions that contribute to global climate change

What are the benefits of recycling?

We cannot sustain our consumerist lifestyle without getting inundated by garbage and exhausting the
earths resources. The products that we use are wrapped in several layers of packaging material that
are perfectly recyclable plastic, aluminium, paper, tin, wood, etc. Solid waste disposal experts
26

engage in an uphill struggle to contain this virtual avalanche of garbage we produce every day. It is
apparent that digging a hole, a landfill, is clearly not the answer. Sooner or later, the waste becomes
uncontainable and will spill into our farming areas, forests, and water sources.
Reason for recycling.
Financial Income There is money in recycling. In the level of the individual, one of the benefits of
recycling is financial INCOME. There are a lot of things lying around the house that we no longer
want or need that might just end up in a dumpsite somewhere, that we can recycle AND EARN
MONEY from. Cell phones, PDAs, ink cartridges, etc. Here at Pace Butler, for instance, a phone sent
in for recycling could net the owner as much as $50.There is also the financial benefit for the
communities who recycle in that there will be reduced costs of waste disposal or recycling. You think
recycling is expensive? Consider these recycling facts: aluminium cans are the most valuable item in
your bin. Aluminium can recycling helps fund the entire curb side collection. Its the only packaging
material that more than covers the cost of collection and reprocessing for itself.
Recycling helps conserve limited resources Throwing away a single aluminium can, versus
recycling it, is like pouring out six ounces of gasoline. Last year, Americans recycled enough
aluminium cans to conserve the energy equivalent of more than15 million barrels of oil. Here are some
compelling recycling facts from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.
Recycling is energy efficient On a larger scale, recycling could translate into huge reductions in our
energy costs. Consider these facts: It costs more energy to manufacture a brand new aluminium can
than it does to recycle 20 aluminium cans. 20 cans can be made from recycled material using the same
energy it takes to make one new can.
Recycling builds community In almost all communities in the country today, there is a growing
concern for recycling and the environment. People are working together in recycling programs,
lobbies, and free recycle organizations to help promote recycling. We will be featuring these groups in
our upcoming posts and link with the various networks to help you locate the nearest recycling center
or free recycle group nearest your location.
Recycling creates jobs Incinerating 10,000 tons of waste creates one job; landfilling 10,000 tons of
waste creates six jobs; recycling 10,000 tons of waste creates 36 jobs.
Recycling builds a strong economy Done on a nationwide scale, like what were doing here in the
US, recycling has a huge impact in our economy in terms of jobs, energy cost reduction, resources
conservation. Lately, as the price of oil hits close to $120 a barrel, people have become more aware of
the huge impact of recycling, particularly in reducing plastic waste material coming from the bottled
water and beverage industry. We will be discussing this in detail in our future posts.
Recycling is Earth-friendly No matter how safe and efficient our landfills are being billed to be, the
possibility of dangerous chemicals coming from the solid waste deposited in these landfills,
27

contaminating underground water supply is always present. Combustion or incineration of our solid
waste is effective and energy-generating, but we pay the price in increased air pollution.

Activity
1. Explain the difference between modern and traditional designs support your answer with two
examples.
2. What do you mean by design for recycling?
3. List and briefly explain five reason why design for recycling?
4. What are some benefits for recycling?

Green Design
Sustainable design (also called environmental design,
environmentally sustainable design, environmentally
conscious design, etc.) is the philosophy
of designing physical objects, the built environment, and
services to comply with the principles of social, economic,
and ecological sustainability.
Where Were Going: Education for Sustainability
Today, our students are encountering a rapidly changing and interconnected world. Because of this, it
is time to broaden environmental education to a more comprehensive view of the world that includes
teaching about the environment, as well as the social constructs of culture, society, governance, and
economics. Our quality of life, now and in the future, will ultimately depend upon humans
comprehension of their role in a world of interdependent environmental, economic, and social
systems. The goal of education for sustainability is to develop the capacity for society to meet the
needs of today while assuring intergenerational equity that is, creating opportunities for a positive
present and a hopeful future.
What is a System?
A system is a group of interacting, interrelated, and interdependent components that form a complex
and unified whole. Systems are everywhere. For example, a classroom, a predator/prey relationship,
and the ignition system in your car are all systems. Some systems are nested within larger systems.
For example, the circulatory system is nested within the system we know as the human body. A
system is a collection of things in which the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
What is Sustainability?
The most well-known definition of sustainability meeting the needs of the present without
comprising the ability of future generations to meet their needs comes from the Brundtland Report,
which was the product of a United Nations commission in 1989.
What is Sustainable Design?
28

Sustainable design considers how to design the built environment in a way that cultivates ecological,
economic, and cultural conditions which support human and environmental well-being, indefinitely
(Ann Thorpe, The Designers Atlas of Sustainability, 2007).
Sustainable Design offers the possibility of building schools, office buildings, parks, transportation
systems, and entire communities with an eye toward long-term sustainability, rather than only seeking
to solve immediate needs and desires. It supports city planners, architects, and designers in
approaching each project with the intent to reduce environmental impacts, stimulate the economy, and
provide opportunities for people to connect with each other and the land.
Sustainable design takes a systems-wide perspective. It aims to solve current environmental problems
and prevent future ones from occurring while integrating a wise understanding of social and economic
factors and their impact on the environment.
Common Principles of Sustainable Design
There are some common principles associated with sustainably designed products and processes.
These include:
Use of low-impact materials: Chooses non-toxic, sustainable, or recycled materials, which require
little energy to process. Takes into consideration how the materials (visible and invisible) originate in
and return to the ecosphere (atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere).
Energy efficiency: Implements manufacturing processes that use less energy and produces products
which require less energy to manufacture and operate. Ideally, makes use of renewable energy sources.
Quality and durability: Understands that longer-lasting and better-functioning products will have to
be replaced less frequently, thereby reducing the impacts of producing replacements and disposing of
worn-out products. Another option is flexible designs that have a core component, such as an
automobile chassis, that remains durable, but other components that can be replaced and upgraded
over time as better versions become available, such as the engine and transmission.
Cradle-to-cradle life cycle design for reuse and recycling: Designs products, processes, and systems
for performance in the commercial afterlife of the product. This includes choosing materials with a
cradle-to-cradle approach, so that the materials themselves create clean water, clean air, or can be
composted to enrich the soil. This also includes design to facilitate the eventual separation of
technical nutrients for the industrial process of manufacturing from organic nutrients that will
biodegrade and enrich natural systems.
Bio mimicry: Designs products, services, and industrial systems to mimic biological designs and
cycles found in nature. Natural systems, large and small, are models of interactive functionality that
maximizes effectiveness and efficiency.
Service substitution: Promotes the sharing of products or services among groups of people. For
example, encouraging people to change from private automobile ownership to joining a car-sharing
service. Such a system promotes minimal resource use per unit of consumption (e.g., per car trip
driven).
Local renewable resources: Chooses materials from nearby (local or bioregional), sustainably
managed, renewable sources. Ideally, when their usefulness has been exhausted, biodegradable
resources can be returned to nature as biological nutrients, or alternatively, returned to manufacturing
as technical nutrients.
29

Carbon footprint: Reduces an individuals carbon footprint by choosing products and services that
have been sustainably designed, sustainably produced, and have the ability to be recycled or reused.
Environmental health: Aims to reduce or eliminate human health risks from environmental factors
(such as pollution, heavy metals, etc.) that can be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.
Environmental justice: Aims to provide all people with access to a healthy environment and equal
access to decision-making processes. The development and enforcement of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies should fairly involve all people and should protect groups of people from
being disproportionately affected by environmental health hazards.
Human needs and quality of life: Considers how a design can promote human needs and quality of
life in terms of subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, and
identity.
Design for change: Considers what policy changes, behavioural changes, and technology changes will
enable a design to occur, and what changes will exert the greatest leverage for overall sustainability.
Examples of Systems and Sustainable Design Projects
The following chart provides examples of different systems and a few corresponding sustainable
design project ideas.
SYSTEM
Built
Environment

Energy

POSSIBLE SUSTAINABLE DESIGN PROJECTS

Water

Waste

Workplace Health
& Safety

Create a manual to help schools in your district choose green

building materials and interior fixtures.
Design and build a rain garden at your home or school.
Conduct an energy audit of your home, school, or
community and develop/implement an energy efficiency
plan.
Compare solar, biomass, wind turbines, and geothermal
energy sources and develop a renewable energy plan based
on this analysis.
Conduct a water use audit of your home, school, or
community and develop/implement a water reduction plan.
Conduct water quality testing at different locations within
your watershed (e.g. creeks, rivers, Puget Sound, and marine
estuaries) and design/implement a plan to improve water
quality.
Design an art piece that teaches about your local watershed.
Conduct a solid waste audit of your home, school, or
community and design a plan to encourage the reduction,
reuse and proper recycling of waste.
Design a program to encourage school-wide recycling.
Design and build a composting system at your home.
Develop a system to encourage your teachers and school
office workers to reduce their paper use.
Conduct an ergonomics audit of a work station or process at
a local job site and design a healthy worksite product such as
a chair, writing implement, or electronic device.
Survey health and safety hazards at a local employer and
offer recommendations on how to protect workers.

