Research Methodology

Unit 4

Unit 4

Primary and Secondary Data

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Classification of Data
4.3 Secondary Data
Uses of Secondary Data
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data
Types and Sources of Secondary Data

4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12

Primary Data Collection: Observation Method

Primary Data Collection: Focus Group Discussion
Primary Data Collection: Personal Interview Method
Case Study
Summary
Glossary
Terminal Questions
Answers
References

4.1 Introduction
In the last unit, we discussed research design and its various aspects. Once the
research design is in place, it is time to answer the research problem and
hypotheses. But this cannot be done unless one collects the relevant information
necessary for arriving at any suitable conclusions. The information thus collected
is usually termed as data. The researcher has a choice of a wide variety of methods
to collect the same. It has to be remembered that there might be a lot of information
available on the topic under study; however you need to pick up only that
information which is of direct relevance to the current problem under study.
The researcher can make use of data that has been collected and compiled
earlier or alternately make use of methods that are problem specific. The decision
to choose one over the other or to use a combination of methods depends on a
number of deciding criteria. This unit will begin by making the reader aware of
the methods of data collection available for research. Next, we will discuss the
secondary data methods and then go on to discuss three most widely used
primary data methods: observation, focus group discussion and interviews. The
most popular and widely used method of primary data is the questionnaire
method. This will be dealt with at length in Unit 6.
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Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
distinguish between different types of primary and secondary sources of
data.
explain the relevance of secondary data in research.
identify the different types and sources of secondary data.
describe the method and uses of observation method.
discuss the method of focus group discussion.
identify and use the interview method for data collection.

4.2 Classification of Data

To understand the number of choices available to a researcher for collecting
the study-specific information, one needs to be fully aware of the resources
available for the study and the level of accuracy required. To appreciate the
truth of this statement, one needs to examine the variety of methods available
to the researcher. The data sources could be either problem specific and primary
or historical and secondary in nature (Figure 4.1).
Data
Sources

Fully
Processed

Primary
Methods

Secondary
Methods

Internal

External

Need Further
Analysis

Published

Electronic
Database

Syndicated
Sources

Figure 4.1 Sources of Research Information

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Primary data, as the name suggests, is original, problem- or project-specific

and collected for the specific objectives and needs spelt out by the researcher.
The accuracy and relevance is reasonably high. The time and money required
for this are quite high and sometimes a researcher might not have the resources
or the time or both to go ahead with this method. In this case, the researcher
can look at alternative sources of data which are economical and reliable enough
to take the study forward. These include the second category of data sources
namely the secondary data.
Secondary data as the name implies is that information which is not topical or
research-specific and has been collected and compiled by some other researcher
or investigative body. This type of data is recorded and published in a structured
format, and thus, is quicker to access and manage. Secondly, in most instances,
unless it is a data product, it is not too expensive to collect. The information
required is readily available as a data product or as the audit information which
the researcher or the organization can get and use it for arriving at quick
decisions. In comparison to the original research-centric data, secondary data
can be economically and quickly collected by the decision maker in a short
span of time. However, one must remember that this is a little low on accuracy
as what is primary and original for one researcher would essentially become
secondary and historical for someone else.
Table 4.1 gives a snapshot of the major differences between the two
methods.
Table 4.1 Primary vs Secondary Data
Primary Data

Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problems

Collection process Very involved

Rapid & easy

Collection cost

High

Relatively low

Collection time

Long

Short

Accuracy

As Desired

Not Known

Control

Complete

No Control

Period

Up to date

Dated

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Activity 1
What kind of data will you collect for the following? Measuring the
financial performance of ICICI bank
Measuring the inflation rate in a country
Comparing the profile of Santro with I-10 users
Analyzing William Shakespeares style of writing

Self-Assessment Questions
1. The data that is always collected first in a research study is called
__________ data.
2. ________ data is not always specific to the research problem under study.
3. Census data is an example of primary data source. (True/False)
4. Sampling frame of the respondent population is an example of secondary
data. (True/False)
5. Primary data methods have a significant time and cost advantage over
secondary data. (True/False)

4.3 Secondary Data

We have already discussed what secondary data is. Let us see what are its
uses, types and sources.

