Cheat Sheet for Neurofeedback

Steven Warner, Ph.D.

Miami, Florida
01/2013

Cheat Sheet of the Brain Synthesis for Neurofeedback

Table of Contents:
Page 1 - Left and Right Hemispheres, Overview
Page 1 - Prefrontal Cortex
Page 4 - Frontal Lobes
Page 5 - C3, Cz, C4 Somatosensory strip
Page 6 - Temporal Lobes
Page 7 - Parietal Lobes
Page 7 - Occipital Lobes
Page 8 - Special Functions:
Page 8 Frontal lobes
Page 9 Sensory Motor cortex, Temporal lobes
Page 10 Parietal and Occipital lobes
Page 11 Deeper Brain Structures
Page 13 - Brain Wave Frequencies:
Page 13 Gamma, Beta
Page 16 Alpha
Page 18 Theta
Page 20 Delta
Page 21 - Neurofeedback Concepts: Absolute Power (21), Relative Power
(21), Mean Frequency (21), Asymmetry (22), Coherence (22), Phase (23),
Normative Bandwidth Distributions (24)
Page 25 - Drug Effects on the EEG
Page 26 - Brodmann Areas
1

LEFT HEMISPHERE OF THE BRAIN

Dominant hemisphere
Analyzes reduces a complex
concept or process into its
individual components. Detail
oriented.
Thinks sequentially i.e. one
word after another, one note after
another.
Thinks linguistically
perceives, comprehends, stores in
memory, formulates and
expresses.
Thinks logically, good at math
and analytical reasoning.
Verbal memories.
Men are stronger with spatial
abilities using both sides of the
brain; directions, maps or puzzles
Beta tends to be higher
Theta roughly equal left & right

RIGHT HEMISPHERE OF THE BRAIN

Synthesizes takes components
and combines them into an
integrated whole. Experiences the
process in its entirety.
Thinks spatially/holistically
putting puzzles together, hearing
the musical chord. Intuition and
insight.
Perceives, comprehends and
expresses visual and auditory
social cues reading faces,
remembering places, creating
facial expressions, comprehending
and creating vocal intonation.
Creativity, empathy, early selfconcept.
Experience and express
emotion anger, rage, anxiety.
Mood regulation emotional
contextual.
Alpha tends to be higher

Specificity to sites is slightly misleading these are best

guesses and all functions are a result of the interaction of many
areas. The typical site is differentially engaged in 40% of
behavioral domains.

Prefrontal Cortex Fp1, Fz, Fp2

Executive functioning establishes goals, inhibits information
extraneous to the goal directed planning process, plan and make
decisions, working memory. Prefrontal lobes have connections to the
amygdala. Self-regulation, initiation, social-emotional behavior in
2

social context, recognition and production of expression of language

(prosody)
Decrease in left prefrontal activation may reflect depressive experience
where increase in right prefrontal activation may reflect anxieties.
Prefrontal lobes have neuronal networks leading to the amygdala.
Autonomic Nervous System regulation
Attends to internal and external stimuli,
Determines the amount of attention that will be distributed among
competing stimuli.
Supervisory Attentional System - Sustained attention.
Motor Control and Programming
Calls up memory and utilizes it
Ability to inhibit behavior appropriately in complex social contexts
Delayed gratification
Mental flexibility
Understanding the concept of past, present and future.
Provide awareness of what is rewarding and pleasurable
Regulation of emotions (modulate and inhibit impulses)
Organising, creative, problem solving
Ability to learn from experience. Reality testing
Development of personality
Attachment, conscience, empathy
Fz frontal eye fields, motor, focus and action observation.
(Fpz emotional inhibition, modulation of emotional (sensitivity) and
behavioral responses, motivation/attention.)
Fp1 & F3 logical, detailed
attention, the organization of
responses (like a conductor),
semantics

Fp2 & F4 emotional/contextual

attention

Fp1 - verbal retrieval. Visual

working memory, verbal analytical
and approach behaviors

Fp2 - Face and object processing,

gestalt and context, episodic
memory ( when overactive may
correlate with irritability,
impulsivity, tactless, manic and
panic behavior)

Frontal Lobes
Higher executive functions
Attentional gating. Decision making. Problem solving, memory, social
awareness, character, motivation, planning, judgment.
Frontal lobes are responsible for immediate and sustained attention,
social skills, emotions, empathy, time management, working memory,
moral fiber or character, executive planning and initiative. They
identify problems and may send them to other parts of the brain for
resolution.
The brain is not just a cognitive processing organism; it is also the
seat of our conscience. Emotions, morals and social self cannot be
isolated to frontal lobe activities; other deeper structures are also
involved. There is a relationship between the frontal lobe and the
amygdala. The frontal cortex is responsible for the brains most
complex processing and has the heaviest projections to the amygdala,
and the two combine to form a network that is the social brain.
F3 & F7 - Approach behavior,
engagement, interest, mood
regulation, processing of positive
emotional input, conscious
awareness. Frontal mirror neuron
system empathy and intention
of others.
F3 judgment, planning, sustain
attention, inhibition of responses,
verbal episodic memory retrieval,
problem solving, sequencing,
deducing facts to conclusions.
F7 - Creates and controls output
of spoken and written language,
visual and auditory working
memory, selective attention
Brocas area (word retrieval,

