2.

1
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
MARTIN H. BARRINGER
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL PROVIDED BY
KENNETH D. SPRINGER

INTRODUCTION
Radio wave propagation is the study of the transfer of
energy at radio frequencies from one point, a transmitter, to another, a receiver. Radio waves are part of the
broad electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the
very low frequencies which are produced by electric
power facilities up to the extremely high frequencies
of cosmic rays. Between these two extremes are bands
of frequencies that are found in every day uses: audio
frequencies used in systems for the reproduction of
audible sounds, radio frequencies, infrared light and
ultraviolet light and x-rays.
All electromagnetic waves propagate at the same
velocity, regardless of the frequency. Light is an electromagnetic wave, and thus the propagation velocity
is often referred to as the speed of light (c), which
for a vacuum is approximately 3 2 108 m/sec. The
velocity of any wave is dependent upon the medium
in which it is travelling, but for simplicity is usually
considered with respect to a vacuum. The frequency
of a wave is defined in terms of the number of cycles
per second or hertz (Hz) and is related to the wavelength (l) by the expression f 4 c/l. Figure 2.1-1
shows the ranges of various bands within the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of frequency and wavelength.
Radio frequencies are generally considered to be
that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum below the
infrared frequencies. At present, the practical upper
limit of radio frequencies is roughly 100 GHz.1 Within
the radio frequency spectrum are bands of frequencies
that have been allocated to the broadcast service. The
following discussions and methods will apply particularly to these bands of the radio frequency spectrum.
The AM band frequency allotments are contained
in what is referred to as medium frequencies (MF),
300 kHz to 3 MHz. The FM band frequencies and a
portion of the TV band are contained in the VHF
band which extends from 30 MHz to 300 MHz. The
remaining TV allocations are contained in the UHF
band of 300 MHz to 3 GHz. Allocations for broadcast
auxiliary services such as remote pickup, studio/transmitter links, intercity relays, MDS, and ITFS are interspersed within the MF, VHF, UHF and SHF (super
high frequency) bands. Table 2.1-1 illustrates some of
the allotments assigned to the broadcast service. The

allocations for auxiliary services may change from

time to time as the needs of various services for radio
frequencies change and as technology for equipment
improves.

QUANTIFYING PROPAGATION
The energy that is emitted from a transmitter may take
many different paths before it is received. The path
that the radio wave will take depends on many factors,
some of which include: frequency, antenna type and
height, atmospheric conditions and terrain. Radio
waves that propagate along the surface of the earth
are commonly referred to as ground waves. All radio
waves have some ground wave component, however,
because the earth is a lossy medium, it severely attenu-

Figure 2.1-1. Electromagnetic spectrum and broadcast radio

spectrum.

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Table 2.1-1
Broadcast Frequency Allocations
MW 300 kHz3 MHz
AM: 525 kHz1705 kHz
VHF 30 MHz300 MHz
FM: 88 MHz108 MHz
TV: 54 MHz72 MHz Channels 24
76 MHz88 MHz Channels 56
174 MHz216 MHz Channels 713
UHF 300 MHz3 GHz
TV: 470 MHz806 MHz Channels 1469
AM-FM STL: 947 MHz952 MHz
MDS: 2150 MHz2162 MHz
ITFS: 2500 MHz2686 MHz
Auxiliary Services: 2000 MHz3000 MHz
SHF 3 GHz30 GHz
Auxiliary Services: 6.425 GHz7.125 GHz
CARS: 12.700 GHz13.250 GHz
TV STL: 17.700 GHz19.700 GHz

ates the radio wave. This attenuation increases with

frequency, so this mode of propagation is useful only
for frequencies below 30 MHz. To achieve significant
distances, the atmosphere is preferred over the ground
as a transmission medium. The atmosphere is comprised of several different layers, as depicted in Figure
2.1-2. The troposphere is the layer that extends from
the earths surface up to about 16 km. This layer is
the chief mode of propagation for frequencies above
about 30 MHz, and propagation through this layer is
dependent upon weather conditions. The next layer is
the stratosphere which extends to about 40 km above
the earth. This layer has no major effect on the propagation of radio waves. The ionosphere extends upwards
of 400 km above the surface of the earth. This region
is a charged environment where the air is sufficiently
ionized, mainly by the suns ultraviolet radiation, to
reflect or absorb radio waves below about 30 MHz.
The ionosphere is constantly changing and is usually
considered as consisting of the following sublayers.2
D layerThis layer exists at heights from about
50 km to 90 km and is present only during daylight
hours. The electron density is directly related to the
elevation angle of the sun. This layer absorbs medium and high frequency waves.
E layerThis layer exists at a height of about
110 km and is important in the nighttime propagation
of medium frequency waves. The ionization of this

Figure 2.1-2. Atmosphere layers.

