1.5.

RELATIONS, PARTITIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATION

1.5

17

Relations, Partitions and Equivalence Relation

We start with the definition of cartesian product of two sets and to define relations.
Definition 1.5.1 (Cartesian Product). Let A and B be two sets. Then their cartesian product,
denoted A B, is defined as A B = {(a, b) : a A, b B}.
Example 1.5.2.

1. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then

A A = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}.
A B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (a, 4), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3), (b, 4), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4)}.
2. The Euclidean plane, denoted R2 = R R = {(x, y) : x R}.
Definition 1.5.3 (Relation). A relation R on a non-empty set A, is a subset of A A.
Example 1.5.4.

1. Let A = {a, b, c, d}. Then, some of the relations R on A are:

(a) R = A A.
(b) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (a, c), (b, c)}.
(c) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}.
(d) R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b), (c, d)}.
(e) R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (a, c), (c, a), (c, c), (b, b)}.
(f ) R = {(a, b), (b, c), (a, c), (d, d)}.
2. Consider the set Z = Z \ {0}. Some of the relations on Z are as follows:
(a) R = {(a, b) Z Z : a|b}.
(b) Fix a positive integer n and define R = {(a, b) Z2 : n divides a b}.
(c) R = {(a, b) Z2 : a b}.
(d) R = {(a, b) Z2 : a > b}.
3. Consider the set R2 . Also, let us write x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ). Then some of the
relations on R2 are as follows:
(a) R = {(x, y) R2 R2 : |x|2 = x21 + x22 = y12 + y22 = |y|2 }.
(b) R = {(x, y) R2 R2 : x = y for some R }.
(c) R = {(x, y) R2 R2 : 4x21 + 9x22 = 4y12 + 9y22 }.
(d) R = {(x, y) R2 R2 : x y = (1, 1) for some R }.
(e) Fix a c R. Now, define R = {(x, y) R2 R2 : y2 x2 = c(y1 x1 )}.
(f ) R = {(x, y) R2 R2 : |x| = |y|}, for some positive real number .

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CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF INTEGERS AND BASIC COUNTING

4. Let A be the set of triangles in the plane. Then R = {(a, b) A2 : a b}, where stands
for similarity of triangles.

5. In R, define a relation R = {(a, b) R2 : |a b| is an integer}.

6. Let A be any non-empty set and consider the set P(A). Then one can define a relation R
on P(A) by R = {(S, T ) P(A) P(A) : S T }.

Now that we have seen quite a few examples of relations, let us look at some of the properties
that are of interest in mathematics.
Definition 1.5.5. Let R be a relation on a non-empty set A. Then R is said to be
1. reflexive if (a, a) R, for all a A.
2. symmetric if (b, a) R whenever (a, b) R.
3. anti-symmetric if, for all a, b A, the conditions (a, b), (b, a) R implies that a = b in A.
4. transitive if, for all a, b, c A, the conditions (a, b), (b, c) R implies that (a, c) R.
We are now ready to define a relation that appears quite frequently in mathematics. Before
R

doing so, let us either use the symbol or for relation. That is, if a, b A then a b or
R

a b will stand for (a, b) R.

Definition 1.5.6. Let be a relation on a non-empty set A. Then is said to form an

equivalence relation if is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

The equivalence class containing a A, denoted [a], is defined as [a] := {b A : b a}.

Example 1.5.7.

1. Let a, b Z. Then a b, if 10 divides a b. Then verify that is an

equivalence relation. Moreover, the equivalence classes can be taken as [0], [1], . . . , [9].

Observe that, for 0 i 9, [i] = {10n + i : n Z}. This equivalence relation in modular

arithmetic is written as a b (mod 10).

In general, for any fixed positive integer n, the statement a b (mod n) (read a is
equivalent to b modulo n) is equivalent to saying that a b if n divides a b.

2. Determine the equivalence relations that appear in Example 1.5.4. Also, for each equivalence relation, determine a set of equivalence classes.
Definition 1.5.8 (Partition of a set). Let A be a non-empty set. Then a partition of A, into
m-parts, is a collection of non-empty subsets A1 , A2 , . . . , Am , of A, such that
1. Ai Aj = (empty set), for 1 i 6= j m and
2.

m
S

i=1

Ai = A.

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1.5. RELATIONS, PARTITIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATION

Example 1.5.9.

1. The partitions of A = {a, b, c, d} into

(a) 3-parts are a| b| cd,

a| bc| d,

ac| b| d,

a| bd| c,

ad| b| c,

ab| c| d, where the

expression a|bc|d represents the partition A1 = {a}, A2 = {b, c} and A3 = {d}.

(b) 2-parts are
a| bcd,

b| acd,

c| abd,

d| abc,

ab| cd, ac| bd and ad| bc.

2. Let A = Z and define

(a) A0 = {2x : x Z} and A1 = {2x + 1 : x Z}. Then = {A0 , A1 } forms a partition
of Zl into odd and even integers.

(b) Ai = {10n + i : n Z}, for i = 1, 2, . . . , 10. Then = {A1 , A2 , . . . , A10 } forms a

partition of Z.

3. A1 = {0, 1}, A2 = {n N : n is a prime} and A3 = {n N : n 3, n is composite}. Then

= {A1 , A2 , A3 } is a partition of N.

4. Let A = {a, b, c, d}. Then = {{a}, {b, d}, {c}} is a partition of A.

Observe that the equivalence classes produced in Example 1.5.7.1 indeed correspond to the
non-empty sets Ai s, defined in Example 1.5.9.2b. In general, such a statement is always true.
That is, suppose that A is a non-empty set with an equivalence relation . Then the set of

distinct equivalence classes of in A, gives rise to a partition of A. Conversely, given any

partition of A, there is an equivalence relation on A whose distinct equivalence classes are the
elements of . This is proved as the next result.
Theorem 1.5.10. Let A be a non-empty set.
1. Also, let define an equivalence relation on the set A. Then the set of distinct equivalence
classes of in A gives a partition of A.

2. Let I be a non-empty index set such that {Ai : i I} gives a partition of A. Then there

exists an equivalence relation on A whose distinct equivalence classes are exactly the sets
Ai , i I.

Proof. Since is reflexive, a a, for all a A. Hence, the equivalence class [a] contains a, for

each a A. Thus, the equivalence classes are non-empty and clearly, their union is the whole

set A. We need to show that if [a] and [b] are two equivalence classes of then either [a] = [b]
or [a] [b] = .

Let x [a] [b]. Then by definition, x a and x b. Since is symmetric, one also

has a x. Therefore, we see that a x and x b and hence, using the transitivity of ,

a b. Thus, by definition, a [b] and hence [a] [b]. But a b, also implies that b a ( is

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CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF INTEGERS AND BASIC COUNTING

symmetric) and hence [b] [a]. Thus, we see that if [a] [b] 6= , then [a] = [b]. This proves the
first part of the theorem.

For the second part, define a relation on A as follows: for any two elements a, b A,

a b if there exists an i, i I such that a, b Ai . It can be easily verified that is indeed

reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Also, verify that the equivalence classes of are indeed the
sets Ai , i I.