F4 & F8 - Avoidance behavior,

withdrawal, impulse control
(important links to the amygdala).
Emotional tone variations (motor
aprosodia)
F4 inductive creative, inductive
emotional, metaphorical thinking,
short-term retrieval of spatialobject memory, vigilance,
selective and sustained attention.
F8 spatial and visual working
memory, gestalt, sustained
attention, conscious facial
emotional processing, prosody
Empathy conscience. Feeling
sense of right and wrong.
Emotional gating. Vigilance area.
4

semantics, verbal understanding,

speech)

Apprehension, disinterest

Divided and selective attention

Processing of anger, rate, anxiety,

fear.

Sustained and selective attention

Regulation of aggressive and

sexual impulses

C3, Cz, C4 Central Strip

The sensory and motor cortices run parallel to each other and are
divided by the central sulcus. The two cortices combined are called
the sensorimotor cortex.
The sensory cortex alone is the primary somatosensory cortex or the
somatosensory cortex: spatial discrimination and the ability to
identify where bodily functions originate. Responsible for both the
external senses of touch, temperature, pain and the internal senses of
of joint position, visceral state and pain.
The primary motor cortex may be called just the motor cortex conscious control of all skeletal muscle movements. Skillful
movements and smooth repetitive operations such as typing, playing
musical instruments, handwriting, the operation of complex machinery
and fluid speaking. It is the hub and switching station between
voluntary muscles of the body and the brain.
Cz somato-sensory association cortex (? Hub of affective limbic
system).
Sensory-motor functions, short term memory
Awareness of body, body position, body movement, co-ordination of
sensory input with motor output.
Gross motor activity, walking, throwing a ball
Fine motor movements pen skills, needle threading, typing,
speaking.

C3 hand and digits (with F3

handwriting and inhibit or execute
action), audition, happiness,

C4 cognition of music,
reasoning/decision making and
emotional/feeling, and in addition,
disrupts the process of basic body
5

syntax

signaling, happiness & sadness

The Sensorimotor cortex not only divides the anterior from the
posterior, but they also serve as a junction that coordinates movement
that is also in part guided by sensations.

Temporal Lobes T3 & T4

Auditory Association cortex; phonetics, letters to sound, grasping the
whole picture vs. sensing everything in fragments (may be
dysfunctional in autism), episodic memory, emotional valence and
regulation (temper). Without clear left hemisphere dominance,
dyslexia and stuttering may occur. Because women have up to 30%
more interhemispheric connections, they manage dyslexia better and
understand interpersonal emotions better.
T3, T5 (left) Wernickes
comprehension both verbal and
reading

T4, T6 (right) conscious

emotional and physical awareness
(insula), sense of direction

visual perception of what an

object is

visual memory & visualization,

categorization

processing integration and

perception of auditory input

sound voice intonation perception,

music

comprehension of auditory and

visual perception (reading and
word recognition)

facial recognition

long term memory auditory

(verbal) and visual

T4-T6 Central Strip (TemporalParietal junction RHS copying

emotional tones, comprehension
innuendo & nuance, non-verbal
memory

linguistic perception and

comprehension
Inner voice
positive mood

spatial and facial perception social cues

visual perception of what an

object is (object recognition)
symbol recognition
long Term memory
emotional content (anxiety) due
to proximity to amygdala and
hippocampus

Parietal Lobes P3,Pz, P4

Organization, integration, and synthesis of auditory, visual perception,
and kinesthetic inputs, orientation, cognitive processing and attention.
The parietal lobes solve the problems that the frontal lobes
conceptualize. Labeled the association cortex.
Pz - Integrating somato-sensory information with posterior visual
perceptions, working memory
Posterior parietal cortex - sense of direction, Balints syndrome...the
client cannot attend to multiple objects simultaneously, cant shift
attention from one location to another, or perhaps one sensory
modality to another.
Parietal and Occipital procedural memory
Posterior Pz may involve long term memory, sensory integration and
some quick decisions in crisis situations.
Parietal spindling beta reflects sensory hypersensitivity or sensory
defensiveness, auditory, visual and kinesthetic.
P3 - Language processing,
integration of self, logical
reasoning and
memory, imagination, spelling and
short term memory, math
calculations, naming objects,
complex grammar, sentence
construction and math processing
(right side body awareness)

P4 - Visual-spatial sketch pad,

image and spatial processing,
facial decoding, integration with
environment, spatial memory,
perhaps dysfunction effects selfconcern, map orientation, knowing
the difference between right and
left, self in space, music, body
image, physical act of dressing.
(left side body awareness)