4.3.1 Uses of Secondary Data

Secondary data can be used for multiple purposes as follows:
Problem identification and formulation stage: Existing information on
the topic under study is useful to help develop the research question.
Hypotheses designing: Previous research studies done in the area could
help in hypothesizing about expected results.
Sampling considerations: There might be respondent related databases
available to seek respondent statistics and relevant contact details. These
would help during sampling for the study.

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Primary base: The secondary information collected can be used to design

the primary data collection instruments, in order to phrase and design the
right questions.
Validation board: Earlier records and studies can also be used to support
or validate the information collected through primary sources.
Before we examine the wide range of the secondary sources available to
the business researcher, it is essential that one is aware of the advantages and
disadvantages of using secondary sources.

4.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

There are multiple advantages of using secondary data.
Resource advantage: Any research that is making use of secondary
information will be able to save immensely in terms of both cost and time
Accessibility of data: The other major advantage of secondary sources
is that it is very easy to access this data.
Accuracy and stability of data: Data from recognized sources has the
additional advantage of accuracy and reliability
Assessment of data: It can be used to compare and support the primary
research findings of the present study.
However, there is need for caution as well because in using secondary data,
there might be some disadvantages like:
Applicability of data: The information might not be directly suitable for
our study. Also since it is past data it might not be applicable today.
Accuracy of data: All data that is available might not be reliable and
accurate.

4.3.3 Types and Sources of Secondary Data

As we saw earlier in Figure 4.1, secondary data can be divided into internal and
external sources. Internal, as the name implies, is organization-or environmentspecific source and includes the historical output and records available with the
organization which might be the backdrop of the study. The data that is
independent of the organization and covers the larger industry-scape would be
available in the form of published material, computerized databases or data
compiled by syndicated services. Discussed below are three major sources of
data internal, external, computer-stored data and syndicated databases.

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1. Internal sources of data

Compilation of various kinds of information and data is mandatory for any
organization that exists. Some sources of internal information are presented in
Figure 4.2.
Internal
Data

Company
Record

Employee
Record

Sales
Data

Financial
Record

Other
Publications

Figure 4.2 Internal Sources of Data

Company records: This includes all the data about the inception, the
owners, and the mission and vision statements, infrastructure and other
details, including both the process and manufacturing (if any) and sales,
as well as a historical timeline of the events.
Employee records: All details regarding the employees (regular and parttime) would be part of employee records.
Sales data: This data can take on different forms:
(i) Cash register receipt
(ii) Salespersons call records: This is a document to be prepared
and updated every day by each individual salesperson.
(iii) Sales invoices: Customer who has placed an order with the
company, his complete details including the size of the order, location,
price by unit, terms of sale and shipment details (if any).
Financial records and sales reports
Besides this, there are other published sources like warranty records,
CRM data and customer grievance data which are extremely critical in
evaluating the health of a product or an organization.

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2. External data sources

As stated earlier, information that is collected and compiled by an outside source
that is external to the organization is referred to as external source of data.
External sources of data include the following:
Published data: There could be two kinds of published dataone that is from
the official and government sources and the other kind of data is that which has
been prepared by individuals or private agencies or organizations.
Government sources: The Indian government publishes a lot of documents
that are readily available and are extremely useful for the purpose of providing
background data. A brief snapshot of some government data is given in Table
4.2.
Table 4.2 Secondary DataGovernment Publications
Sub-type

Sources

Data

Uses

1. Census
Registrar General of India
data
conducting census survey
conducted http://censusindia.gov.in/
every ten
years
throughout
the country

Size of the
population and its
distribution by
age, sex,
occupation and
income levels.
2010 census is
taking many more
variables to get a
better picture of
the population

Population
information is
significant as the
forecasts of
purchase,
estimates of
growth and
development, as
well as policy
decisions can be
made on this
base