30


Social and Civic
Action

Food & Farm

Technology

Culture

Media, Music, and

Art

Transportation

Parks & Natural

Areas

Forestry

Survey registered voters who do not vote to find out what

impediments keep them from voting. Design and disseminate
ideas to minimize those impediments.
Work with a local non-profit agency to help design a system
that encourages and rewards volunteerism in the community.
Explore where food in your school/district comes from and
design an incentive plan to encourage the procurement of
products from local farmers.
In partnership with local elementary school students and
teachers, design and plant an organic garden for the school.
Develop an educational program about community supported
agriculture.
Choose a food item (such as a pineapple) and map its
pathways, and environmental impacts, from the farm to your
plate and share that with community members.
Map the cradle-to-grave (life cycle from development to
waste) pathway of electronic waste and design a product that
following the principles of cradle-to-cradle (a product whose
life is continuous, never ending in a landfill).
Identify a landmark, building, park, or other place that has
cultural importance in your community. Design a brochure,
interpretive sign, or other type of media to tell its story and
to educate people about its importance.
Film a documentary in which you interview community
elders about local history.
Organize a festival that features film, music, and art
celebrating your communitys environment, culture, or
economy.
Develop an art program that inspires children to create
sustainability-themed art.
Conduct a rush hour count of carpools versus singleoccupant vehicles along a local freeway or highway and then
develop an incentive program to encourage people to bike,
walk, bus, or carpool to school or work.
Develop a cost/benefit assessment of transportation modes,
such as car, bike, motorcycle, and bus and design an
alternative transportation plan that is economically viable
and socially appropriate for your community.
Write an interpretive guide for a local nature trail or park.
Develop a plan for removing invasive plant species from a
local park.
Investigate the effects of bio solid fertilizers on tree growth
and design a plan or product to sustainably enrich forestry
trees.
Calculate the amount of wood re-used and the reduction of
environmental impacts by Urban Tree Salvage Program (e.g.
in King County) and then design an outreach campaign that
encourages builders to use salvaged wood products.

31


Environmental
Health & Justice

Conduct a survey of a local immigrant group to find out what

environmental health risks most concern them and then
create educational materials in languages appropriate for
your community.
Create educational materials to encourage low-income
women in your community to get mammograms.

Principles of Design
1. BALANCE - Balance in design is similar to balance
in physics. A large shape close to the centre can be
balanced by a small shape close to the edge. Balance
provides stability and structure to a design. Its the
weight distributed in the design by the placement of
your elements.

2. PROXIMITY - Proximity creates relationship

between elements. It provides a focal point.
Proximity doesnt mean that elements have to
be placed together; it means they should be
visually connected in some way.

3. ALIGNMENT - Allows us to create order and

organisation. Aligning elements allows them to
create a visual connection with each other.

4. REPETITION - Repetition strengthens a design by

tying together individual elements. It helps to
create association and consistency. Repetition can
create rhythm (a feeling of organized movement).

5. CONTRAST - Contrast is the juxtaposition of

opposing elements (opposite colours on the colour
wheel, or value light / dark, or direction horizontal / vertical). Contrast allows us to
emphasize or highlight key elements in your
design.

32

6. SPACE - Space in art refers to the distance or

area between, around, above, below, or within
elements. Both positive and negative space is
important factors to be considered in every
design.

Balance shows symmetry in the composition

Movement elements show movement or action
Contrast The elements are opposing one another i.e., big against small, light against dark
Emphasis artist directs the eye to one part of the composition
Rhythm the same elements in a pattern vary in size or direction
Harmony elements are similar in size, shade or shape
Variety elements are different in size, color or shape

Activity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is green design?

Why is green design important in our community?
What is sustainable design?
List and briefly explain four common principles of sustainable design?
List 4 different systems and write down their possible sustainable design project?

33

Chapter 4

HAND TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Outcome
s
After studying this chapter students should be able to:
Identify and familiarize with basic and
common hand tools.
Exhibit their competency in appropriate, safe
and effective use of these hand tools.

Introduction
Every workshop should be well equipped with a number and
variety of tools and equipment for work to be done efficiently.
Although you may not be using all the tools at this level, it is
necessary to be familiar with these tools, also able to identify and
select right tool for the job, and use it safely and correctly. Many
non-wood materials such as metals and alloys, plastics, leather and
glass are widely used in the woodwork industry. Therefore, it is
necessary to know something about these materials. This chapter
displays the basic hand tools and appliances, hardware used in joinery, metals and non-metals used in
woodwork and some types of finish applied to these materials.

Hand Tools and Appliances

All hand tools and appliances must be used for their intended purpose. Hand tools must be inspected
before and after use. The use of any hand tools should be stopped if it becomes unserviceable during
operation.
1.

Combination Square

A combination square is a tool used for multiple

Vial
purposes in woodworking. It combines several of the
features of measuring and marking tools.
The combination square can be used for leveling, as a try square,
to determine the squareness of a piece of joint.
It can also be used as a saw guide.

stainless steel blade

34

2.

Sliding Bevel
Blade

A sliding bevel is a tool which can be set to different angles

to aid marking out. It is composed of two parts, the stock and the
blade. The stock is usually made from rosewood which is a high
quality material. The blade is made from hardened and tempered
steel. It is used to mark lines at any angle on a work piece.
3.

Stock

Sash Cramps
Thread

Sash clamps are used to clamp work together when it is glued.

They vary in size and are normally used in pairs.
Bar

When in use, the sash clamp is placed below the work to

be glued / assembled. The slides are arranged on either side
and scrap wood is placed between each face and the work.
This protects the work when the thread is tightened.
4.

Slide
Head

Hand Saws

Hand saws are hand-held tools, manually-driven, that are designed to cut through softer materials
mainly wood. There are many different types of hand saws that vary based on how and what they cut.
(i)

Keyhole Saw

Handle
Blade

A keyhole saw is perfect in cutting holes

in wood and curves. Its blades are mounted on handle that is made of
metal, wood or plastic and shaped like that of a hand gun.
It is used for cutting holes in soft woods or in drywall, such as cutting
a hole in a wall for a new electric switch.
To safely use a keyhole saw, select the appropriate blade and firmly attach it to
the handle. Depending on the material being cut, a starter hole may need to be
drilled in the wood or drywall so the tip of the keyhole saw can be inserted.
(ii)

Cross Cut Saw

A cross cut saw has wide alternating bevel teeth perfect for rough
cutting on wood grains where tearing out is not important. Its saw
blade ranges from 55 to 70 cm with 3 to 5 teeth per cm.
It is used to cut large pieces of timber or cuts through a tree
across the grain of timber.
For safety, always be aware that the teeth of a crosscut saw are sharp and
pointed. Placing them point-down on an object or a body part will cut it.
(iii)

Panel Saw

Panel saws are perfect for cutting small pieces of wood. It is shorter
compared to regular hand saws and is useful for its portability. Panel
saw length can be as short as 46 cm with 3 to 5 teeth per cm.
It is especially used for cutting light boards like plywood across the grain.
35

(iv)

Rip Cut Saw

A rip cut saw is an aggressive, push stroke handsaw with sharpened

teeth top. Its saw length varies from 60 to 70 cm with 2 to 3 teeth
per cm. It is specially designed for making cut parallel to the direction of the
wood grain.
(v)

Back Saw

Back saws are used for trimming and fine woodcutting.

Its teeth are smaller compared to other types of hand saws grouped
tightly together to achieve a fine cut. There are various subtypes of
back saw like the Mitre saw, Dovetail saw and Tenon Saw. Back saw
blade size can range from 20 cm to 40 cm.
It is used for making fine accurate cuts in small pieces of wood
such as cutting of joints, angles with and across the grain.
(vi)

Coping Saw

Coping saws are perfect for cutting complex patterns on wood. It has
a sprung steel frame with a wooden handle that can be turned to tighten
the blade. A coping saw is a pull stroke hand saw.
(vii)

Hacksaw

Hacksaws have fine, disposable blades held in tension by front

and back pins. It is used in metal cutting such as thin tubing and
drill rod with its 7 to13 teeth per cm. Its finer blades can also
cut through cables, wire ropes, light angle irons and channels.
A hacksaw is a push stroke hand saw.
It is used to cut rods, bars, angle plates to required lengths and sheet
metals to specific size and shape.
5. Ratchet Brace and Bits
Hand-operated tool for boring holes in wood, consisting of a
crank-shaped turning device, the brace, that grips and rotates
the hole-cutting tool, the bit. The bit goes into the wood as the
handle is turned. Pressure is applied to the top and the tool is
rotated with a U-shaped grip.
The ratchet must be reliably operational for both direction and
the jaws must hold the tapered tang twist bits, and the dual
purpose combination bits firmly and concentrically.

Hardware for Joinery

There is wide range of hardware available for joinery works. This section focuses on handles, hooks,
hasps and hinges used in joinery works.
36

Handles
The right handles selection and positioning can transform the look of your kitchen units and doors,
taking them from ultra-modern to elegantly traditional.
Door Handles
Doors generally have at least one fixed handle,
usually accompanied with a latch. However,
other types of handles are also used depending on
the thickness and type of door.
Latch Handles
Are for internal use and usually mounted on a back plate. They are used in conjunction with a tubular
mortise latch and suitable for use with doors
that are of 35-44mm thickness.
Lock Handles
Have a keyhole cut for use both internally and externally where a lock is
required and are used in conjunction with mortise sash locks. They are
suitable for use with doors that are of 35-54mm thickness.

Hooks
Whether you want to hang a coffee cup or support a clothes line, you will be able to find a hook of the
right size and shape to do the job. Use large hooks for heavy objects; a small hook may bend or pull
away from the surface when supporting a heavy load. Before installing a hook that screws into place,
make a pilot hole with a nail or drill.
(i) Screw Hook has a threaded end that screws into wood,
ceilings or walls. The open end supports various items. The rounded
tip hook is for household uses; pointed tip is for suspended ceilings.
The L-shaped hook supports wide objects.
(ii) Swag Hook combines a hook with a toggle bolt for hanging a swag
lamp or a plant from ceiling.