layer is closely related to the elevation angle of the

sun. At certain times irregular cloud-like areas of
high ionization may occur. These areas are known
as sporadic E and occasionally prevent frequencies
that normally penetrate the E layer from reaching
higher layers. The sporadic E layer is prevalent during the summer and winter months. The sporadic E
layer formed during the summer is the longest lasting
from May to August, and the winter layer lasts about
half as long beginning in December. During the midsummer months when the electron density is at its
greatest levels, TV signals in the lower VHF band
can be transmitted over distances of hundred or thousands of kilometers.4
F1 layerThis layer exists at heights of about 175
to 200 km and is present only during the day. Waves
that usually penetrate the E layer (3 to 30 MHz) will
penetrate this layer and be reflected by the F2 layer.
This layer introduces additional absorption of
these waves.
F2 layerThis layer exists at the upper boundaries
of the atmosphere, 250 km to 400 km, and is present
at all times; though the height and electron density
will vary from day to night, with the seasons, and
over sunspot cycles. During the night the F1 layer
merges with the F2 layer at about 300 km. This, in
addition to the reduction of the D and E layers,
causes nighttime field intensities and noise to be
generally higher than during the day.
Free Space Propagation
To evaluate and compare radio wave propagation
under various conditions, it is convenient to establish
a reference standard. It is customary to consider as a
standard the theoretically calculated loss for waves
propagated in free space between two idealized antennas. The simplest case to investigate is the radiation
emitted from an isotropic source: an ideal antenna
which radiates energy with uniform intensity in all
directions. An analogy to an isotropic antenna is a
point source of light, such as a candle. The intensity
of the energy varies proportionally to the inverse of
the distance squared from the source, the inverse
square law. The power of flux per unit area Pa (W/m2)
at a distance d(m) from a loss free isotropic antenna
radiating a power P1 (W) is given by:

Pa 4 Pt /4pd 2
[1]
2
where 4pd is the surface area of a sphere at a distance
d(m) from the source. The power available from a loss
free antenna Pr is the product of the power flux per
unit area (Pa), and the effective aperture area of the
receiving antenna (Ae). This area is related to the gain
of the antenna by the expression:
Ae 4 Gl2 /4p
[2]
Aperture areas and gains for a specific antenna can
be found in the sixth edition of the NAB Engineering
Handbook, page 121.3 For a loss free isotropic antenna,
G 4 1, the basic free space transmission loss is defined as:

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Lb f 4 Pt /Pr 4 (4pd/l)2

[3]

where d and l have the same units. This equation can

be rewritten in its more common form, expressing the
loss in dB, as:
Lb f 4 32.44 ` 20 log(F) ` 20 log(d)

[4]

where F is the frequency in megahertz (MHz) and d

is the distance between the antennas in kilometers. In
the above equation is should be remembered that ideal
loss-free isotropic antennas are considered. In real
world systems, antenna gain is a significant factor. The
transmission loss, L, incorporates the antenna gains
and is defined as:
L 4 Lb f 1 (Gt ` Gr ` Ld)

[5]

Where Gt and Gr are the free space antenna gains with

respect to isotropic for the transmitting and receiving
antenna respectively. The term Ld is the aperture-tomedium coupling loss or polarization coupling loss
between the antennas. The term Ld will have a value
of 0 dB when the transmitting and receiving antenna
have the same polarization.
In considering the potential service area coverage
for a broadcast station, it is usually more desirable to
express measurements in terms of field strength rather
than transmission loss as previously presented. The
root mean square (RMS) field strength, E(V/m), at
a point where the power density of a plane wave is
Pa(W/m2) is given by:
E 4 120pPa

[6]

where the term 120p is the impedance of free space.

The field strength is related to the power available
from a loss free isotropic antenna by combining Equations [1], [3] and [6] above as:
E 4 480p2Pr /l2

[7]

A more useful form of the free-space field can be

expressed in logarithmic terms above 1 microvolt per
meter (dBu) when F is in megahertz and Pr is expressed
in decibels above 1 kW (dBK):
E(dBu) 4 107.2 ` Pr ` 20 log(F)dBu

[8]

The electric field produced by a transmitter radiating

a power Pt(W) at a distance d(m) in free space can be
derived from Equations [1], [3] and [6] and is given by:
E 4 30Pt /d 2

These equations form the basis for characterizing

propagation. They do not, however take into account
such real world factors as the presence of the earth,
atmosphere or obstructions. To adequately describe an
actual radio system, additional losses will need to be
added to the free-space equations derived above.
Presence of Earth
When the transmitting and receiving antennas are
placed over ground, the propagation of radio waves is
modified from the free-space models presented above.
Radio waves that strike the earth are partially absorbed
and partially reflected. Waves that are reflected by the
earth experience changes in the phase of the wave,
which affects the distribution of available energy. The
extent to which the waves are reflected or absorbed is
dependent upon frequency and the ground constants:
conductivity and permittivity.
Propagation Over Plane Earth

The geometry of the idealized situation of propagation between two antennas placed above a plane earth
is shown in Figure 2.1-3. This geometry is valid for
antennas that are sufficiently closely located so that
the curvature of the earth is not a factor, yet far enough
apart from each other so that the energy may be described as a plane wave, and ray theory can be applied.
The resultant received electric field can be represented
as the sum of the direct and reflected rays:
E 4 Ed [1 ` _R_e j(fD`fr) ]

[12]

This equation is valid for small angels of u and

deserves some additional explanation. The term Ed is
the free-space electric field that is produced at a distance d(m) by the direct ray. The terms [R] and fr are
the magnitude and phase of the complex reflection
coefficient. This term is dependent upon the nature of
the surface (conductivity (d) and permittivity (Er)),
the angle between the surface and incident wave, the
wavelength of the radio wave, the polarization of the
wave and the curvature of the earth. The magnitude
of the reflection coefficient varies between 11 and
`1. Several sources have derived equations for the
reflection coefficient and plotted the effects of
changing variables, and the reader is referred to these
for further study.4,5 The term fD is the phase delay due

[9]

or, in logarithmic terms, where Pt is expressed in decibels above 1 kW (dBK), d is in kilometers, and a
transmitting antenna has a gain Gt in decibels above
isotropic:
E(dBu) 4 105 ` Pt ` Gt 1 20 log(d)

[10]

Using the same units, the field strength E(dBu) for

nonfree-space environments can be related to the basic
transmission loss by:
Lb (dB) 4 137 ` 20 log(F) ` Pt ` Gt 1 E

[11]

Figure 2.1-3. Path rays for plane earth.