2. Statistical
Abstract
India
annually

CSO (Central Statistical

Organization) for the past
5 years
http://www.mospi.gov.in/
cso_test1.htm

Education, health,
residential
information at the
state level is part
of this document

Making demand,
estimations and a
state level
assessment of
government
support and
policy changes
can be made

3. White
paper on
national
income

CSO
http://www.mospi.gov.in/
cso_test1.htm

Estimates of
national income,
savings and
consumption

Significant
indication of the
financial trends;
investment
forecasts and
monetary policy
formulation

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4. Annual
Survey of
Industries
all
industries

CSO No. of units, persons

employed, capital output
ratio, turnover, etc.
http://www.mospi.gov.in/cs
o_test1.htm

Information on
existing units
gives perspective
on the Industrial
development and
helps in creating
the employee
profile

5. Monthly
survey of
selected
industries

CSO
http://www.mospi.gov.in/cs
o_test1.htm

Production
statistics in detail

Demandsupply
estimations

6. Foreign
Trade of
India
Monthly
Statistics

Director General of
Commercial Intelligence
http://www.dgciskol.nic.in/

Exports and
Imports
countrywise and
productwise

Forecast,
manufacturing
and trade
estimations

7. Wholesale
price
index
weekly all
India
Consumer
Price Index

Ministry of Commerce and

Industry
http://india.gov.in/sectors/c
ommerce/ministry_commer
ce.php

Reporting of
prices of products
like food articles,
foodgrains,
minerals, fuel,
power, lights,
lubricants,
textiles,
chemicals, metal,
machinery and
transport

Establishing price
bands of product
categories;
pricing
estimations for
new products;
determining
consumer spend

8. Economic
Survey
annual
publication

Dept. of Economic Affairs,

Ministry of Finance,
patterns, currency and
finance
http://finmin.nic.in/the_mini
stry/dept_eco_affairs/

Descriptive
reporting of the
current economic
status

Estimations of the
future and
evaluation of
policy decisions
and extraneous
factors in that
period

9. National
Sample
Survey
(NSS)

Ministry of Planning
Social, economic,
http://www.planningcommis demographic,
sion.gov.in/
industrial and
agricultural
statistics.

Significant for
making policy
decisions as well
as studying
sociological
patterns

Other data sources: This source is the most voluminous and most frequently
used, in every research study. The information could be
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Books and periodicals

Guides: including Industry guides
Directories and indices
Standard non-governmental statistical data: Some non-government data
sources are presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Secondary DataNon-government Publications
Sub-type

Sources

Data

Uses

1.

Company
Working
Results
Stock
Exchange
Directory

Bombay Stock Exchange

http://www.bseindia.com/

A complete
database of the
companies
registered with
the stock
exchange and
comprehensive
details about
stock policies and
current share
prices

Significant in
determining the
financial health of
various sectors
as well as
assessment of
corporate funding
and predictions
of outcomes

2.

Status
reports by
various
commodity
boards

The commodity board or the

industry associations like
Jute Board, Cotton Industry,
Sugar Association, Pulses
Board, Metal Board,
Chemicals, Spices,
Fertilizers, Coir, Pesticides,
Rubber, Handicrafts,
Plantation Boards, etc.

Detailed
information on
current assets-in
terms of units,
current
production figures
and market
condition

These are useful

for individual
sectors in
working out their
plans as well as
evaluating
causes of
success or failure

3.

Industry
Associatio
ns on
problems
faced by
private
sector, etc.

FICCI, ASSOCHAM, AIMA,

Association of Chartered
Accountants and Financial
Analysts, Indo-American
Chamber of Commerce,
etc.
http://www.ficci.com/
http://www.assocham.org/
http://www.aima-ind.org/
www.iaccindia.com/

Cases/
comprehensive
reports by the
supplier or user
or any other
section
associated with
the sector

Cognizance of
the gaps and
problems in the
effective
functioning of the
organization;
trouble shooting

4.