(iii) Screw Eye has a ring shaped end. Use it alone by fitting objects
through the ring.

(iv) Hook and Eye has a hook attached to a screw eye that screws into
a gate or door. The hook fits into another screw eye to keep the gate or
door closed or open.
(v) Rope Hook comes in various designs. These are general purpose
hook with two or four holes in the flat stem for screws. A porch-swing hook,
which is screwed into the porch roof, a hammock hook with a plate to secure
37

it to flat surface.
(vi) Self-adhesive Hook made of plastic and meant for light weight
objects. To install, wipe the surface clean, remove lining paper and press
hook in place.
(vii) Coat Hook may have one, two or more hooks in various directions
for hanging coats and hats.

(viii) Picture Hook is nailed into a wall. A wire is attached to the back of
picture frame and hanged on to the hook.

(ix) Heavy-duty Hook is for hanging objects in a garage or workshop

for items like bicycles and spare parts.

HASP
Hasp is a slotted hinged metal plate that forms part of a fastening for a
door or lid and is fitted over a metal loop and secured by a pin or
padlock.
HINGES
A hinge often has two leaves held together with a pivot pin inside knuckles or barrel. Most cabinet and
house doo hinges can be used either left or right handed doors. Hinges can be surface mounted (with
leaves slightly raised), but the leaves create a gap between the door and frame when the door is closed.
Pin
The three basic types of hinges are:
Leaf

(i)
Butt Hinges
Most butt hinges have a non-removable fixed pin. They are
suitable foran exterior door where the barrel is exposed outside;
to remove door, the hinge must be unscrewed. Some have
deattachable pin to allow for door removal without unscrewing the hinge.
(ii)
Flush Hinges
This hinge is normally used for a light weight door and is surface
mounted but does not create large gaps. To install, screw the small
leaf to door and large leaf to the frame; when closed, the small leaf
fits into the large one.
(iii) Tee Hinges
Tee hinges comes in large heavy duty sizes for doors, gates ,
boxes and chests.

38

Working with Non-Metals

Solid non-metals are usually dull, brittle and non-conductors of heat and electricity. Some examples of
non-metals are wood, plastic, rubber, glass and ceramics. Some of the non-metals that are discussed in
this section are PVC, ceramics and manufactured boards.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC pipe is the most used plastic piping material. PVC pipe is manufactured by extrusion in a variety
of sizes and dimensions. PVC pipe is made to conform to various standards for both pressure and nonpressure applications. PVC piping is used in Drain-waste-vent (DWV), sewers, water service lines,
irrigation and various industrial installations. It can be used under ground or above ground in
buildings. PVC materials are resistant to many ordinary chemicals such as acids, bases, salts and
oxidants. Since PVC piping system components are manufactured in a variety of colors, identification
of application is easy.
A common color scheme (although not universal) is:

White for Drain-waste-vent (DWV) and low pressure applications.

White, blue, and dark grey for cold water piping.
Green for sewer service.
Dark grey for industrial pressure applications.

Common Fittings
90 ELL
These fittings are designed to turn the flow of a liquid at a 90-degree angle.
Often in home plumbing, for example, the plumbing needs to turn to flow
where it is needed to avoid existing structures in the home or access outside
lines. This 90-degree turn improves the function and design options for the
system.
45 ELBOWS
PVC 45 Elbow joins two pieces of the same size pressure pipe at
an angle of 45. These are used to re-direct the pipeline and to assist in
turning corners.
TEE
Tee fitting is a necessity in any PVC structure design. There are total of
three ports; with all going in three different directions along the same
plane.
PVC Tee is used to create simple wall structures and three-point
connections in plumbing.
Cross
PVC cross fittings are not quite as common as other fittings, but they are
designed for use when joining four pipe sections or dividing flow in
different directions. This could be done in plumbing and irrigation
systems.
39

Threaded Male & Female Connectors

Female adapters are used to add a female threaded pipe connection on a
solvent welded pipe.
Male adapters are used to add a male threaded pipe connection to a
solvent weld pipe section.
Connector
This connector is used to join two pipes together normally for
extension. The two pipes to be connected together are glued at ends to
be joined into the either ends of the connector and cannot be taken apart.
End Cap
Sometimes a PVC pipe system will end with an opening that
does not need to be connected to another pipe. Perhaps the system
is being left open for expansion, or perhaps the end is left open to
provide access to the system when needed. When this occurs, the
flow needs to be stopped, and an end a cap simply stops the flow.
Ceramics
Ceramics are classified as inorganic and non-metallic
materials that are essential to our daily lifestyle.
Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of
clay, earthen elements, powders, and water and
shaping them into desired forms that are normally
used when materials that can withstand high
temperature are required. As a result, they are used to
make pottery, bricks, tiles, cements, and glass.
Ceramics are also used at many places in gas turbine
engines. Bio-ceramics are used as dental implants
and synthetic bones.
Manufactured Boards
Manufactured boards are valuable materials in their own right, with an important part to play
alongside with solid timber, example plywood and core-board. They are available in large, stable,
standard sheets (1525mmX1525mm, 1220mmX2240mm), of uniform thickness and quality.
Plywood
Plywood is the name given to panels or sheets
constructed by gluing together three or more
layers of this wood called veneers or plies so
that the grain of one layer runs at right angles to
that of an adjacent layer.
Uses of Plywood
The scope and use of plywood is too wide to
explain in detail. However, some common uses of
plywood are:
40

Furniture Manufacture: In carcass construction, it is glued to a framework. It is also used as

backing for cabinets, drawer bottoms, radio cabinets, door panels and chair backs and bottoms.
Building Works: In building works it is used for panelling, flush doors and built-in fitments.
Exterior grades are used for wall sheathing and concrete form-work.
Boat Building: It used in crafts and yachts of all sizes. Special waterproof marine grade
plywood is manufactured to resist water indefinitely.
Aircraft Construction: The strength of the plywood combined with its light weight makes it
ideal for this type of work, light gliders and sail planes.
Other Uses: It is also used in coachwork, railway carriages and boxes.

Core-board
Core board is a manufactured board with a wood fibre
or wood chip centre and bonded veneer faces on both
sides. It is very strong, lightweight, and easily cut
material used for the mounting of photographic prints,
as backing in picture framing, in 3D design, and in
painting.

Working with Metals

A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and
has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Some examples of
metals are aluminium, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, silver and
gold.
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties refers to the behaviour of material when external forces are applied.
Some of the mechanical properties are:
1. Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resist scratch, penetration, cutting action, or permanent
distortion. Hardness may be increased by working the metal and, in the case of steel and aluminium
alloys, by heat treatment and cold-working.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal that allows little bending or deformation without shattering. In
other words, brittleness is the ability to break or crack without changing shape. Since structural metals
are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast iron, cast
aluminium, and very hard steel are brittle metals.
Malleability
A metal that can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without cracking or breaking is
said to be malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is to be worked into curved shapes.
Copper is one example of a malleable metal.

41

Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into thin
lengths without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in making wire and tubing. Ductile
metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure
under shock loads. Ductility is similar to malleability.
Toughness
A material that possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched or
otherwise deformed without breaking. Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals.

Finishing of Materials
The last stage in the construction process is applying a perfect finish. The visual appeal of the material
is one of the attractions of woodworking and metalworking.
Painting is one of the common methods used in finishing materials. However, different types of
finishing are used on different types of materials.

Wood Finishing
Finishes serve to prevent wood absorbing moisture, protect against decay and enhance appearance.
Basic preparation is needed before any type of finish is applied to wood.
Staining
Stain can be used to match different components in construction and to
achieve attractive contrasts of tone. Wood stains ready-mixed are
available in hardware stores. The stain that is needed to be used should
always be tested on an offcut of the same piece of wood.
Varnishing
One of the most popular varnishes used is polyurethane since it is easier to apply and produces clearer
result.
Painting
Paint provides a protective colouring for both indoor and outside
softwood. Sharp corners should be made slightly smooth with
glass paper. First seal with a primer then apply undercoat, rubbing
down between coats with fine glass paper and then apply final
coat.
Lacquers
Several coats of Lacquers is needed for an effective finish since it is
thinner compared to varnish. Spray application is used for best
results but not always used.

42

Wax
To suit different wood types, furniture wax can be obtained ready
coloured. Over some time the wax applied on the material will form
deep lustrous colour within the wood surface.

Oil
Since oil is natural and waterproof, it provides a perfect finish for
outdoor furniture.

Metal Finishing
To protect metal from rust, coat it with Vaseline or light grease.
Oil Finishing
Steel can be either dipped in machine oil burnt into the metal or the
metal can be heated to dull red and quenched in oil.
Painting
For painting metal, the surface must be thoroughly cleaned and then washed with hot water and
detergent. Metal primer is suitable for most metals. For maximum protection an oil-based undercoat
and top coat should also be used.
Plastic Coating
The most suitable method is to dip pre-heated metal into a tank of liquefied thermoplastic such as
polythene, PVC or nylon. This is done to prevent metal from corrosion and to provide electrical
insulation.
Electroplating
Thin layer of metal is deposited on the surface of the metal to be used. Some examples are chromium
plating on steel, silver and gold plating on jewellery and simple copper plating.