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to the longer path that must be taken by the reflected

wave, and has the form of:
fD 4 4ph1h2 /ld
[13]
It is often sufficient to assume the ground approximates a large flat surface. In such a case, a sufficiently
accurate expression is given by:4
E 4 2Ed sin(2ph1h2 /ld)
[14]
Some cases of special merit that can be derived from
Equation [14] are:
Case I
h1h2 4 dl/2
E40
Case II

h1h2 4 dl/4

E 4 2Ed

Case III
h1h2 4 dl/12 E 4 Ed
Therefore, depending on the antenna heights, distances, and wavelength, it is possible to totally cancel
out the field at the receiver or magnify the wave to a
field strength double that which could be achieved
from a free-space field. The variation of signal strength
due to multipath effects can be minimized in pointto-point applications through the use of antennas with
narrow beamwidths.
When considering the case of VHF antennas that
are close to the ground, the effective antenna heights
ht (m) and hr (m) will need to be substituted for h1 and
h2 respectively for Equation (14). The new antenna
heights ht and hr allow for the effects caused by the
relative permittivity (er), and conductivity (d) of the
ground. The effective antenna heights are related to
the physical antenna heights above ground level by:4
ht 4 h21 ` h20
[15.1]
hr 4 h22 ` h20

[15.2]

the term h0 is dependent upon the type of polarization

being considered.
Vertical Polarization
h0 4 (l/2p)[(er ` 1)2 ` (60ls2)]1/4 [16.1]
Horizontal Polarization
h0 4 (l/2p)[(er 1 1)2 ` (60ls2)]11 [16.2]
Table 2.1-2 lists values for conductivity and permittivity for various soil conditions. As a way of example,
assume that an antenna is placed 3 m (9.8 ft) above
dry, sandy, flat coastal land (d 4 8 2 1013 S/m,
er 4 10) and operates at a frequency of 100 MHz
(l 4 3 m). Then h0 in [16.1] and [16.2] will be 1.59 m
and 0.16 m respectively. The effective height of the
antenna will then be increased to 3.4 m (11.1 ft) for
vertical polarization and will remain unchanged at 3 m
(9.8 ft) for horizontal polarization. As the frequency
increases above VHF, the wavelength becomes increasingly small and the distinction between true antenna height and effective height is immaterial.
Medium Frequency Propagation
As stated earlier, medium frequency waves lie in
the frequency range of 300 kHz to 3 MHz and are

Table 2.1-2
Ground Conductivity and Dielectric Constants

Terrain
Sea Water
Fresh Water
Dry Sandy, flat coastal land
Marshy, forested flat land
Rich agricultural land, low
hills
Pasture land, medium hills
and forest
Rocky land, steep hills
Mountainous
Residential Area
Industrial Area

Conductivity, d
(S/m)

Relative Dielectric
Constant, er
(esu)

5
8 2 1013
8 2 1013
8 2 1013

80
80
10
12

1 2 1012

15

5 2 10
2 2 1013
1 2 1013
2 2 1013
1 2 1014

13
10
5
5
3

13

characterized by their long wavelengths (1,000 to 100

meters). The standard AM broadcasting band frequencies are within this range. For the AM service, the
transmitting antenna is located right at the surface of
the earth, and the receiving antenna is very close to
the earths surface with respect to a wavelength. In
this case the direct and ground reflected waves cancel,
and the transmission is by means of the ground wave
(also known as the surface wave) and the sky wave.
Ground Waves

These waves are characterized by the fact that they

are guided along the earths surface, similar to a transmission line. The field is attenuated in this propagation
mode by losses in the ground. Therefore the composition of the soil, er and d, have a direct bearing on the
amount of attenuation the wave will experience, and
subsequently how far reliable communications can be
established. The attenuation is also dependent upon
the frequency and polarization type. The attenuation
factor, A, is a measure of the amount of attenuation
present and can be determined for a ground wave using
the chart of Figure 2.1-4. The term r is known as the
numerical distance and b is the phase constant. Values
for these terms can be calculated from the following
equations:5
r 4 (pd/lx) cos(b)

[17.1]

b 4 arctan[(er ` 1)/x]

[17.2]

x 4 18 2 10 s/F

[17.3]

To determine the electric field strength, the attenuation

factor must be added to Equation [12].
E 4 Ed [1 ` rej(fD`fD) ` (1 1 R)Aej(fD`fD)]

[18]

It is interesting to note that the same earth which acts

as a conductor at very low frequencies will act as a
small-loss dielectric at very high frequencies. It is also
noteworthy to observe that the losses for horizontally
polarized waves are much greater than for vertically
polarized waves. Thus, for practical applications only,
vertically polarized waves should be considered. For
more detailed and accurate representations of the ef-

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Numerical distance - r
Figure 2.1-4. Attenuation factor of ground waves.