Export
related
data
commodity
wise

Leather Exports Promotion

Council, Apparel Export
Promotion Council,
Handicrafts, Spices Tea,
etc., Exim Bank etc.

Product and
country wise data
on the export
figures as well as
information on

To estimate the
demand; gauge
opportunities for
trade and
impetus required

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http://www.leatherindia.org/ existing policies

http://www.aepcindia.com/ related to the
sector

in terms of
manufacturing
and policy
changes

5.

Retail
Store
Audit on
pharmaceutical,
veterinary,
consumer
products

ORG (Operations Research

Group); Monthly reports on
urban sector. Quarterly
reports on rural sector

The touch point

for this data is
retailer, who
provides the
figures related to
product sales; the
data is very
comprehensive
and covers most
brands. The data
is region specific
and covers both
inventory and
goods sold

Market analysis
and market
structure
mapping with
estimations of
market share of
leading brands.
The audit can
also be used to
study
consumption
trends at different
time periods or
subsequent to
sales promotion
or other activities

6.

National
Readership
Surveys
(NRS)

IMRB-survey of reading
behaviour for different
segments as well as
different products
http://www.imrbint.com/

Today these
surveys are done
by various bodies
with different
sample bases.
Today the survey
base has become
younger, with the
age of the reader
lowered to 12+

Media planning
and measuring
exposure as well
as reach for
product
categories

7.

THOMPS
ON
INDICES:
Urban
market
index,
Rural
market
index

Hindustan Thompson
Associates

All towns with

population of
more than one
lakh are covered
and information
of demographic
and socioeconomic
variables are
given for each
city with Mumbai
as base. The
rural index
similarly covers
about 400

The inclinations
to purchase
consumer
products are
directly related to
socio-economic
development of
communities in
general. The
indices provide
barometers to
measure such
potentials for
each city and has
implications for

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districts with
socio-economic
indicators like
value of
agriculture
output, etc.

the researcher in
terms of data
collection
sources

3. Computer-stored data
Information today is also available in an electronic form. The databases available
to the researcher can be classified on the basis of the type of information or by
the method of storage and recovery as described below. Figure 4.3 gives a
classification of the sources of computerized data.
Computer Based
Information

Information
Type

Storage and Recovery

of Information

On-line
Databases

Internet

CD-ROM/Pen
Drive/Hard Disk

Direct from
Suppliers

Source

Direct from
Creator

Reference

Through other
Networks

Figure 4.3 Classifications of Computerized Databases

Reference databases: These refer users to the articles, research papers,

abstracts and other printed news contained in other sources. They provide
online indices and abstracts and are thus also called bibliographic
databases.
Source databases: These provide numerical data, complete text, or a
combination of both.

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Based on storage and recovery mechanisms: Another useful way of

classifying databases is based on their method of storage and retrieval.
Online databases: These can be accessed in real time directly from the
producers of the database or through a vendor. Examples include ABI/
Inform, EBSCO and Emerald.
CD-ROM databases: Here information is available on a CD-ROM.
4. Syndicated data sources
Syndicated service agencies are organizations that collect organization/productcategory-specific data from a regular consumer base and create a common
pool of data that can be used by multiple buyers, for their individual purpose.
There are different ways to classify syndicate sources.
Household/individual data: These could be in the form of surveys or
panel data available through reputed agencies.
Surveys: Surveys are usually one-time assessments conducted on a
large representative respondent base. Like opinion polls before elections,
best business school to study.
Product purchase panels: These specially selected respondent groups
specifically record certain identified purchases, generally related to
household products and groceries.
Media-specific panels: Panels are also created for collecting information
related to promotion and advertising. The task of the media panel is to
make use of different kinds of electronic equipment to automatically record
consumer viewing behaviour. These are used to calculate the television
rating performance (TRP) of different programs.
Scanner devices and individual source systems: To overcome the
problems of panel data, a new service is provided by research agencies
through electronic scanner devices-e.g. sales volume tracking data.
Institutional syndicated data: The syndicated data can also be available
at the institutional level. Retailer and wholesaler audits are examples of
this kind. Usually the records are noted as:
Beginning stocks + deliveries ending inventory = sales for the period