Sandstones
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock, typically formed from the most
common minerals in the earths crust. This type of stone can come
in many different colours, from yellow, orange and brown to red,
pink and black. Sandstone has been a popular building material for
thousands of years, used by ancient civilizations for construction,
as well as for housewares.
Common uses of sandstone
Sandstone is a popular choice for both flooring and walls, indoors
and outdoors. Its also commonly used as a decorative stone, or
carved into items like bookends, coasters and
paperweights. Sandstone is often found in backyards and patios,
whether as pillars, arches, fountains or simple arts & crafts.
43

Common finishes of sandstone

Along with slate, sandstone often comes with a natural cleft surface finishing. However, there are
many options when it comes to sandstone finishes.
One popular choice is a honed finish. This finish is created by grinding and sanding, resulting in a
smooth surface that is not as glossy as a polished finish. This is a good choice for high-traffic areas
where low maintenance is desired. For instance, while a polished finish might wear off in a busy
walkway, a honed finish will keep its smooth surface.
The Stone Oil has excellent penetration properties and therefore
ensures a hard-wearing, dirt and water resistant surface. The
Stone Oil is a pre-polish sealer formulated to give an aged
appearance to natural stone and enhances the natural structure of
the floor. Stone Oil may be used indoors on all unfinished, open
structured floors of stone, quarry tiles and marble.

Sharpening Hand Tools

Planes and chisels cut well only if they are sharp. Two kinds of operations are done to sharpen these
tools. Grinding reshapes the cutting edge of tool. It should be done only when the tool needs a new
bevel or when the edge of the cutter is nicked. Otherwise, honing-sharpening the tip of the cutting
edge is enough.
Grinding plane blade
(i)
(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

Check the cutting edge of the blade under light. If it reflects

light, sharpening is needed.
Hold a try square on the edge of the blade and check to see
if the cutting edge is square with the sides. If it does not,
grind off the old edge at right angles to the sides till the
edge is straightened.
If you are grinding the blade freehand, grind as close as possible to the same angle each time
the blade is returned to the wheel.
Continue to grind the blade until a wire edge appears.

Sharpening the Blade

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Apply few drops of mineral oil to the face of the oilstone.

Place the blade at an angle of about 30 to 35 degrees to the
stone.
To hone the edge, move the blade back and forth in a
straight line.
Now turn the blade over and place it flat against the stone.
Move it back and forth to remove the wire edge.
To test for sharpness, try slicing a piece of paper with the blade.
44

Questions
1.
What kind of saw must be used to cut across grain and with the grain?
2.
Why should planes and chisels be kept sharp?
3.
What happens if you bore a hole through a piece of wood from one side and dont
support it with scrap stock on the other side?
4.
What are two kinds of hardware used in constructing projects?
5.
Name and describe two types of hinges used in joinery.

Activities
1.
Use a magnifying glass to examine the teeth of the saws in your workshop. Which are
crosscut saws? Which are rip saws?
2.
Check the plane blades and chisels in your workshop. Do any of them need honing? Do any
need both grinding and honing?
3.
Demonstrate how to install a bit in the brace.
4.
Demonstrate how to mark a door and frame for location of hinges.

45

Chapter 5

GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS
Outcome
After studying this chapter students should be able to:
Recognize and develop skills in pictorial
projection.
Acquire added concepts in pictorial projection.

Introduction
The word construction in geometry has a very specific meaning: the drawing of geometric items such
as lines and circles using only compasses and straightedge or ruler. In the process of preparing a
drawing there will be many occasions when it will be necessary to utilize more than one geometrical
construction. These construction techniques will be helpful in solving problems.
2D DRAWINGS
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Types of Orthographic Drawing (Projection)
1. First Angle Projection
2. Third Angle Projection

FIRST ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

First angle projection is a method of creating two-dimensional (2D)
drawings out of a three-dimensional (3D) object. The views are
drawn as if a torch is shined on the object and a shadow is
projected on the wall behind the object. This is important
information for the layperson when interpreting drawings.

46

Views used in orthographic drawing:

View looking from the front

- ELEVATION

View looking from the top

- PLAN

View looking from the side

- END ELEVATION

In basic orthographic drawing it is important to know that, the views are drawn on the principal planes of
projection.

Principal Plane of Projection

It consists of two intersecting planes namely the VERTICAL PLANE (VP) and the HORIZONTAL
PLANE(HP).
The illustration below shows the relationship between the principal planes of projection in the first angle of the
intersecting planes.

VERTICAL PLANE

HORIZONTAL
PLANE
The illustration below shows the unfolded position of the principal planes showing the proper arrangement of
the views. It must be noted that, even though the three views are drawn separately, there is a very strong
relationship between them. The table below shows the relationship between the three views.
VIEW

VISIBLE
MEASUREMENT

1.

Elevation (Front)

Length & Height

2.

Plan (Top)

Length & Width

3.

End Elevation (Side)

Width & Height

Height
Width
Height
Length
Widt
h

Application of orthographic drawing:

This method of drawing as mentioned earlier is the most effective way of communicating ideas in drawing and
it is mostly used by Architect, Engineers, Surveyors, Civil Engineers

47

Example: 1

Example: 2

First angle projection is a method of creating a 2D drawing of a 3D object. This is important information for
the person interpreting the drawing because if you examine the diagram below you will note that in first angle
orthographic projection:

Relationship of the principal planes and the types of orthographic projection (drawing)
Fig.1

Fig. 2

Unfold position of the principal planes showing the proper arrangement of views.

48

Fig.3 In real presentation of orthographic drawing the 4 corner planes are omitted.

Rules of first angle orthographic projection

Draw the front first
Directly below the front, draw the plan
For the end elevation, things you see from the right draw it on the left and things you see from the left
draw it on the right

THIRD ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Third Angle In third angle the principal planes are seen as transparent plane as shown in fig.4
Fig. 4

49

Rules of third angle projection

Draw the front first
Directly above the front draw the plan
For the end elevation, things you see from the right draw it on the right, things you see from the left
draw it on the left.
You must have seen the arrangement of views in both projections as shown earlier in this chapter. Different
positioning of views reflect the different positioning of the planes in both the projection- (first angle and third
angle)
Fig. 5 Conventional symbols of the two projections

Fig.5 (a) and (b) shows the projection conventional symbols used in orthographic drawing to describe the types
of projection used.
EXERCISES
Draw three views of each object in the positions indicated scale

50

A. For each shaped block 1 and 2 draw the orthographic views in 1st angle projection using the measurement
provided on the drawing. Label the views correctly using guide lines.
1

PICTORIAL DRAWING

3D DRAWINGS

ISOMETRIC

OBLIQUE

PERSPECTIVE

PICTORIAL DRAWING
Pictorial sketches often are more readily made and more clearly understood than are front, top, and
side views of an object. Pictorial drawings, sketched freehand or made with drawing instruments, are
frequently used by engineers and architect to convey ideas to their assistants and clients.
In making a pictorial drawing, the viewing direction that shows the object and its details to the best
advantage is chosen. Several types of pictorial views can be sketched, or drawn. This can be isometric
view, oblique view or perspective view.
A.

ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Isometric means "equal measurement". The true dimension of the object is used to construct the
drawing. You get the true dimension from either orthographic views or by measuring the object.
Because of the ease of using actual measurements to create the isometric image, it has become the
industry standard for parts manuals, technical proposals, illustrations and maintenance publications.
The height of the object is measured along vertical lines. The
width and depth of the object are measured along the 30
degree to the horizontal plane.

51

Step 1
Isometric sketches begin with defining isometric axes,
three lines, one vertical and two drawn at 30 from the
horizontal.
Step 2
Three lines of the isometric axes represent the three primary
dimensions of the object: width, height, and depth.

Step 3

Step 4

Draw the rest of the isometric block.

Draw the font face of the isometric block.

Step 5
Add details to the block starting from the front face. Then add details to the other faces.

Step 6
Darken all visible lines to complete the isometric sketch. (make sure
that construction lines are light)

52

Note: In isometric sketch/drawing, hidden lines are omitted unless they are absolutely necessary to
completely describe the object.
Circles in Isometric
A circle in a orthographic projection will appear as an ellipse in an isometric drawing.Instead of actual
ellipses often approximate ellipses are drawn for isometric drawing. Four-centre ellipses are used to
approximate ellipses on isometric planes.

Draw the isometric centre lines of the circle. Using the centre lines, draw an isometric square
with sides equal to the diameter of the circle.

From the near corners of the box, draw two large arcs with radius R, using the two red points
as centres.

Draw the two smaller arcs with radius r, using two green points as centres.
Example:

B.

OBLIQUE DRAWING

The oblique method of drawing is the simplest method that can

be used to draw objects pictorially. Oblique drawings of objects are
easily recognized because surfaces directly in front of the observer are
viewed orthographically.
In Cavalier Oblique drawings, all lines (including receding lines) are made to their true length.
In Cabinet Oblique drawings, the receding lines are shortened by their true length.

Circles

in

oblique

53

In an oblique drawing, a circle on the surface parallel to the plane of projection will appear as a circle.
A circle on any other surface will appear as an ellipse.

C.

PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

Perspective drawing is used to represent an object as it would appear to the eye when viewed from one
particular position. A perspective drawing shows a view like a picture taken with a camera It may be
used in working drawings where a more realistic representation or artistic effect is required than that
obtained by means of isometric or oblique drawing.
One point Perspective
In one point perspective drawing, depth is added to a
drawing by taking lines to a single vanishing point. One
vanishing point is typically used for roads, railway tracks,
hallways, or buildings viewed so that the front is directly
facing the viewer.