fects of ground wave, the works of Norton and as

expanded upon by Jordan should be consulted.6,5
Sky Waves

While the ground wave provides the major path for

medium frequency propagation, the wave attenuates
relatively quickly with distance and is reliable for distances of only a few hundred kilometers. To achieve
greater distances, the waves propagate via the ionosphere and are known as sky waves, and can provide
sufficient signal strength at distances up to a few thousand kilometers.
The ionosphere is a constantly changing environment that begins approximately 65 km (40 miles)
above the earth and extends to about 400 km (250
miles). This region of the atmosphere is composed of
three major sublayers, D, E, and F. These layers are
not present at all times. For example, the D layer is
present only during the day and is a major absorber
of medium-frequency waves. The E layer is a principal
reflector of medium-frequency waves. Thus during the
day the majority of the medium-frequency waves are
absorbed by the D layer, but at night the D layer is
not present, allowing the medium-frequency waves to
be reflected by the E layer.
Interference Between Ground Waves
and Sky Waves

Interference to a receiver may occur from co-channel stations located many kilometers from the desired
station. Because of the sky wave, sufficient signal

strength may be received to interfere with the local

station. This effect has been minimized by the FCC
by limiting two factors in the operation of some AM
stations: the operating power and time of operation.
Multipath interference occurs when the waves from
a transmitting antenna reach a receiver from different
paths in such a manner as to cancel or severely interfere
with each other. This can happen at distances where
both the ground wave and sky wave are sufficiently
strong to interact. The geometry of this is similar to
that shown in Figure 2.1-3, except the direct ray will
be a result of the ground wave and the reflected wave
will be from the ionosphere. At distances relatively
close to the transmitter, the ionosphere will not reflect
waves back to the earth, so the ground wave is predominant. At distances beyond a few hundred kilometers,
the sky wave will dominate and the ground wave will
be too weak to interfere. Multipath interference can
also occur where the sky wave follows more than one
path to the receiver.
Effects of Solar Activity

Interference to medium-frequency waves can also

be caused by solar activity such as sunspots and flares
which manifest an increased or reduced emission of
radiation from the sun. The changes in solar radiation
levels can cause changes in the ionospheric layers that
may result in unusual sky wave propagation conditions
called skip, which, in turn, can cause inter-station interference. The effects of such solar activity will have
their strongest effect on propagation in the AM band
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during the first 5 to 10 days after the start of a storm.

This has the effect of reducing sky-wave field
strengths. The effect has been observed to increase
with frequency.13
Propagation Above 3 MHz
At frequencies above about 30 MHz the principal
propagation mode is tropospheric. The surface wave
is attenuated too severely to be of any practical long
distance use and, though attenuated, the sky wave is
usually passed through the ionosphere to space.
For waves that propagate close to the earths surface
the curvature of the earth will introduce additional
effects that must be included in the plane earth model
that was considered earlier Figure 2.1-5 shows the
geometry of a smooth earth model. First the reflection
coefficient R of the reflected wave has different characteristics that for a plane surface. Since the wave is
reflected against a curved earth the energy diverges
more than is predicted by the inverse square law and
the reflection coefficient R, in Equation [12], must be
multiplied by the divergence factor D, given by:4

D 4 1 ` 2d1d2 /2ae (h8t ` h8r )

[19]

It should be noted that for smooth earth conditions,

the heights h8t and h8r , for the transmitting and receiving
antennas above the plane tangent to the earth at the
point of reflection are less than the antenna heights ht
and hr above the surface of the earth.
Under normal propagation conditions, the refractive
index of the atmosphere decreases with height so that
radio waves near the surface of the earth travel more
slowly than at high altitudes. This variation in velocity
as a function of height results in a bending of the radio
waves. This may be represented as a modified earth radius commonly known as the effective earth radius, ae,
which allows the radio waves to be represented as
straight lines. The ratio of the effective earth radius to
true earth radius is commonly known as the k factor.
Values of k can vary between from 0.6 to 5.0 depending

Figure 2.1-5. Reflection from smooth earth on line-of-sight path.

Figure 2.1-6. Distance to radio horizon.

on the climate being considered. For temperate climates

the average value of k is 1.33, and most works refer to
this as the 4/3 earth model when used in calculation.2
Beyond Line of Sight Conditions

In order to determine when conditions exist where

propagation is considered to be beyond line of sight,
the respective distances from the transmitter and receiver to the radio horizon must be calculated. The
radio horizon is the distance the horizon appears from
an antenna, as defined by a plane from the antenna to
the tangent of the earths surface and is depicted in
Figure 2.1-6. The equation for the radio horizon in
terms of dlt (km) and ht (m) and the k factor is of
the form:
dlt 4 3.57 ht k

[20]

When the sum of the distances to the radio horizon

for the transmitter and receiver is less than the total
distance of the path under consideration, then a beyond
line of sight condition exists. Diffraction makes it possible for radio waves to travel beyond that possible
for line of sight transmission, though an additional loss
term must be added to the free-space loss. The amount
of attenuation can be determined by diffraction methods. The geometry of beyond line of sight propagation
is shown in Figure 2.1-7.
The exact calculation of the field strength at any
point beyond the line of sight for a smooth earth is
rather complex and the presentation of such a method
is beyond the scope of this text. However, nomograms
have been developed that apply to a large number of
cases. For the reader interested in the actual prediction
of the losses to be expected for smooth earth diffraction, the National Bureau of Standards publication may
be consulted.9
Figure 2.1-8 is a nomogram that can be used to
determine the loss that must be added to the free-space
loss. In order to use the nomogram, the distance dlt
must be less than dlr. The total loss (L) is the sum of
the three losses L1, L2, and L3. By way of example,
assume a system that has the following parameters:

Figure 2.1-7. Beyond line of sight.