Occipital Lobes O1, Oz, O2

Visual association cortex. Visual processing, procedural memory,
dreaming, visual perception.
Visual field, helps to locate objects in the environment, see colors and
recognize drawings and correctly identify objects, reading, writing and
spelling.
Increased activation of the occipitals may reflect brain stem issues
(cerebellum and involutional body movement)
7

Because the occipital lobe borders on the parietal and temporal lobes,
EEG abnormalities in posterior locations in those two lobes, often
extend into occipital lobe regions
Oz Hallucinations
O1 - memory encoding with
semantic tasks

O2 - perception, vision, color

(somewhat shape and motion)

IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS VIA LOBES AND SITES - TRAINING

IMPLICATIONS
Frontal Lobes
Behaviors and symptoms:
Oppositional defiant and antisocial behaviors. This behavior may
parallel excessive EEG slowing, and inadequate CBF throughout other
prefrontal areas as well-especially Fp1 and Fp2.
Clients with excessive fear as a result of trauma, anxiety, and neglect
may have an overactive amygdala.
Training along the anterior dorsal Fz and ventral Fpz may have an
impact on social behavior and moral fortitude (dysfunction shows as
irresponsible behavior, lack of appropriate affect, euphoria in some
and incorrect expectation in others).
Training in the right prefrontal cortex may lead to a reduction in fear
as well as create a sense of calm and well being.
Checking for prefrontal lobe problems often involves testing. Even
without testing, look for: clients appear to be in a fog, unable to
concentrate. They get into trouble in school or with community
authorities. They may be fearful, have difficulty with ethical or moral
issues, lack empathic ability, or lack social skills. Difficulty in
completing administrative tasks, unmotivated, disconnected.
Inattention, poor planning or judgment, slow reaction time, lack of
social awareness and poor impulse control.
Negative, depressed or anxious...check out frontal asymmetries.

SENSORY MOTOR CORTEX C3, C4, Cz

Behaviors and symptoms:
Training along the SMR is implied for stroke, epilepsy, paralysis,
ADHD, and disorders of sensory motor integration.
Clients who have difficulty seeing the logical sequence of cognitive
tasks may benefit from neurofeedback training along the LH sensory
cortex (C3). Training along the RH sensorimotor cortex (C4) may
invoke feelings, emotions or calmness.

Temporal Lobes
If hot avoid training initially due to issues of reactivity (sensitivity to
external or internal input, emotion)
Behaviors and symptoms:
Left mid-temporal zone problems could reflect difficulties in keeping up
a conversation.
Right temporal lobe problems may reflect inability to recognize
intricate rhythmic melodies; appreciation for music.
Mid-temporal extending into the hippocampal lobes ...episodic
memory, such as functional tasks; remembering to pay the
bills, fill the gas tank, where the keys are, how to play baseball,
where glasses, etc.
Because of the temporal lobes proximity to the amygdala, it could
result in angry or aggressive behavior.
EEG slowing in the temporal lobes is often associated with
concussions since head injuries, regardless of the site of the impact,
often involve scraping of the temporal lobes along the inner part of
the sharp, bony, middle fossa. Problems with temporal lobe slowing
are the most common type of EEG abnormality......major pathology
changes in aging, anoxic conditions, head injury, and many other
etiologies found in the temporal lobe, especially in the depth of this
lobe the amygdala and hippocampus.

Cerebral Blood Flow in the temporal lobes (especially R) for subjects

with anxiety and panic disorder. Mild anxiety increases CBF; severe
anxiety reduces CBF values and cerebral metabolism.
Parietal Lobes
Behaviors and symptoms:
Clients may have more car accidents because they cannot attend to
both sides of the visual field. May have difficulty playing computer
games which require a left to right scanning process. Draw pictures
and the left of the picture seems to have something missing...may be
a deficit in right parietal lobe.
Difficulty following directions to the office, failure to recognize a
simple tune, cant remember faces, easily gets turned around and gets
lost...then look at the parietal lobe as well as the right posterior
temporal lobe.
Ask client to write a few sentences. Draw a simple picture, play
monkey see, monkey do, do a few simple math or word problems.
How well do they perform? How accurate is the picture? How difficult is
it to follow hand and body movements? How easy were problems
solved, or not at all?
OCCIPITAL
Behaviors and symptoms:
Difficulty with visual memories and accurate reading require accurate
vision. Traumatic memories that accompany visual flashbacks are
often processed in the occipital lobes.
Visual agnosia....inability to perceive and draw complete objects.
Simultaneous agnosia....inability to see multiple objects at the same
time.
Problems with writing...cannot trace the outline of an object, or join
the strokes together during writing, if they see the pencil point they
lose the line, or if they see the line they can no longer see the pencil
point. Difficulty coloring or other visual spatial activities.
(Also consider posterior parietal lobes for visual spatial problems).
Adults who have strokes or TBI
Clients who have PTSD may benefit from training in the occipital lobes.
There is a unique connection between the visual cortex and the

10

amygdala related to PTSD. Practitioners often place sensors on the

visual cortex when doing deep states training.