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Self-Assessment Questions
6. Cash register receipt is an example of _________ secondary data sources.
7. Customer grievance data available with the company is an important
source of __________ data.
8. Statistical abstracts of India are prepared by __________.
9. The __________ prepares the National Sample Survey (NSS).
10. Poors Statistical Services are a government publication on the people
below the poverty line.(True/False)
11. Syndicate sources are periodic in nature.(True/False)

4.4 Primary Data Collection: Observation Method

The researcher has available to him/her a wide variety of data collection methods
which are primary or problem specific in nature. However in this unit we would
be discussing the major and most often used methods like the observation
method, focus group discussion and interview method. The questionnaire method
is the most commonly used method of primary data collection. We will focus on
the questionnaire method in detail in Unit 6. Let us discuss some of the other
widely used methods now.
Observation is a direct method of collecting primary data. It is one of the
most appropriate methods to use in case of descriptive research. The method
of observation involves viewing and recording individuals, groups, organizations
or events in a scientific manner in order to collect valuable data related to the
topic under study.
The mode of observation could be in a standardized and structured
observation. Here, the nature of content to be recorded, the format and the
broad areas of recording are predetermined. Thus, the observers bias is reduced
and the authenticity and reliability of the information collected is higher. For
example, Fisher Price toys carry out an observational study whenever they
come out with a new toy. The observer is supposed to record the appeal of the
toy for a child.
The opposite of this is called the unstructured observation. Here, the
observer is supposed to make a note of whatever he understands as relevant
for the research study. This kind of approach is more useful in exploratory studies

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Since it lacks structure, the chances of observers bias are high. An example of
this is the observation of consumers at a bank, a restaurant or a doctors clinic.
However, it is critical here to understand that the researcher must have a
preconceived plan to capture the observations made. It is not to be treated as a
blank sheet where the observer reports what he sees. The aspects to be observed
must be clearly listed as in an audit form, or they could be indicative areas on
which the observation is to be made.
Another way of distinguishing observations is the level of respondent being
aware of being observed or not. This might be disguised; here the observation
is done without the respondents knowledge who has no idea that he/she is
being observed. This can also be done with devices like a one-way mirror or a
hidden camera or a recorder. The only disadvantage is this is ethically an intrusion
of an individuals right to privacy. On the other hand, the knowledge that the
person is under observation can be conveyed to the respondent, and this is
undisguised observation. The decision to choose one over the other depends
upon the nature of the study.
The observation method can also be distinguished on the basis of the
setting in which the information is being collected. This could be natural
observation, which as the name suggests, is carried out in actual real life
locations, for example the observations of how employees interact with each
other during lunch breaks. On the other hand, it could be an artificial or simulated
environment in which the respondent is to be observed. This is actively done in
the armed forces where stress tests are carried out to measure an individuals
tolerance level.
There is another differentiation where the observation could be done by a
human observer or a mechanical device.
Human observation: As the name suggests, this technique involves observation
and recording done by human observers. The task of the observer is simple
and predefined in case of a structured observation study as the format and the
areas to be observed and recorded are clearly defined. In an unstructured
observation, the observer records in a narrative form the entire event that he
has observed.
Mechanical observation: In these methods, man is replaced by machine. Some
examples are
Store cameras and cameras in banks and other service areas.
Universal product code (UPC) scanned by electric scanners in stores.