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Figure 2.1-8. Diffraction loss over smooth earth.

hlt 4 14 m (14.9 ft); hlr 4 178 m (583.8 ft); F 4 100

MHz; k 4 4/3; total path length of 85 km; and the
wave is vertically polarized over land. The distances
are calculated to be: dlt 4 15 km (9.3 miles), dlr 4
55 km (34.2 miles), and dls 4 15 km (9.3 miles). The
total loss relative to free space is this L 4 L1 ` L2 `
L3 4 22.9 ` 3.8 ` 4.3 4 31.0 dB.7

Effects of Obstacles on Propagation

In the previous sections, a perfectly smooth sphere

was assumed for earth. Only the effects of the atmosphere were accounted for in the k factor. The assumption of a perfectly smooth earth allowed for a relatively
simple calculation of the expected field strengths and
transmission losses at various points within the line
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of sight and regions beyond the line of sight. However,

the real world is much less than ideal, and the presence
of hills, buildings, foliage, as well as the atmosphere
all have a bearing on the computation of field strengths.
These obstacles have a complex effect on the propagation of radio waves which makes it virtually impossible
to predict the field strength or transmission losses at
discrete points close to these obstacles. However, the
path being considered may be quantized by use of
earth profiles, and through the use of some simplifying
assumptions, predictions of the field strength which
are more accurate than smooth earth approximations
can be performed.
Hills

Perhaps the most common obstructions that will

appear in the path of a radio wave are hills. The amount
of attenuation the hill will introduce into a path is a
function of the distance from the antenna terminals to
the hill, and the height of the hill above or below the
line-of-sight ray between the transmitting and receiving antennas. The hills height and distance from the
antenna can be determined by constructing a path profile and plotting the terrain features on special graph
paper that includes the effect of refraction. The most
common charts are defined for a factor of k of 4/3. A

typical path is shown in Figure 2.1-9. Terrain elevations necessary to construct a path profile can be obtained from topographical maps of the area, or from
computer databases. To obtain the best accuracy in
using topographical maps the smallest scale available
should be used, 1:24,000. These maps can be obtained
from the United Stated Geological Survey (USGS) in
Denver, Colorado or from any of its branch offices.
Computer models exist that can map the terrain along a
propagation path and are available from many sources.
In order to determine when a hill is sufficiently
removed from a path to allow free-space conditions
to exist, the Fresnel zone clearance equation can be
used. This equation was initially developed to explain
the diffraction of light around knife edged obstacles,
and has since been applied to radio theory. This equation describes a radio path as an ellipsoid with the
transmitting and receiving antenna located at the focal
points of the ellipse. As Figure 2.1-10 depicts, the
curves for various reflection coefficients intersect at
0 dB from free space when the clearance is equal
to six-tenths of the distance to the first Fresnel zone
clearance. Thus free space conditions exist when obstacles are outside the 0.6 F1 zone radius. This distance
can be calculated by:
h 4 0.6 F1 4 328.6 d1 d2 /Fd
[21]

Figure 2.1-9. Typical 4/3 earth path profile.

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Figure 2.1-10. Effect of path clearance on radio propagation.

where the height of the 0.6 F1 zone is in meters; d

is the distance from one antenna to the obstacle in
kilometers; d2 is the distance from the second antenna
to the obstacle in kilometers; d is the total path distance
in kilometers; and F is the frequency in megahertz.
When determining whether a path clears a hill, an
additional height typically 15 meters, should be added
to the height of the hill to account for any trees that
may be present.
If the hill lies within the calculated Fresnel zone
radium then nonfree-space conditions exist and additional losses will be present. When the frequency is
high enough for the hill to be considered as a sharp
ridge, and the transmitter and receiver are far enough
away from the hill, then the loss may be calculated
using diffraction from a knife edge, as shown in Figure
2.1-11. The height of the hill H(m) is measured from
the line joining the centers of the two antenna to the
top of the ridge. The amount of attenuation or shadow
loss with respect to free space may be read from the
graph shown in Figure 2.1-12. The value of v, the
diffraction parameter, can be calculated, with respect to
the distances measured in kilometers and the frequency
F(MHz) from:4
v 4 0.00258H dF/d1 d2
[22]

Figure 2.1-12. Attenuation due to various diffraction conditions.

predominates when the elevation of the hill changes

drastically within a wavelength. This can occur when
considering paths at the lower end of the VHF spectrum
that pass over older mountain ranges, (Appalachian,
Blue Ridge, Catskill).
The amount of attenuation can be found from the
chart of Figure 2.1-12. The term p from the chart is a
dimensionless quantity known as the index of curvature of the cylinders radius R and is calculated from:4
r 4 0.83R1/3l1/4 d/d1 d2

[23]

When considering paths that are obstructed by hills that

appear rounded rather than knife edged, the attenuation
can be calculated using diffraction around a cylindrical
surface, as depicted in Figure 2.1-13. This condition

where all distances are in the same units. For those

interested in incorporating the calculation of losses
due to diffraction over knife edge and rounded obstacles into computers more exact equations can be found
in Rice, et al.9
While the method for calculating the loss due to a
single obstacle is relatively straightforward, there are
times when successive obstacles are present in a radio
path as shown in Figure 2.1-14. In order to determine
the loss associated with multiple diffraction regions,
an approximation method has been developed based on

Figure 2.1-11. Ray path for knife edge diffraction.