Orientation the object so that a principal face is parallel to the viewing plane (or in the picture plane.)
The other principal face is perpendicular to the viewing plane and its lines converge to a single
vanishing point.

54

Steps in one point perspective:

First, we draw a crate that represents the height, length and width of the object that we
want to draw.
Extra lines are then drawn softly inside the crate until the shape of our object is
complete. We call these feint lines construction lines.
The outline of the object is then drawn darker over the feint construction lines.
Construction lines may be rubbed out using an eraser or if they are very feint, they may
be left.
Finally the drawing may be rendered by adding light, shade and colour.
Examples of one point perspective drawing

Two point perspective

In two point perspective drawing, we imagine two
vanishing points. The two top corners of the page may
be used for most purposes. Two-point perspective can
be used to draw the same objects as one-point
perspective, rotated: looking at the corner of a house,
or looking at two forked roads shrink into the distance,
for example. One point represents one set of parallel
lines; the other point represents the other. Looking at a
house from the corner, one wall would recede towards
one vanishing point; the other wall would recede
towards the opposite vanishing point.
55

Steps in Two Point Perspective

All the lines that are drawn towards
the left are drawn to the left
vanishing point.
All the lines that are drawn towards
the right are drawn to the right
vanishing point.
Vertical lines stay vertical.
We normally draw a crate first that
represents the height, length and width of the object that we want to draw.
Extra lines are then drawn inside the crate until the shape of our object is drawn faintly.
The outline of the object is then drawn darker over the feint construction lines.
The construction lines may be rubbed out using an eraser or if they are very feint, they may be
left. Finally the drawing may be rendered by adding light, shade and colour.
Examples of two point perspective drawing:

ACTIVITY
A. The drawings below show the orthographic views of shaped blocks. Use the measurements
directly from the drawing to draw the isometric and oblique view of the blocks using the
instruments.
B. Draw free hand sketches of the blocks in one and two point perspective.
1.

2.

56

3.
4.

B.

The diagrams given below shows the orthographic views of shaped blocks. Use the
measurements given in the diagram to draw the oblique and isometric views of the blocks.
1.
2.

PRISMS AND CYLINDERS

In technical drawing, objects are usually composed of an arrangement of geometrical solids, either in
one peace or fastened together. An understanding of the geometrical solids is therefore essential before
objects can be satisfactorily represented in technical drawing.
The axis of a solid is the imaginary line drawn from the centre of the top to the centre of the base of
the solid. When the axis is at right angle to the base, it is called a right solid, and when the axis is
inclined to the base or end of a solid it is called an oblique solid. When the edges of the base or end of
a solid are equal, it is called regular.
A cube is a solid contained by six equal squares. The axis is the imaginary line joining the centres of
the opposite sides. A cube can thus have three axes.
A right regular prism is a solid whose sides consist of equal rectangles, ad two equal ends. It is
named by its ends. The axis is the line joining the centres of the ends. The axis is the line joining the
centres of the ends. Examples of right regular prisms are: square prism, equilateral triangular prism,
right pentagonal prism, etc. ( A rectangular prism is not a regular prism).
A right regular pyramid is a solid whose sides consist of equal isosceles triangles meeting at a point
above the base called the apex. Pyramids are named from their bases. The axis is the line joining the
apex and the centre of the base.
57

A tetrahedron is an equilateral triangular pyramid contained by four equilateral triangles.

A right cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its fixed sides. The
fixed side becomes the axis, that is, the line joining the centres of the circular ends.
A right cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about its perpendicular.
The perpendicular then becomes the axis, i.e. the line joining the apex to the centre of the base.
A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semi-circle about its diameter.
Frustum When the upper portion of the pyramid or a cone has been cut away, the remaining portion is
called a frustum, and the solid is said to be truncated.

Types of prisms:
Rectangular prism
Rectangular Prism: A Prism with rectangular bases is a Rectangular
Prism. It has 4 lateral faces and 2 rectangular base and top.
A rectangular prism is a 3-dimensional object, which has as many as six
faces. It is a solid material and all the faces are rectangular. One more
reason because of which it is regarded as a prism is that it has the same
cross section along a length.
Hexagonal prism
A hexagon has six sides and a hexagonal prism has six sides and two bases. It
is mostly considered as a space-filling polyhedron. Moreover, the regular right
hexagonal prism has a definite formula to calculate the surface area and
volume.
Triangular prism
Two triangular bases and three rectangular sides make a triangular prism. It
falls in the category of a tetrahedron. It has 3 lateral faces and 2 triangular
bases.
THE GEOMETRICAL SOLIDS

Pyramids
In technical drawing, objects are
usually composed of an arrangement of
geometrical solids, either in one peace
or fastened together. An understanding
of the geometrical solids is therefore
essential before objects can be
satisfactorily represented in technical
drawing.

Square Based Pyramid

Hexagonal Based Pyramid

Pentagonal Based Pyramid

Triangular Based Pyramid

58

The axis of a solid is the imaginary line drawn from the centre of the top to the centre of the base of
the solid. When the axis is at right angle to the base, it is called a right solid, and when the axis is
inclined to the base or end of a solid it is called an oblique solid. When the edges of the base or end of
a solid are equal, it is called regular.
A cube is a solid contained by six equal squares. The axis is the imaginary line joining the centres of
the opposite sides. A cube can thus have three axes.
A right regular prism is a solid whose sides consist of equal rectangles, ad two equal ends. It is
named by its ends. The axis is the line joining the centres of the ends. The axis is the line joining the
centres of the ends. Examples of right regular prisms are: square prism, equilateral triangular prism,
right pentagonal prism, etc. (A rectangular prism is not a regular prism).

Development of a Prism
Parallel Line Development
To develop the surface of a rectangular prism
(a)Draw the plan and elevation of the prism to scale.
(b) Number the edges as shown.
(c) Set out the stretch out. This is the perimeter of the prism measured off the plan.
(d) Project the height of the prism parallel to the stretch out line.
(e) Draw the vertical fold lines at points 2,3 and 4.
(f) The prism ends are added by revolving the lengths 2-3 and 1-4.
Note: Final outlines should be firm. Fold lines should be light continuous lines.

59

Development of a Cylinder
1.

Draw the plan and elevation. The stretch out for the curved surface of the cylinder should equal
the circumference of the cylinder.

2.

For drawing purposes the cylinder is thought of as many sided prism. We usually divide the
plan into 12 divisions. The length of the stretch out is obtained by stepping off the same
number of equal spaces (12) along the stretch out line.

3.

The height of the development will be the height taken from the elevation. Ends of the cylinder
should be cut out as separate parts.

60

Development of a Cone
Radial line Construction may be used to develop the curved surface of a cone.
Fig A1. These illustrate the construction of a cone.
Fig A2. The intersection of a cone by a cutting plane D-D
Note. The intersection of the plane and cone elements must be projected into the true length
edges.
.

Development of a Pyramid
Fig.1 shows a square based pyramid in plan andelevation. The true length of pyramid edge 03 is not shown in these views and must be constructed before the radial line development can
be started.
Fig.1 shows the construction. Line 0-3 is revolved in the plan view and projected into the
elevation. The true length lateral edge 0-3 is the radius for the construction.
Fig.2 To complete the development of the pyramid, use dividers to set off the base edges 12,2-3,3-4 and 4-1 from the plan view.
61

Fig.3. The pyramid is intersected by the horizontal cutting plane A-A. If you look at the
pictorial view the effect of the intersection is to remove the apex of the pyramid. The pyramid
is then termed as truncated pyramid.
Fig.4. The construction of pyramid in a different layout. The true length is edge 0-2 as its
plan is parallel to the reference line. Therefore, it does not require rebatement method in
finding the true length.
To complete the development the cutting plane is extended to point A in the true length line.
True length O-a can then be transferred to the development.

62

SURFACE DEVELOPMENT
The development of an object is made by laying out the true shape surfaces of the object on a plane.
Fig A shows the development of a square prism. There are six surfaces to lay out in sequence.
Applications. Practical applications involving development are frequently used in sheet metal work
and engineering. Common examples are metal cans, drums, tool boxes, heating ducts. Can you name
any more?
Development of Prisms and Cylinders Intersected by Cutting Planes

63

Radial Line Development

Figs A and B. Pyramids and cones are developed by using the radical line construction.
The fold lines in the case of the pyramid radiate about the apex. The elements of the cone radiate
about the apex.
Fig A. Illustrates the laying out of a square pyramid to provide the true shape of the four triangular
sides and the square base.
Fig B. illustrates the laying out of a cone to give the true shape of the curved surface. Notice how the
cone is divided into equally spaced straight line elements. Remember the construction for the
development of a cylinder? Reference: 11-4.
The small pictorial views of the pyramid and the cone show the names of the various parts.

64

Development of a Pyramid
Fig 1 shows a rectangular pyramid in plan and elevation. The true length
of pyramid edge 0 -1 is not shown in these views and must be
constructed before the radial line development can be started.
Fig 1 shows the construction. Line 0-1 is revolved in the plan view and
projected into the elevation. The true length lateral edge 0-1 is the radius
for the construction.
Fig 2. To complete the development of the pyramid use dividers to set
off the base edges 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1 from the plan view.
Fig 3. The pyramid is intersected by the horizontal cutting plane A-A. If you look at the pictorial view
the effect of the intersection is to remove the apex of the pyramid. The pyramid is then termed a
truncated pyramid.
To complete the development the cutting plane is extended to point A in the true length line. True
length 0-a can then be transferred to the development

65

Development of a Cone
Radial line construction may be used todevelop the curved surface of a cone.
Figs Al andA2. These illustrate the construction for a cone.
Fig A3. The intersection of the cone by a cutting plane D - D.
Note. The intersection of the plane and cone elements must be projected into the true length edges.
Problems 1 and 2
Construct the development of the curved surfaces of the truncated cones.