DEEPER BRAIN STRUCTURES - FUNCTIONS

The Limbic System
This is power-packed with function even though it is only about the
size of a walnut. It sets emotional tone, controls motivation and drive,
holds emotional memories. The female limbic system is larger relative
to the size of the brain than is the male.
Hypothalamus
One of the busiest parts of the brain. It is mainly concerned with
homeostasis. It regulates hunger, thirst, pain response, pleasure, sex
drive, sleep, the ANS and thus control of the hormonal system. It
activates the fight or flight system.
Amygdala
Provides emotional content to language, intonation, sound of voice,
social emotion, guilt, shame. Detection, judgment (evaluation &
magnitude) of fear, sadness (not happiness). Dysfunction shows as
social disinhibition. Stores unconscious memories. Mediates depression
and hostility/aggression.
Hippocampus (beneath the temporal lobes)
Short and long term auditory and visual (emotional) memory
conscious (LH). Sound-voice intonation, memory, and spatial-facial
memory (RH).
Septal Nucleus
This acts in conjunction with the hypothalamus and hippocampus
particularly in relation to internal inhibition and the exerting of
quieting and dampening influences on arousal and limbic system
functioning.
Cingulate Gyrus (Fpz, Fz, Cz, Pz)
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Being able to shift ones attention from one subject to another. Mental
flexibility. Executive functions. Adapting within changing
circumstances/seeing options. Being co-operative in a social context.
Anterior cingulate gyrus - the HUB affect/emotional regulation and
limbic system control. Mental flexibility, cooperation, attention,
helps the brain to shift gears, and the young child to make transitions,
helps the mind to let go of problems and concerns, helps the body to
stop ritualistic movements and tics, helps contribute to the brain
circuitry that oversees motivation, the social self and the personality.
Is closely aligned with the amygdala. Here, imagination, motor
learning, fear and pain.
Posterior cingulate gyrus....closely aligned with parahippocampal
cortices and shares in the memory making process, provides
orientation in space, as well as eye and sensory monitoring services.
The division between the anterior and posterior is generally considered
to be at Cz.
Training at the vertex, Cz, influences three cortices simultaneously,
somatosensory, motor and cingulate.....the cingulate is concerned with
emotion/feeling, attention and working memory. They interact so
intimately that they constitute the source for the energy of both
external action (movement) and internal action (thought, animation,
and reasoning).
The hot cingulate means it is overactive and causing problems such
as OCD, ADD/ADHD and Tourettes syndrome.
ADD/ADHD - the disorder can manifest itself with, or without
hyperactivity. Components include inattention, distraction,
hyperactivity and impulsivity. Several different brain localities may
be suspect when assessing ADD/ADHD. The cingulate gyrus and the
anterior medial region may be the first place to look.
Flexibility and Inflow.
Thalamus
Connects sensory organs to areas of primary sensory processing
eyes to visual cortex of the occipital lobe. Ears to primary auditory
cortex of the temporal lobe. Body sensation and position to primary
somato- sensory cortex of the Parietal lobe. Connects the cerebellum
to the motor strip. Sets overall tone or level of excitation for the entire
cerebral cortex. Virtually all inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex are
funneled through the thalamic nuclei - the gateway to the cortex.

12

Reticular Activating System

This is the centre in the brain. It is the key to turning on the brain
and seems to be the centre of motivation. Keeps the brain alert,
awake and receptive to information.
It serves as a point of convergence for signals from the external world
and the internal environment.
The R.A.S. is the centre of balance for the other systems involved in
learning, self-control or inhibition.
Brain Wave Frequencies:
Fast waves are not synchronous engaged with the world.
Gamma brainwaves are very fast EEG activity above 30 Hz.
Although further research is required on these frequencies, we know
that some of this activity is associated with intensely focused attention
and in assisting the brain to process and bind together information
from different areas of the brain.
Gamma is measured between (36 44) Hz and is the only frequency
group found in every part of the brain. When the brain needs to
process simultaneous information from different areas, its
hypothesized that the 40 Hz activity consolidates the required areas
for simultaneous processing. A good memory is associated with wellregulated and efficient 40 Hz activity, whereas a 40 Hz deficiency
creates learning disabilities. When trained it improves memory,
language and effortlessness in learning.
Gamma (40 Hz): Subjective feeling states: thinking; integrated
thoughts, learning.
Associated tasks & behaviors: high-level information processing,
"sensory binding." Physiological correlates: associated with
information-rich task processing.