Figure 2.1-13. Diffraction due to cylinder.

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strengths are 4 dB to 6 dB below that expected for a

plane earth and drop off to about 10 dB for 200 MHz.3
These measurements were made in areas containing
some large buildings and open areas, but mainly consisting of residential areas. Measurements conducted
in the 850 MHz band indicate field strengths 20 dB
to 34 dB below that expected for free space for path
distances of 1 km to 25 km.10
Vegetation

Figure 2.1-14. Multiple knife edge diffraction.

an extension of single-edge diffraction. The obstacles

which would singly produce the greatest diffraction
loss is determined using the methods discussed above.
Lines are drawn joining the summit of this obstacle
to the transmitter and receiver antenna locations. The
additional attenuation caused by the remaining obstacles should be calculated using their heights, Ha and
Hb, above these lines. These additional losses are then
added to the loss due to the main obstacle in calculating
the nonfree-space loss. It is important to note that even
if Ha and Hb are slightly negative (below the lines)
they may still produce a small amount of attenuation
due to the Fresnel zone clearance requirements.4
Buildings

When planning for transmitting locations within

built-up areas of cities or residential areas, buildings
will have an effect on radio propagation. For radio
relay stations, such as studio-to-transmitter links it is
the normal practice to select sites that will be clear of
buildings. However, where this is not feasible and
the path geometry is known, (height and location of
buildings) then the diffraction methods discussed for
hills may be applied. In planning for broadcast systems
it is not practical to relate attenuation measurements
made in built-up areas to the particular geometry of
buildings. Therefore it is more conventional to treat
the losses in statistical manner, dividing the general
classifications of building types into loss groups, so
that a loss can be derived for a particular type of
building (multi-story made of concrete and steel versus
single story residential made of wood).
Within built-up areas there is much more back scatter than in open country. Additionally, due to the fact
that buildings are more transparent to radio waves than
the earth, there tends to be less shadow loss caused
by buildings. However, the angles of diffraction due
to buildings are usually much greater than in open
country for natural terrain and thus the loss resulting
from the presence of buildings tends to increase. Measurements indicate that at 100 MHz the median field

Among the many factors that have an effect on the

determination of the losses present in a propagation
path, vegetation is sometimes the most overlooked.
Depending on the type of terrain in consideration,
(open or forest) the effect of vegetation can add a
several dB loss to the system. The amount of attenuation present is dependent upon the frequency and
polarization of the wave (see Figure 2.1-15). As can
be seen, the attenuation for a horizontally polarized
wave for frequencies below about 1000 MHz is much
less than for a vertically polarized wave. At around
1000 MHz, trees that are thick enough to block the
field of vision can be modeled as an almost solid
obstruction and the attenuation over or around these
obstructions can be predicted from knife edge diffraction methods.3
The effect of vegetation on a radio path varies seasonally in the case of deciduous trees. During the
winter months the losses due to shadowing and absorption are less than those during the spring and summer.
It is interesting to note that the greatest losses will
occur during the spring since new growth has more
sap and moisture content which adds to the absorption
losses. When the antenna is raised above trees and
other vegetation, the prediction of field strengths depends upon the estimation of the height of the antenna
above areas of reflection and the reflection coefficients.

Figure 2.1-15. Attenuation through vegetation.

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For areas of fairly uniform growth and for angles of

incidence approaching grazing, the reflection coefficient will approach 11 at about 30 MHz. Even low
growth that is uniform, (a wheat field) may yield a
value of 10.3 for the reflection coefficient.
Atmosphere

As was discussed earlier, the troposphere is the major medium for propagation at VHF frequencies. The
refractive index (n) of air has a value near unity (typically 1.00035). The index is dependent upon the dielectric constant, and can vary depending on the pressure
and temperature of the air and on the amount of water
vapor present. Therefore the refractive index changes
with weather conditions and with the height above the
earth. The velocity of radio waves is dependent on the
refractive index of the atmosphere. As a general rule
the velocity of a wave is slower at the earths surface
than at higher altitudes. So a horizontally polarized
wave will be refracted back towards the earth, though
unusual atmospheric conditions may change this, some
simplifying assumptions are generally needed to obtain
a solution under known meteorological conditions.
Ducting

Changes in the index of refraction of only a few

parts per million can have dramatic effects on radio
waves. Therefore it is usually more convenient to refer
to the refractive index in terms of the refractivity, N:
N 4 (n 1 1) 2 106

[24]