ACTIVITY

1. Six geometrical solids are illustrated in Fig.1. (a) Write down the correct name for
each solid. (b) Name the development method used for each.
2. Name the various parts of the pyramid shown in Fig2.
3. Fig 3. (a) Construct the true length of edge 0-1. (b) Draw the development of the
surfaces.
4. Fig 4. Draw the development of the sides of the prism. The prism is shown intersected
by the cutting plane D-D.
66

5. Fig 5. Draw the development of the cylinder as described in Fig 4.

6. Fig 6. Draw the development of the pyramid as described in Fig 4.
7. Fig 7. Draw the development of the cone as described in Fig 4.
8. Fig 8. Construct the complete development of the model aircraft fuel tank.
9. Fig 9. Develop as described in Fig 8.
10. What is meant by the term development of the surfaces of an object? (b) What
practical has the development construction?
11. Construct the development of a carton to contain six new drawing pencils.

67

JOINTS AND PROCESSES

Outcome
s
After studying this chapter students should be able to:
Identify common joints
State the use of common joints in wood and
metals
Able to construct these joints

Introduction
Dimensioning of joints is a very difficult and complex operation which precedes breach
of the construction and product deterioration. Stiffness and strength of structural furniture
elements related to and furniture itself depends mainly on the material properties joining
(element dimensions, material type, etc..), the type mechanical connectors and the way of its
shoulder application. It is often found in furniture construction single shear steel-to-timber
joints,
they represent the connection fittings, such as allowing the movement of furniture parts with
screws. From the size and purpose of fittings depends on size of screws for fixing fitting. Our
research task is ascertaining the mechanical properties of single shear steel-to-timber joints
with
wood screws.
WOODWORK JOINTS

Common Mortise and Tenon joint

This is one of the most common woodworking joints and the
strongest as well. The two parts are the tenon which has a
projection on the end and the mortise, the hole in the other
part into which the tenon fits. The width of the tenon is
usually 1/3rd the width of the board.

Constructing the joint:

Step 1 - Preparation of timber

68

(a) Prepare the timber to the required sizes using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge,
Gauge for Width, Gauge for Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length)
method.
Step 2 - Marking out
(In the following steps, the piece with the mortise is
"piece A" and the one with the tenon is "piece B".)
Fig. 3

Fig. 2

(a) Mark out the length of the tenon on piece B.

Allow 3 mm waste in the length and make square
lines all around with a try square and pencil (Fig. 2).
(b) Take piece A and mark out the position of the mortise
on the face edge and make square lines on the edges

Mortise
Tenon

on both sides with the try square (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1

(c) Set the marking gauge to the width of the tenon and
mark the lines around piece B at the width. Mark the
waste with small crosses (Fig. 4).

(d) Use the same setting to mark both faces of piece A and

Fig.
4

Fig.
5

use a try square and (already smoothed) piece B to mark the remaining two lines for
the width of the mortise (Fig. 5). Mark the waste with a small cross.
Note: If the marking gauge has two pins, set each at its correct measurement and mark both
lines at one. If not, mark with the first setting on all the members, then change the setting and
mark the other measurement on all the members.
(e) Always mark from the face edge. Check the marking by setting piece B against the
marks on piece A to see if they fit. Piece B must be smoothed first.

Step 3 - Cutting the mortise

69

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

(a) Bore out most of the waste, using a brace bit (Fig. 6). Clamp a piece of wood to the
underside to prevent splintering and damage to the bench.
(b) Chop out the remaining waste with a mortise chisel, chiseling halfway through from
both sides. Leave about 2 mm extra waste on all sides to prevent damage to the sides.
Keep the cutting edge of the chisel across the grain.
(c) Carefully chop out the rest of the mortise up to the lines (Fig. 7). Keep the bevel of
the chisel towards the inside of the mortise. Do not use the
mallet.
Step 4 - Cutting the tenon
(a) Rip the sides of the tenon sawing on the waste side of the line
(Fig. 8).
Fig. 8

Fig. 11a

Fig. 11b

Fig. 11 c

Fig. 9

(b) Cut in stages as shown in Fig. 11, a, b, c, &d).

Fig.11d

Fig.
10

(c) Carefully saw the shoulders, making sure to hold the saw straight. Keep on the waste side
of the line (Figs. 9 & 10).
Step 5 - Assembling the joint
(a) Check the fit of the members. The tenon should fit tightly into the mortise without
splitting the mortised piece. There should be no gap between the shoulders of the
70

tenon and the mortised member. Don't force the members together. If they don't fit,
find the problem and correct it.
(b) Clean up the inside of the joint where it can't be reached after assembly with a
smoothing plane. (Remember that the tenon should be smoothed before using it to
mark out.)
(c) Assemble the joint.
(d) Plane off the waste end of the tenon, clean up all sides and edges with the smoothing
plane.
Corner Locked or Box Pin joint
The corner locked joint is similar to the mortise and
tenon joint. It is an angled joint with a series of tenons on
one member which correspond to slots on the other
member (Fig. 1). The resulting joint is strong because it
can be nailed from two sides, and the interlocking tenons
and slots also help hold the pieces together.

Fig. 1

Constructing the joint:

Step 1 - Preparation of the timber
(a) Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge for Width,
Gauge for Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.
Note:If the members are to be used for a box where the external appearance is important, the
face sides should be outside. In most cases the face edges are kept upwards.
Step 2. Marking out
(a) Mark out the position of the tenors and slots by gauging or squaring lines at the
corners on the ends of the pieces: on piece A the depth should be equal to the
thickness of piece B (Fig. 2); while on piece B the depth should be equal to the
thickness of piece A (Fig. 3). Allow 2 mm waste for cleaning up after assembly.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 2
7&

(b) Mark out the shape of the tenons on piece B. Keep all tenons the same size.
71

(c) Immediately mark the waste between the tenons with crosses
(Fig. 4).
Step 3 - Cutting the tenons
(a) Rip the sides of the tenons down to the gauge line (Fig. 5).

Fig. 11

Saw on the waste side of the line.

(b) Chop out the waste by chiseling alternately vertically and then at an angle, making
"V" cuts halfway through from each side. (Figs. 6, 7, & 8).
Step 4 - Cutting the slots
(a) Place piece B (with the tenons) over the end of piece A, with the face
side towards the outside as indicated in Fig. 9. Mark the shape of the
tenons onto piece A with a pencil (Fig. 9).
(b) Square the sides of the slots down both sides. Mark the waste with
small crosses (Fig.10).

Fig. 9

(c) Rip the sides of the slots, sawing on the waste side of

Fig.
5

the line.
(d) Chop out the waste from the slots, chiseling from both sides as explained in the
previous step (Fig. 11).
Step 5 - Assembling the joint
(a) Clean up the inside faces of the joint.
(b) Assemble the joint with glue and nails.
(c) When the glue is dry, clean up the waste off the tenons and slots with a smoothing
plane.
(d) Make sure the nails are punched well below the surface to prevent damage to the sole
of the plane.
(e) Clean up the outside faces and edges with a smoothing plane.

72

F
F i
i g
g .
.F 7
6i
g
.
8

FRAMING JOINTS

Framing joints are those used in frame-like construct ions. The members are usually
constructed with their edges at right angles to each other; in contrast to the angle joints where
the sides forms the right angle.

Halved joints
Halved joints are a type of framing joint. The name is applied to joints where the pieces of
timber which meet or cross each other are halved. At the joint, each piece is the thickness
of the rest of the piece. The result is an assembled flushed joint, in which the surfaces of both
pieces are flushed.
Halved joints are used for constructing simple frames.
In the building industry, there are four different kinds of halved joints. The discussion here
will focus on the description and construction of the "tee-halved joint". Similarly, the
procedures can be applied for the other halved joints.

73

Tee-Halving Joint
The tee-halved joint consists of a pin (a) on the end of one piece
which fits into a socket (b) in the other piece (Fig. 1).
The pin is half the thickness of the timber, and the depth of the socket
equals the thickness of the pin. The shoulder of the pin (c) fits against
the face edge of the socket (Fig. 1).

Constructing the joint:

Step 1 - Preparation of timber

Fig. 1

(a) Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge for Width,
Gauge for Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.
Step 2 - Marking out
(b) Mark the length of the pin by placing the socket piece on top of it and marking at the
width. A small amount of waste can be left on the end of the pin, to be planed off after
the joint is assembled.
(c) Make lines square at the shoulder of the pin, drawing them
across the side and halfway down the edges, with a try square
and pencil (Fig. 2). Mark the waste.

Fig. 2

(d) Mark the position of the socket, using the piece with the pin as a guide. Smooth the
pin before using it to mark the socket.
(e) Square the lines across the side and halfway down the edges with a try square. Mark
the waste (Fig. 3).
(f) Gauge the thickness of the pin around its edges and mark the waste (Fig. 2).
(g) With the same setting, gauge the depth of the socket on both edges and mark the
waste (Fig. 3). Both pin and socket should be gauged from the
face side.
(h) Place the pin over the position of the socket and check the
fitting (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4

74

Step 3 - Cutting the pin

(a) Rip the thickness of the pin. Cut in stages as shown in Fig. 5, a through d. Take care
to keep on the waste side of the line.