Beta brainwaves are small, relatively fast brainwaves (above 1330

Hz) associated with a state of thinking, mental, intellectual activity and
outwardly focused sustained concentration. This is basically a brighteyed, bushy-tailed state of alertness. Activity in the lower end of this
frequency band (e.g., the sensorimotor rhythm, or SMR at Cz) is
associated with relaxed attentiveness. If someone is exceptionally
anxious and tense, an excessively high frequency of beta brainwaves
13

may be present in different parts of the brain, but in other cases this
may be associated with an excess of inefficient alpha activity in frontal
areas that are associated with emotional control. If beta is deficient,
either all over or in small areas, the brain may have insufficient energy
to perform tasks at peer group standards.
Beta activity is fast activity. It reflects desynchronized active brain
tissue. It is usually seen on both sides in symmetrical distribution and
is most evident frontally. Beta should be higher on the left than on the
right. Increased beta asymmetry in the right hemisphere is indicative
of anxiety. Beta hyper-coherence may indicate anxiety, panic attacks,
and test anxiety. It may be absent or reduced in areas of cortical
damage. It is generally regarded as a normal rhythm. It is the
dominant rhythm in those who are alert or anxious or who have their
eyes open. Beta fast is the state that most of brain is in when we have
our eyes open and are listening and thinking during analytical problem
solving, judgment, decision making, processing information about the
world around us. Dominant frequency beta may indicate that there is
excess norepinephrine. Increased beta alone is often indicative of
withdrawal from social interaction (when theta and alpha are lower).
Increased beta at Fp2 and F3 simultaneously can be indicative of the
patient hiding all feelings and emotions (flat affect may be seen).
Increased beta and decreased alpha in frontalis is indicative of
agitation, being controlled by anxiety, feeling overwhelmed, and
impulsivity with explosiveness.
The beta band has a relatively large range, and has been divided into
low, midrange and high.
Low Beta (13-15) Hz: Could be called hi alpha, formerly
"SMR":(Sensory Motor Rhythm when at C3, Cz, or C4). The alpha
wave of the motor system, maximum when body is still.
Subjective feeling states: relaxed yet focused, integrated.
Associated tasks & behaviors: low SMR can reflect "ADD", lack of
focused attention Physiological correlates: is inhibited by motion;
restraining body may increase SMR
Midrange Beta (15-18) Hz: Subjective feeling states: thinking, aware
of self & surroundings; Associated tasks & behaviors: mental activity;
Physiological correlates: alert, active, but not agitated. Localized
activity where work is being done, asynchronous.
High Beta (above 18 Hz): Muscle artifact can intrude here. You tend
to inhibit hi beta to decrease artifact.
Subjective feeling states: alertness, agitation, problem solving,
14

anxiety, worrying, rumination, mental effort.

Associated tasks & behaviors: mental activity, e.g. math, planning,
etc.
Physiological correlates: general activation of mind & body functions.
Beta hypercoherence stress, traffic jam, overwhelmed, cant
process activated networks.
Beta hypocoherence immobilized.
Beta Wave Indicators:
Area
Frontal

Indicator
Anxiety

Indicator
Pain

Impulsivity
(being
controlled by
anxiety and
feeling
overwhelmed
),
and
impulsivity
with
explosiveness
, Mood shifts

Emotional
hypervigilance
and
controlling,
passive
and/or
avoidant
personality

Indicator
Fear
(increased
frontal
beta)
Aggression
(decrease
d frontal
beta)

Insomnia
Person hides
all feelings
and
emotions
(flat affect
may be
seen)

Tempor
al

TBI

Global

Anxiety

Insomnia

ADD

Muscle
tension

Indicator
Increased
beta in
frontal areas
and on the
right hemi
(the brain is
running too
fast) may
indicate
anxiety,
OCD, mania
and worry

Anger
Irritabilit
y

Insomnia
(insomnia
often reveals
LoBeta at
5.1/4.5)

Posterio

Indicator

Anxiety

Selfregulation
problems

OCD

Ruminatio

OCD

Headaches

Fibromyalgi

15

disorder(s)

Rumination

n
Trauma

Ruminatio
n

Slow waves are synchronous.

Alpha brainwaves (812 Hz) are slower and larger. Alpha is
generated from resonance between the thalamus and the cortex.
They are generally associated with a state of relaxation, peacefulness
and alertness. Activity in the lower half of this range represents to a
considerable degree the brain shifting into an idling gear, relaxed and
a bit disengaged, waiting to respond when needed. If people merely
close their eyes and begin picturing something peaceful, in less than
half a minute there begins to be an increase in alpha brainwaves.
These brainwaves are especially large in the back third of the head.
EEG investigations of alcoholics (and the children of alcoholics) have
documented that even after prolonged periods of abstinence, they
frequently have lower levels of alpha and theta brainwaves and an
excess of fast beta activity.
Alpha waves will peak around 10 Hz. Good healthy alpha production
promotes mental resourcefulness, aids in the ability to coordinate
mentally, enhances overall sense of relaxation and fatigue. In this
state you can move quickly and efficiently to accomplish whatever task
is at hand.
When Alpha predominates most people feel at ease and calm. Alpha
appears to bridge the conscious to the subconscious. It is the major
rhythm seen in normal relaxed adults - it is present during most of life
especially beyond the thirteenth year when it dominates the resting.
Alpha rhythms are reported to be derived from the white matter of the
brain. The white matter can be considered the part of the brain that
connects all parts with each other.
It is a preferred state for the brain and occurs whenever a person is
alert (it is a marker for alertness and sleep), but not actively
processing information. Alpha waves are strongest over the occipital
(back of the head) cortex and also over frontal cortex.
He traumatized brain idles too fast (in the beta direction), or too
slowly (in the theta direction). If excessive alpha coherence is present,
the brain may be locked up in alpha and be hard to speed up or slow
down. Low alpha may be indicative of anxiety, PTSD, or short-term
memory impairment. (Low alpha increases cortisol in the brain, which
16