Under meteorological conditions where the refractive

index decreases rapidly with height over a large horizontal distance, radio waves can become trapped and
experience low propagation loss over long distances.
This phenomenon is known as ducting. Although ducting is frequent with some locations and meteorological
conditions, due to its randomness and long range unpredictability it is not a reliable mode for communications. However, due to the strong fields over the horizon caused by ducting, inter-station interference can
result. In addition, line of sight paths may be affected
by severe fading.
In order for atmospheric ducts to occur, two conditions must exist. First the refractive index gradient
must be equal to or more negative than 1157
N/km. The refractive index gradient is a measure of
the change of the refractivity across a vertical height
h, dN/dh. When this condition is present, the radio
waves will remain close to the earths surface beyond
the normal horizon. Secondly, the refractive index gradient must be maintained over a height of many wavelengths. The duct may be thought of in the same manner
as a transmission line waveguide. However unlike metallic waveguides, natural ducts do not have sharp
boundaries, although there is a wavelength cut-off
above which waves will not propagate. Since the duct
does not have sharp boundaries, the thickness (t) will
not be rigid. Therefore the cut-off wavelength (l) will
not be fixed but an estimate can be obtained from:4

l 4 2.5 2 1013 t 2/3

dN

!t

1 0.157

[25]

where the wavelength and thickness are in meters. The

term dN represents change in refractive index across
the duct. As an example, a duct near the ground that
is 25 meters thick and has a refractive index change
of 10 N, (400 N/km) will have a cut-off wavelength
of 0.15 m (2 GHz). However, a duct with the same
refractive index gradient will have to be about 87
meters thick to propagate a wavelength of 1 meter
(300 MHz).
A duct spreads the energy within it in the horizontal
direction, but is contained in the vertical direction as
the distance from the transmitter is increased. Thus,
in principle it is possible for the field strength within
a duct to be greater than the free-space field at the
same distance. However, a duct will leak, or allow
energy to escape at the boundary, adding to the transmission losses so that field strengths are seldom greater
than free-space values.4
There are typically two types of ducts: ground based
and elevated. A ground-based duct forms close to the
earths surface. Energy is propagated in this duct by
being refracted back to the earth, reflected off the earth,
then refracted again, see Figure 2.1-16(a). An elevated
duct forms above the earths surface and is generally
very short lived. Energy in an elevated duct is refracted
back and forth between boundaries without coming in
contact with the earth, similar to the way coherent
light propagates in a graded index optical fiber. (See
Figure 2.1-16(b).) Shadow regions are formed along
the area outside of a duct where, due to the nature
of the duct, radio waves are not present. Receiving
antennas placed in such a region will experience a loss

Figure 2.1-16a. Ray propagation in a ground based duct.

Figure 2.1-16b. Ray propagation in an elevated duct.

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SECTION 2: BROADCAST TOWERS AND SYSTEMS

of signal. As can be seen from Figures 2.1-16(a) and

2.1-16(b) these regions can form not only above the
earths surface from a ground-based duct, but can also
form along the earths surface in the case of an elevated
duct. Therefore a shadow region, that can result in
loss of communications, can form at a receiver that is
located relatively close to the transmitter.
Radio waves that leave the transmitting antenna at
an angle greater than a certain angle, the critical angle,
will not become trapped in a duct. These radio waves
will propagate through the boundary of the duct,
though they will experience some bending due to the
change in the index of refraction at the ducts
boundary.
Atmospheric Absorption

Radio systems using frequencies above 1 GHz experience another loss that must be accounted for when
planning the system: atmospheric absorption. Relay
links and STLs that are inadequately engineered may
experience outages during periods of heavy rainfall
due to this loss. The amount of attenuation due to rain
is dependent upon three factors: (1) the rate the rain
is falling; (2) frequency of the wave and (3) length of
the rain cell a wave must propagate through. If the
path length is only several kilometers long, it is usually
adequate to approximate the length of the rain cell by
the total path length. The average rainfall rate varies
from one section of the country to another, however
typical rainfall rates are given in Table 2.1-3. The
specific attenuation
gr 4 KRar dB/Km

[26]

where Rr is the rainfall rate in millimeters per hours,

and the terms K and a are found9 as:
K 4 [3(F 1 2)2 1 2(F 1 2)] 2 1014

[27.1]

a 4 [1.14 1 0.07(F 1 2) ]
2 [1 ` 0.085(F 1 3.5)e (10.0066F2)]

[27.2]

1/3

where F is the frequency in GHz. These equations

give a good approximation to attenuation curves published by the ITU-R for frequencies below 50 GHz.14
In addition to rain, attenuation can also be caused
by water vapor and oxygen that is present in the air.
The attenuation due to water vapor and oxygen is
less than that for rain and usually can be neglected.
However, as radio systems employ higher microwave
frequencies, attenuation due to these losses will become significant.

Table 2.1-3
Rainfall Amounts
Characteristics
Drizzle
Light Rain
Moderate Rain
Heavy Rain
Very Heavy Rain

Rate
0.25
1.00
4.00
16.00
100.00

mm/hr
mm/hr
mm/hr
mm/hr
mm/hr

Coverage Areas
Engineering a radio or television broadcast station
using the methods presented previously are too cumbersome to be of any practical use in determining the
service area of the station. While radio waves actually
behave in the manner described in the previous sections, it would be too involved to use these methods at
every point surrounding a station. Therefore other quantitative methods are needed to determine field strengths
quickly and reliably. Considerable work has been conducted in this area and is still being carried out.
As can be seen from previous sections, the received
field strengths are subject to natural and manmade
phenomena. These can cause the field strengths to vary
over periods of time and from one location to another.
These changes can be long term such as seasonal
change (weather, temperature and foliage) or shortterm changes such as weather disturbances (storms
and fronts, and vehicles passing in front of the receiver). These variations have an effect on radio systems that is difficult to account for when determining
service areas. Thus it is appropriate to describe the
field strength statistically, by what percentage of locations will receive a particular field strength for what
percentage of time. By describing field variations in
this manner, it is possible to determine the service area
of a station. However, the terrain still needs to be
defined. In preparing propagation curves, this is accomplished by incorporating a terrain roughness factor
h. The terrain roughness factor is a generalization of
the local terrain and is defined as the difference in
elevation between the levels exceeded for 10% and
90% of the terrain along a path. The average value of
h for the United States is 50 meters.11 In using the
propagation curves found in the FCC Rules and Regulations for FM and television stations, the local terrain
is accounted for by determining the height of the antenna above average terrain along a radial.12
Field Strength Prediction