Fig. 6

a
b
Fig. 3

(b) Saw the shoulder of the pin, keeping

Fig. 5

on the waste side of the line (Fig. 6).

Step 4 - Cutting the socket
(a) Saw down to the gauge lines of the socket, keeping on the waste side of the lines (Fig.
7).
(b) Chisel out the waste, chiseling halfway through from both edges (Figs. 8 & 9).
(c) Test the flatness of the socket with the blade of the try square.

Step
Fig.5 7- Assembling the joint

Fig. 9
Fig. 8

(a) Clean up the inside edges with a smoothing plane.

(b) Assemble the joint with glue and nails.
(c) When the joint is dry, plane off the waste of the pin.
(d) Clean up all sides and edges with the smoothing plane.

Fig. 1

Corner-Halved Joint
Another halved joint is the corner-halved joint (Fig. 1). It is used
where the pieces meet at their ends to form a corner. The sequence of
operations to construct this joint is similar to the one for the teehalved joint, except that instead of a pin and a socket, two pins have
to be marked and cut.

75

Fig. 2

Cross-halved joint
The third halved joint we deal with is the cross-halved joint (Fig. 2). It is used where two
members cross each other.
The sequence of operations to construct this joint is similar to the tee-halved joint, but instead
of a pin and a socket, two sockets have to be marked and cut.
Stopped Tee-halved joint
In this joint the socket is stopped away from the edge and the pin
is cut short, so that in the assembled joint the end grain of the
piece is not seen (Fig. 3.) Otherwise, the same sequence is
followed as for the tee-halved joint.

Fig
.3

Fig
.2

Common Mortice and Tenon joint

This is one of the most common and strongest forms of framing joint (Fig. 1). The sequence
of operations to construct a mortise and tenon joint for frame-like constructions is almost the
same as for box-like constructions. Of the four types of mortise and tenon joints mentioned in
this chapter, we will only go into detail about the construction of one of them, common
mortise and tenon.
Constructing the joint:
Step 1 - Preparation of timber
Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side, Face Edge, Gauge for Width, Gauge for
Thickness, Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.
Step 2. Marking out
(a) Mark out the position of the mortise and square
the lines across the face side and edges, using a
try square and pencil (Fig. 2).
(b) Mark out the length of the tenon on the other
member. Allow 3 mm waste on the end. Square
lines all around (Fig. 3).
(c) Set a marking gauge to the size of the
tenon (one-third of the width of the
piece) and mark around the end of the
tenon (Fig. 5). Mark the waste.
(d) Use the same setting to mark both edges
of the mortise and mark the waste (Fig.
4). Do all marking from the face side.
(e) Check the marking, using the pieces as
a guide by placing them over the marks
(compare this sequence to the mortise
76

Fig. 3

Fig. 1

Fig. 5
Fig. 4

and tenon for box-like constructions).

Step 3 - Cutting the mortise
(a) Most of the waste may be bored out (Fig. 6).
Bore halfway through from both edges. Make
sure you keep the brace at a 900 angle to the
edge.
(b) Chop out the remaining waste, chiseling
halfway through from both edges. Leave
about 2 mm extra to prevent damage to the
sides of the mortise during chiseling (Fig. 7).
(c) When most of the waste is out, chisel out the
remainder to the line (Fig. 8).

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Note:Keep the cutting edge of the chisel across the grain.

Step 4 - Cutting the tenon
(a) Rip the sides of the tenon, sawing on the waste side of the lines(Fig.9)
(b) Saw in steps (see tee-halved joint).
(c) Carefully saw the shoulders, keeping the saw vertical and on the waste side of the line
(Fig. 10 &11).
Step 5 - Assembling the joint
(a) Check whether the members fit together (see
Assembly section for the mortice and tenon
joint for box-like constructions).
(b) Clean up inside the joint where it cannot be
Fig. 9
reached after assembly.
Fig.
(c) Assemble the joint with glue.
10
(d) When it is dry, plane off the waste of the tenon.
Fig.
(e) Clean up the edges and sides with a smoothing plane.
11
Note:The importance of marking the waste as you mark out the pieces. This cannot be overemphasized. Most construction mistakes are made by cutting on the wrong side of the line,
due to improper marking.

Haunched Mortise and Tenon joint

Another type of mortise and tenon for frame -like
constructions is the haunched mortise and tenon
joint (Fig. 1). This joint is used where one member
meets another at a corner.

Fig. 1

The width of the tenon is reduced to 2/3rd of the

width of the board and the mortise size is reduced to
suit (Fig. 1).
Fig. 2
77

A haunch is left on the tenon to prevent it from twisting in the mortise. The length of the
haunch is equal to the thickness of the tenon and it fits into a recess above the mortise, called
the haunching.
Otherwise, the sequence of operations for construction of this kind of joint is the same as for
the common mortise and tenon joint. When you make the cutting list for this type of joint, the
allowance in length for the member with the mortise should be 25 mm instead of 12 mm to
help prevent splitting of the haunching.

Stub Tenon Joint

Where the end grain of the tenon and the opening of the mortise must be hidden, the stub
tenon joint is chosen (Fig. 2). in this joint the tenon does not pass through the mortised
member, but is stopped inside. The sequence of operations for constructing this joint is the
same as for the common mortise and tenon joint. Stub tenons are also used for box-like
constructions.
At times a combination of the haunched and stub tenons is required. This is called a haunched
stub mortise and tenon joint.

Securing the joints:

(a) Instead of nails to secure mortise and tenon joints, either pegs or wedges can be used.
(b) One or two holes are drilled
through the assembled joint and
wooden dowels, or pegs, as they
are called in this case, are
inserted with glue to securely fix
the join (fig. 1).
(c) To make the dowels, plane off
the corners of a square piece of
hard wood, until the piece is
Fig. 1
round. When the dowel is cut to
length, chamfer the ends and cut
a groove along the length to permit air and excess glue to escape (Fig. 1, a - e).
Follow the steps below to secure a joint by means of wedges.
(a) Cut the mortice with an allowance of 2 mm in width, tapering from the outside edge
to about 2/3rd of its depth (Fig. 2).
(b) Make cuts in the tenon to receive the wedges.
(c) To prevent splitting of the tenon, drill small holes at the end of each cut.

78

(d) Cut the wedges from small pieces of waste wood; they should have the same length
as the tenon.
Haunched mortise and tenon joints in frame-like constructions should not be wedged,
because of the danger of breaking off the small haunch at the corner of the joint. Both wedges
and pegs can be used for securing mortise and tenon joints in boxlike constructions.

Bridle Joint
Bridle joints are similar to mortise and tenon joints. They consist of
a pin and a socket (Fig. 1). The thickness of the pin is 1/3rd of the
thickness of the member. The two types of bridle joint are the tee
bridle (Fig. 1) and the corner bridle. Here we will only go into detail
about the tee bridle, since the" construction of the corner bridle joint
follows much the same procedure.

PI
N Fig.
1

SOCKE
T

Constructing the joint: HAUNCHED-CHECK

Step 1 - Preparation of the timber.
Prepare the timber using the FEWTEL (Face Side,
Face Edge, Gauge for Width, Gauge for Thickness,
Shoot the End, Measure the required Length) method.
Step 2

Fig. 3

Marking out

Fig. 2

(a) Mark the position of the pin on one

member, making the distance between the
shoulders equal to the width of the other
piece. Square the lines all around the piece
with a try square and pencil (Fig. 2).
(b) Mark the length of the socket (plus 2 mm
waste) on the end of the other member,
making the length equal to the width of the
pin. Square the lines across the face side and
on both edges (Fig. 3). Remember to smooth
the pieces before using them to mark.

Fig. 2

Fig. 4
79

(c) Set a marking gauge to l/3rd of the thickness of the member and gauge along both
edges of the pin. Use the gauge from the face side only. Mark the waste with small
crosses (Fig. 4).
(d) With the same setting on the gauge, mark around the end of the socket. Mark the
waste (Fig. 5).
(e) Mark the other side of the socket in the same manner, from the face side, with the
gauge set at 2/3rds of the thickness of the piece. If you have a gauge with 2 pins, mark
both lines at once.
(f) Check the fitting.
Step 3 - Cutting the pin

Fig. 6

(a) Carefully saw the shoulders down to

the gauge line, sawing on the waste
side of the line (Fig. 6).
(b) Chisel away the waste, chiseling
halfway through from both edges
(Fig. 7).
Step 4 - Cutting the socket
(a) Rip the sides of the socket down to
the required depth, sawing on the waste
side of the lines (Fig. 9). Saw in steps (see
Tee-halved joint, cutting the pin.
(b) Chop out the waste with a mortise chisel,
chiseling halfway through from both
edges (Figs. 10 &11).
Fig. 9
Step 5 - Assembling the joint
(a) Clean up the inside edges which cannot be
reached after the joint is assembled.
(b) Assemble the joint with glue and nails.
(c) When the glue is dry, plane off the waste
of the socket.
(d) Clean up the sides and edges with a smoothing plane.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 10
Socket
Fig. 11
Tenon

Corner Bridle Joint

The corner bridle joint is used where members meet to form
Fig. 12
the corner of a frame. Like the Tee-Bridle, it consists of a pin
and a socket (Fig. 12).
The pin is constructed like the tenon in the sequence of operations for the mortise and tenon
joint for frame-like constructions. The socket is constructed in the same way as the socket for
the tee bridle joint, above.