affects the hippocampus and thus short-term memory). Alpha should

be higher in the right hemisphere than in the left hemisphere. Alpha
asymmetry and locally increased alpha are indicative of depression.
With an eyes-closed map, the normal dominant frequency should be
alpha. When the dominant frequency is at 11-12 Hz, it is faster than
normal; slower than normal from 8-9 Hz and when 9.5-10.5 Hz it is
considered normal. Slow (or low) alpha can be indicative of metabolic
problems, toxin-related issues, bipolar disorder/depression, and
substance abuse (i.e., marijuana use/abuse). Increased fast alpha in
the posterior may indicate emotional rumination.
Alpha has been linked to extroversion (introverts show less), creativity
(creative subjects show alpha when listening and coming to a solution
for creative problems), and mental work. When your alpha is with in
normal ranges we tend to experience also good moods, see the world
truthfully, and have a sense of calmness. Alpha is one of the brain's
most important frequencies to learn and use information taught in the
classroom and on the job. You can increase alpha by closing your eyes
or deep breathing or decrease alpha by thinking or calculating. AlphaTheta training can create an increase in sensation, abstract thinking
and self-control. Alpha allows us to shift easily from one task to
another. Too much alpha in the right frontal cortex may be associated
with defiance in children while a similar amplitude in the left frontal
cortex may be associated with a depressed mood state.
Subjective feeling states: relaxed, not agitated, but not drowsy;
tranquil, conscious
Associated tasks & behaviors: meditation, no action
Physiological correlates: relaxed, healing
Sub band low alpha: (8-10)Hz: inner-awareness of self, mind/body
integration, balance
Sub band high alpha: (10-12)Hz: healing, mind/body connection.
If Alpha is blunted or absent, clients cite poor retention of info and/or
poor short-term memory. When Alpha response is non-existent or
negative then suspect the possibility of traumatic stress.
When Alpha response is negative at both Cz and O1, suspect
emotional trauma.
In most severely emotionally distressed fibromyalgia patients, the
QEEG show relatively little Alpha activity and the greatest Alpha power
in the group with the least emotional distress (and pain). The more
severe fibromyalgia patients, i.e. those with the greatest psychological
distress and pain, are most likely those with a history of significant
17

emotional trauma.
Alpha Wave Indicator:
Area
Frontal

Indicator

ADD

Increased
alpha on the
left may
indicate
emotional
shutdown

Depression

Parkinsons
may include
alpha
slowing

Depression,
passivity, and
avoidant
personality

Trauma,
PTSD

Lack of right
alpha social
withdrawal

Posterior

Indicator

Decreased
alpha is
indicative of
impulsivity,
being
controlled by
anxiety, feeling
overwhelmed,
and impulsivity
with
explosiveness

Depression
(alpha
asymmetry
with more
alpha on the
left than right)
Lack of
motivation

Global

Indicator

Metabolic
issues
Substance
abuse

Attentional
problems

Indicator
Pain and
anxiety

Persons
energy level is
low (esp. when
delta is low)

Fibromyalgia
(depressed
alpha)

Theta (48 Hz) activity generally represents a more daydream like,

fantasy prone rather spacey state of mind that is associated with
mental inefficiency. At very slow levels, theta brainwave activity is a
very relaxed state, representing the twilight zone between waking and
sleep. When theta is high, the brain is working overtime to recruit
resources (perhaps because there is a lack of nutritive resources
available). Generally, when there is increased theta, there may be
increases in delta and alpha (all slower waves). Having increased theta
and beta is like driving with the brakes on (the brain does not run
smoothly).
Persons with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD, ADHD),
head injuries, stroke, epilepsy, developmental disabilities, and often
chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia tend to have excessive slow
waves (usually theta and sometimes excess alpha) present. When an
18

excessive amount of slow waves are present in the executive (frontal)