To simplify field strength prediction, curves have

been developed to determine the service area of a
station. These curves are generally developed using
measured values taken from different geographical areas over certain periods of time. The median values
are incorporated into a family of curves that describe
the field strengths for various antenna heights, frequencies, and distances. The curves used by the FCC for FM
and NTSC TV describe the field strengths for service at
50% of the locations for 50% of the time. These curves
are referred to as F(50,50) and are based on an effective
power of 1 kW radiated from a half-wave dipole in free
space. The F(50,10) curves used by the FCC describe
the field strength for 50% of the locations for 10% of
the time. These curves can be used in conjunction with
the method described by Allen to estimate the service
provided by FM and television stations.3
Computer Databases

Through the use of personal computers, field

strength estimates can be made quickly, allowing de-

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signers to try more options and see the effect on the

service area. The designer can change transmitter locations, power levels and tower heights to optimize the
station. There are typically four modules which comprise a computer simulation package: 1) the environmental data base, 2) the equipment data base, 3) the
propagation loss module, and 4) the graphical output
module.
The environmental data base defines the conditions
in which the radio station must operate. For stations
operating in the AM broadcast band this database is
a digitized version of ground conductivity constants
for an area. Programs are available which allow a
user to search an area to determine appropriate ground
conductivity values. For stations operating in the frequency range above 30 MHz this is a topographical
database. The USGS and National Geophysical Data
Center (NGDC) provide digitized terrain elevation
data. The most common resolutions provided for
terrain elevation provides data spaced at 3 or 30
arc-second intervals. The 30 arc-second database still
provides acceptable results for area of coverage predictions but should be used with caution for STL or microwave planning as it may underestimate significant terrain features. For detailed point-to-point profiling, the
3 arc-second database is recommended.
The equipment database defines variables relating
to equipment used in the radio system. This includes
transmitter output, receiver sensitivity (or field
strength), and feed line losses. More sophisticated
packages will allow the user to define additional losses
such as foliage and buildings to be accounted by the
propagation loss program. In addition, these packages
may allow a user to define additional standard deviation values to Rayleigh fading losses. Many packages
account for transmitter antennas in varying degrees of
sophistication. The simplest accounts for only omnidirectional patterns. More in-depth packages allow the
user to define directional antenna patterns.
The propagation-loss module uses the information
contained in the environmental and equipment databases to calculate the propagation loss for the area.
There are two typical methods for calculating the propagation losses, theoretical and empirical. Theoretical
methods are based on well understood physical equations as presented earlier in the chapter. These methods
typically do not account for such clutter factors as
foliage and buildings. These losses must be accounted
for by the user. Empirical methods are based on measured observances of actual propagation characteristics

for a particular frequency band and geography. These

methods typically employ measurements taken
throughout a range of environments, and hence account
for such factors as foliage and buildings.
The graphical output module presents the data derived from the propagation loss module in a form easily
understood by the user.

REFERENCES
1. IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, ANSI/IEEE Std 100-1977, WileyInterscience.
2. Reference Data For Radio Engineers, 6th ed.,
1982, Howard W. Sams & Co.
3. Allen, Edward W., Wave Propagation, Radiation,
and Absorption, NAB Engineering Handbook, 6th
ed., p. 119, 1975.
4. Hall, Martin: Effects of the Troposphere on Radio
Communications, 1979.
5. Jordan, Edward C., Electromagnetic Waves and
Radiating Systems, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, pp. 608688, 1950.
6. Norton, K.A., Ground Wave Intensity Over a
Finitely Conducting Spherical Earth, Proceedings of the IRE, p. 623, December, 1941.
7. Bullington, K. Radio Propagation Variations at
VHF and UHF, Proceedings of the IRE, p. 27,
January, 1950.
8. Wave Propagation, The ARRL Antenna Book,
14th ed., American Radio Relay League, pp.
119, 1982.
9. Rice, Longley, Norton, and Barsis, Transmission
Loss Predictions for Tropospheric Communication Circuits, National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 101 (Rev.)
10. Okumura, Field Strength and its Variability in
VHF and UHF Land-Mobile Radio Service, Rev.
Elec. Com. Lab. 16, Tokyo, pp. 825873, 1968.
11. Damelin, Daniel, Fine, and Waldo Development
of VHF and UHF Propagation Curves for TV and
FM Broadcasting, FCC Report No. R-6602.
12. Federal Communications Commission, Rules and
Regulations, Section 73.
13. Wang, John C.H., A Skywave Propagation Study
in Preparation for the 16051705 kHz Broadcasting Conference, IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, vol. BC-31, pp. 1017, March 1985.
14. Attenuation and Scattering by Rain and Other
Atmospheric Particles, CCIR Report 721.

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