80

Widening Joints
Widening joints are joints used to make a single,
wide board by joining two or more narrow
boards along their length, edge to edge (Fig. 1).
The boards that will be joined must first be
Fig. 1
marked. Lay the boards out in the desired
position and mark them with a triangular mark over all the boards (Fig. 1). The triangle
should point upwards. This mark will help us to keep in mind the position of each board
during the steps that follow.
Plain Glued Butt Joint
This is the simplest widening joint (Fig. 2). The edges of the boards are planed perfectly
straight and square, and then butted together. The joint is glued and clamped tightly to force
out the surplus glue. For narrow pieces this is done with G-clamps. For wider pieces, wooden
or metal sash clamps are used.

Dowelled Widening Joint

This joint is similar to the plain glued butt joint, but
strength is added by means of cylindrical wooden pins,
called dowels. Dowels are made as explained in the
section on securing joints. The dowels are then glued
into holes in the edge of each board (Fig. 3). The
diameter of the dowels should be about one-third of the
thickness of the pieces that are being joined.
Fig. 2

Fig. 3

The holes should be about as deep as the boards are

thick, and they should be slightly countersunk.
Mark out the position of the dowels by putting the boards on top of each other, sides together
and marking both edges at the same time. The centre can be marked with a marking gauge,
marking from the face side.
Metal or wooden sash clamps are used to press the boards together during gluing.
Rebated Joint
In this widening joint, the edges of the boards are rebated to match
each other (Fig. 1). The rebating is done with either an ordinary
rebate plane or an adjustable one. This joint is stronger than the
plain glued butt joint,
How to plane a rebate with an ordinary rebate plane:
81

Step 1
Mark the depth and width of the rebate with a marking
gauge (Fig. 2).
Step 2
Fix a wooden guide strip along the line that marks the
width of the rebate (Fig. 2). The guide strip must be
perfectly square and it should be flat.
Step 3
Guide Strip

Plane until you reach the line marking the depth

of the rebate. Take care that the side of the plane
is always against the guide strip, so that the width
of the rebate is the same along the whole length.
Depth
If you notice that you are planing against the
Fig.
2
Fig. 3
grain, stop just before you reach the required
Width
depth and plane from the other direction. This
will ensure that the surface of the rebate is smooth.
An important point in planning rebates is setting the plane correctly. The side of the cutting
iron that faces the rebate must be set so it is exactly flush with or only slightly coming out at
the side of the plane.

METALWORK JOINTS
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the basic forms used in
metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a
variety of different shapes. Sheet metal is
available in flat pieces or as a coiled strip. Sheet
metal has uses in car bodies, airplane wings,
medical tables, roofs for buildings and many
other things.
Types of joints in metalwork:
Sheet metal is frequently used in all levels of
construction, be it home, public or commercial.
The most useful way to permanently join two
pieces of metal together is to weld them. However, the use of fasteners, rivets, screws and solders are
also very widely used in the sheet metal industry.
Fasteners
A fastener is a device that mechanically joins two or more metals together. Nuts and bolts, washers,
screws and rivets provide a convenient method of securing parts.
82

Fig. 1

Rivets

Dyna Bolts

Bolts

Nuts

Spring Washer

Screws

Source: Photographed
pictures

Riveting
Riveting is a simple way to join metal parts together. Rivets are made of
soft iron for general engineering: aluminum alloy for aircraft work and soft
aluminum of copper for non-metallic substance. A wide range of special
rivets are available.
Rivets are fasteners, like nails and screws. Rivets themselves are smooth,
metal cylindrical shafts with a head on one end and a buck-tail on the other.
Rivets are described according to:
Shank - solid, tubular, or special type such as Riv-Nut
Metals - copper, aluminum alloy and soft steel,
Shape of head
Diameter of shank
Length of shank.
Solid shank rivets are the type commonly used for most purposes in
sheet metal work.
Countersunk rivets are useful where streamlining is needed, as in airplanes. The countersinking is done as for bolts and screws. It permits
the head of the rivet to be placed flush with the surf ace of the metal.
Roundhead rivets are used where a strong union is required but
where the projection of the head causes no concern.
Flathead rivets are used in such constructions as fuel tanks.

83
Source: Basic Engineering R. L.
Timings

Mushroom head rivets are used where it is necessary to shorten the height of the rivet head above
the metal surface, as for example in aircrafts.
Pan head rivets are very strong, and are, therefore, widely used for girders and heavy constructional
engineering.
To use a rivet, it is placed through a hole (same size as rivet) drilled through two flat objects (usually
metal). A ball pein hammer is used to smash one end of the rivet, which expands to about one and a
half times the width of the rivet in order to hold the rivet in place and objects together.

Pop Rivet

A pop-rivet gun

There are many different types, sizes and composition of rivets which
are used for various needs, from plastic to wood, as well as metal.
The pop or blind rivet is used in these types of application. Pop or blind
rivets have a tubular shape with a mandrel through the center. One end
looks like a long nail. A special tool or gun is used to smash the rivet
and cut off the long end.
Using a rivet gun can be a highly effective method of attaching various materials, especially metal
together in a permanent way. Though the materials can be separated by simply drilling out the rivets,
this is not a difficult process, however you should take care when riveting and do not rush, as this
could be a hazard, especially to people who do not know what they are doing.
Pop rivet guns can be very inexpensive to use as are the rivets. You can buy with the tool or
separately. It may be beneficial to get a good quality rivet tool from the start, however a cheaper one
will be sufficient depending on the work at hand.

Drilling for rivet

Inserting rivet to
pop rivet gun

Screws
There are two types of screws, machine and wood screws. Both
are made of metal; however the machine screw has a constant
diameter and joins with nuts while the wood screw is tapered
84

Riveting

and grips to the actual wood surface. Screws are generally made from low to medium carbon steel
wire, but other tough and inexpensive metals may be substituted, such as stainless steel, brass, nickel
alloys, or aluminum alloy. Screws come with many different styles of heads, the three most

common are flat, round and pan.

Types of Screws:
(i) The countersunk head are probably the most common. They do not
protrude above the surface so can be filled and painted over and become
invisible. This type of head is used in butt hinges and in metal where the

Flat

head is to be flat with the surface. The heads have an included angle of
82.
Round

(ii) These are used when a countersunk head is not required.

(iii) These are similar to round head except the top of the head is flat, self-threading
metal screws are a good example.

Pan

Screws sizes are listed with the shank size first then the length. Shank sizes are denoted by numbers,
the larger the number the larger the shank, the most common sizes are #6, #8 and #10 so a medium
size screw 1" long would be listed as: #8 x 1".

Screwdrivers
Phillip
Phillips
The screwdriver is used to drive screws and to remove
s head
head
screw
them. These are made in a variety of styles, such as the
screwdri
plain, ratchet, offset, and spiral. The screwdriver consists
ver tip
Flu
of a blade, the tip of which is shaped to fit the slot in the
head of a screw, and a handle, which may be part of the blade. The sizesteof screwdrivers are
determined by the length of the blade, which is
measured from the tip to the beginning of the ferrule, as
well as by the width of the tip.
Sides
parallel

These are a basic item to have in assorted sizes, not as

Thickness
popular as they once were but still necessary. It is very
of tip
important that the bit be the right size for the slot in the
screw otherwise it will probably slip and strip the edges
of the slot making the screw nearly impossible to work with. The bit
must be kept in good condition by grinding or filling it square as they
tend to wear at the outside corners. When purchasing screws for
projects, be advised to use Phillips or Robertson style screws.

End
of tip
straig
Width of
ht
tip

At least the three sizes, #1, #2, and #3 should be in your tool box. This
type of screwdriver will sit on the end of the screw as it is started and is

85

Phillips Head Screwdriver

less likely to slip as it is being driven.

In order to allow for the screw to be driven easily through the metal, a pilot hole is drilled.There are
two basic reasons for drilling pilot holes:
(i) for tight fitting, and (ii) prevent the material from splitting
The pilot hole in the top piece should allow for easy fit of the screw shank, and allow the threads on
the screw to get a good grip without stripping in the bottom piece. Pilot holes can be drilled with
special bits that are made for different size diameter and length of screws and will also countersink the
head of the screw.
Soldering
Soldering is a method of joining
metal by using an alloy having a
lower melting point than the metal
being joined. Good for joining
dissimilar
materials.
Most
common solders are lead-tin
alloys. The solder is an alloy of
lead and tin that melts at a
relatively low temperature, from
350 to 450 degrees, and the source
of heat may be an electric
soldering
gun,
an
electric
soldering iron or a portable propane torch.
Soldering irons have copper bits because copper has an attraction for solder, has a high thermal capacity,
it is malleable, soft metal and is a good conductor of heat. It is a tool used to transfer heat and melted
solder into suitably designed metallic connections and sheet metal joints.
The process of soldering involves:
(i) Tinning the metal surface.
(ii) Filling the space between the
tinned surfaces with solder.

Source: Metalcraft Theory and Practice

John R Bedford

86

Adding solder to fill the joint

Tinning the metal
surface
A fluxing agent is used to assist the flow of solder and increase bonding strength. Fluxes are of two
general types, zinc chloride and resin. The functions of a flux are:
(i) They keep the metal clean during heating.
(ii) They break down the surface tension of the solder enabling it to flow.

Source: Metalcraft Theory and Practice John R Bedford

Activity
1. Sketch the following joints used in woodworking
a. Brittle joint
b. Stub mortise and tenon joint
c. Hauched mortise and tenon
d. Rebate joint.
2. Sketch the following screws and write down its uses
a. Countersunk
b. Round head
c. Flat head
d. Pan head
3. The process of soldering involves two processes. Name the two processes.
4. Sketch a soldering iron and name its parts and write down the uses.
87

88