parts of the brain, it becomes difficult to control attention, behavior,
and/or emotions. Such persons generally have problems with cognitive
processing, concentration, memory, controlling their impulses and
moods, or hyperactivity. They have problems focusing and exhibit
diminished intellectual efficiency. Theta is generated through the
thalamo-cortical path and reflects resources used in the body, pulled
into the brain when needed. Check out ones diet and exercise/health
issues. Elevated theta in the posterior of the brain tends to be
associated with feelings of calm and well-being.
Theta activity is classified as "slow" activity. It is seen in connection
with creativity, intuition and daydreaming and is a repository for
memories, emotions, and sensations. Theta waves are strong during
internal focus, hyper-vigilance, meditation, prayer, and spiritual
awareness. It reflects the state between wakefulness and sleep.
Relates to subconscious.
It is abnormal in awake adults but is perfectly normal in children up to
13 years old. It is also present during sleep. Theta is believed to
reflect activity from the limbic system and hippocampus regions.
Theta is observed in anxiety, behavioral activation and behavioral
inhibition. When the theta rhythm appears to function normally it
mediates and promotes adaptive, complex behaviors such as learning
and memory. Under unusual emotional circumstances, such as stress
or disease states, there may be an imbalance of three major
transmitter systems, which results in aberrant behavior. Excessive
theta and delta have a slowing effect and the brain is underactive.
Lack of blood flow to the brain increases theta and delta waves.
Subjective feeling states: intuitive, creative, recall, fantasy, imagery,
creative, dreamlike, switching thoughts, drowsy
Associated tasks & behaviors: creative, intuitive; but may also be
distracted, unfocused
Physiological correlates: healing, integration of mind/body.
Theta/Beta Ratios: (greater than 3:1 - constitutes a slow-wave
disorder. The normal theta/beta ratio is 2:1 (i.e., theta 8.7 over beta
11.07 = .79 or too much beta). The largest theta/beta ratios are found
at Cz or Fz; the smallest theta/beta ratios are found in the temporal
lobes. The normal theta/beta ratio at Cz is 1.6:1, and at Fpz is 1.5:1.
A high theta/beta ratio is a signature of ADHD. Deficiencies suggest
inefficiency in self-quieting, general anxiety, self-medicating and/or
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distraction oriented behaviors, burnout, depression or poor sleep

quality, self-designated alcoholics. When the ratio is too high, look for
interpersonal detachment with qualitative aspects of autistic or
Aspergers behavior. Look to equalize frontal lobe activity and reduce
the theta/beta ratio in the occipital area of the grain.
Theta Wave Indicators:
Area
Indicator Indicators
s
Impulsivene
Frontal ADHD/A
ss/ Impulse
DD
Control
Anxiety
D/O
Lack of
inhibitory
control
(when theta
is higher on
the right
front and
right hem.)

Tempor
al

Global

Posteri
or

Pain and
anxiety.
Decreased
theta may
indicate
attentional
problems.

Decreased
delta/theta
globally may
indicate a
person is
low energy
(esp. when
alpha is
high)
OCD/
Perseveratio
n
(hard time
letting go)

Indicators

Indicators

Indicators

Foggy
headed/L.D.
(Unable to
grasp
concepts,
ideas,
information)

Emotional:
PTSD
Depression/Ov
er-whelmed
Emotions shut
down

Disorganizati
on
(when theta
is higher on
the left front
and left
hemi)

Language
processing
problems
Short-term
memory
problems

Emotional
processing
problems

Emotional
processing
problems

Trouble with
accessing
emotional
information.
Retrieval
problems

L.D. reading
comprehensi
on problems

Delta brainwaves (.53.5 Hz) are very slow, high-amplitude

(magnitude) brainwaves and are what we experience in deep,
restorative sleep. In general, different levels of awareness are
20

associated with dominant brainwave states. Delta measures do not

give clear diagnostic indications. Delta brainwaves will also occur, for
instance, when areas of the brain go off line to take up nourishment,
and delta is also associated with learning disabilities. If someone is
becoming drowsy, there are more delta and slower theta brainwaves
creeping in, and if people are somewhat inattentive to external things
and their minds are wandering, there is more theta present. Often
present with learning difficulties.
ADD tends to show high amplitude delta slow waves, excessive theta
or a locked in alpha state. Excessive alpha and beta is the brains most
reliable signature for depression. Depression may show high alpha or
beta, excessive coherence problems or poor inter-hemisphere
communication.
The lowest frequencies are delta and are generated from the brain
stem and cerebellum. These are less than 4 Hz and occur in deep sleep
and in some abnormal processes also during experiences of "empathy
Delta waves are involved with our ability to integrate and let go. It
reflects unconscious mind. Delta is normally the dominant rhythm in
infants up to one year of age and it is present in stages 3 and 4 of
sleep. It tends to be the highest in amplitude and the slowest waves.
We increase Delta waves to decrease our awareness of the physical
world. We also access information in our unconscious mind through
Delta. Complex problem solving.
Peak performers decrease Delta waves when high focus and peak
performance is required. However, most individuals diagnosed with
Attention Deficit Disorder, naturally increase rather than decrease
Delta activity when trying to focus. The inappropriate Delta response
often severely restricts the ability to focus and maintain attention. It is
as if the brain is locked into a perpetual drowsy state. Parietal delta
(P4) affects association and cortex/processing. A delta deficit is
indicative of problems with working memory.
Subjective feeling states: deep, dreamless sleep, non-REM sleep,
trance, unconscious.
Associated tasks & behaviors: lethargic, not moving, not attentive
Physiological correlates: not moving, low-level of arousal.
Delta Wave Indicators:
Area
Frontal

Indicato
r

Indicator

Indicator

Indicator

TBI

L.D.

Dementi

Parkinson

Indicator
Decreased Delta
may indicate

21

a
Tempora TBI
l

Global

Posterio
r

Language
Processin
g
Problems

TBI

short-term
memory problems
Short-term
memory problems

Emotional
processing
problems/ADHD/li
st acquisition
problems

L.D.

________________________________________________________
Biofeedback is the process of learning to control physiological functions
by the use of instrumentation. Biological signals are fed to trainees
with the goal of gaining mental control over subconscious biological
processes. Biofeedback is a self-regulation skill and always rewards
the trainee. Trainees learn best when the challenge matches their
ability to learn. Training that is too easy or two difficult usually fails to
produce change.
When brain-maps are consistently blue (hypo-arousal), the body is
winning the battle for resources. When the brain-maps are consistently
red, there is heightened stimulation.
Absolute Power the brainpower available within a particular
frequency at each site. The amplitude/strength of the frequency.
Microvolts squared.
Relative Power whether a particular frequency is overpowering
other vital frequencies. In proportion to other bands. Distribution of
power. Percentage of total power in each channel.
Mean Frequency average frequency reflects if the bandwidth is
within normal operating ranges. Example, alpha should peak around
10hz, and when it peaks at 9.5 hz, individuals may complain of
fatigue, being error prone or simply misunderstanding vital input
information.
22

Asymmetry whether the brain waves between the various parts of

the brains are balanced (difference in magnitude between two sites).
Excessive activity may indicate an overtiring of brain cells. Insufficient
activity may suggest neurons are not firing
sufficiently to maintain proper function.
Coherence How stable the phase relationship is between two sites.
The degree of interaction or communication, shared information,
between brain sites. Whos talking to whom? The inner self-talk
reflecting connecting and disconnecting different parts of the brain to
accomplish tasks. A measure of synchronization between activity in
two channels.
Hypercoherence: when brain sites are not functioning in efficient
interdependent fashion, but rather have too much cross-talk.
Excessive coherence tends to indicate two or more areas of the
brain being overly connected or locked together. Too rigid, and this
also occurs when the brain builds new neural connections. The brain
has become overly dependent on these centers and is not efficiently
processing and executing information resulting in poor day-to-day
performance. Hypercoherence requires cortical organization while
hypocoherence does not.
Hypocoherence: This is called poor inter-site interaction and is
associated with diminished cognitive efficiency. Deficient coherence is
a sign that the brain is not able to efficiently connect cortical areas to
perform specific tasks. Insufficient differentiation inhibiting effective
inter-site communication. Learning disabilities may show either hyper
or hypo-coherence while serious TBI classically show excessive
coherence. This is often found with brain injury, after which clients
experience stereotypical, perseverative and inflexible behavior and
cognitive processing.
A full Q is required to assess hypocoherence (!)
Phase reflects how many of the brains functions are timed events,
the energy from one part of the brain arriving at the right moment to
perform a task. Excessive phase mean the signals arrive too early
(meaning a slowing of connections) while deficiency means they arrive
too late. This is a measure of the temporal relationship between two
signals. A locking and unlocking of signals. EEG waves are
electromagnetic waveforms that move from positive to negative
voltage. If two wave forms shift from positive to negative at exactly
the same rate, they are in phase. Two wave forms that shift at the
opposite rate are out of phase. Areas of the brain that emit
consistently in-phase signals are doing so because they are
communicating and processing the same information. Consequently,
23

they are referred to as coupled.

Bandwidth microvolt normative distributions at Cz:

Bandwidth

Eyes Closed

Eyes Open

Alpha (8-12 Hz)

16.6 mvl

9.3 mvl

Theta (4-8 Hz)

12.4 mvl

10.7 mvl

Beta (13-21 Hz)

8.1 mvl

6.4 mvl

SMR (12-15 Hz)

5.1 mvl

4.4 mvl

Theta to beta ratio

1.6:1

1.8:1

Normal amplitude of beta tends to be higher than or equal to high

beta, while the normal amplitude of theta tends to be greater than
delta. Theta is still highest at Pz (EO).

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Contributions from Soutar & Longo (Doing Neurofeedback)

Drug Effects on the EEG:

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Brodmann Areas:

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27