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Psychogalvanometer, which measures galvanic skin response (GSR) or

changes in the electrical resistance of the skin. Thus, the respondent
could be exposed to different kinds of packaging, advertisements and
product composition, to note his/her reaction to them.
Eye-tracking equipment such as oculometers, eye cameras or eye view
minuters, record the movements of the eye. The oculometer determines
what the individual is looking at, while the pupilometer measures the
interest of the person in the stimulus. The pupilometer measures changes
in the diameter of the respondents pupils.
Trace analysis; in this the remains or the leftovers of the consumers
basketlike his credit card spend, his recycle bin on his computer, his
garbage (garbology) are evaluated to measure current trends and patterns
of usage and disposal.
Observational techniques are an extremely useful method of primary data
collection and are always a part of the inputs, whether accompanying other
techniques, like interviews, discussions or questionnaire administration, or as
the prime method of data collection. However, the disadvantage which they
suffer from is that they are always behaviourally driven and cannot be used to
investigate the reasons or causes of the observed behaviour. Another problem
is that if one is observing the occurrence of a certain phenomena, one has to
wait for the event to occur. One alternative to this is to study the recordings,
whether verbal, written or audio-visual, in order to formulate the study-related
inferences.

Self-Assessment Questions
12. Observation is a direct method of collecting
(a) Primary data
(b) Secondary data
(c) Both
(d) Published data
13. Observing the remains or the leftovers of the consumers basket is referred
to as
(a) Structured observation
(b) Unstructured observation

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(c) Trace analysis

(d) Mechanical observation
14. In case one wants to know why some people use plastic bags for carrying
their grocery even after the imposition of a ban on plastic bags by the
Delhi Government, one may use the observation method to collect the
data. (True/False)
15. Usually the observation method entails that the observation is disguised,
i.e., carried out without the respondents knowledge. (True/False)
Activity 2
Prepare an observation sheet for observing buying behaviour in malls. Now
go to a mall near your house, first on a weekday and then on a weekend,
and write down your observations in the sheet you had made. What pattern
of buying did you observe? How do you think this information is of value to
a marketer?

4.5 Primary Data Collection: Focus Group Discussion

Focus group discussion (FGD) is a highly versatile and dynamic method of
collecting primary data from a representative group of respondents. The process
generally involves a moderator who steers the discussion on the topic under
study. There are a group of carefully selected respondents who are specifically
invited and gathered at a neutral setting. The moderator initiates the discussion
and then the group carries it forward by holding a focused and an interactive
discussion.
Key elements of a focus group
Size: Ideal recommended size for a group discussion is 8 to 12 members. Less
than eight would not generate all the possible perspectives on the topic and the
group dynamics required for a meaningful session. And more than 12 would
make it difficult to get any meaningful insight.
Nature: Individuals who are from a similar backgroundin terms of demographic
and psychographic traitsmust be included, otherwise disagreement might
emerge as a result of other factors rather than the one under study. The other
requirement is that the respondents must be similar in terms of the subject/
policy/product knowledge and experience with the product under study. Moreover,
the conduction of the focus group discussion must ensure that the following
criteria are taken care of:
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Acquaintance: It has been found that knowing each other in a group discussion
is disruptive and hampers the free flow of the discussion. It is recommended
that the group should consist of strangers rather than subjects who know each
other.
Setting: The space or setting in which the discussion takes place should be as
neutral, informal and comfortable as possible. In case one-way mirrors or
cameras are installed, there is a need to ensure that these gadgets are not
directly visible.
Time period: The discussion should be held in a single setting unless there is
a before and after design, which requires group perceptions, initially before
the study variable is introduced; and later in order to gauge the groups reactions.
The ideal duration of conduction should not exceed an hour and a half. This is
usually preceded by a short rapport formation session between the moderator
and the group members.
The recording: This is most often machine recording even though sometimes
this may be accompanied by human recording as well.
The moderator: The moderator is the one who manages the discussion. He
might be a participant in the group discussion or he might be a non-participant.
He must be a good listener and unbiased in his conduct of the discussions.
Steps in planning and conducting focus groups
The focus group conduction has to be done in a stepwise manner:
Clearly define and enlist the research objectives of the study that requires
group discussion.
A comprehensive moderators structured outline for conducting the whole
process needs to be charted out.
After this, the actual focus group discussion is carried out.
The focus summary of the findings are clubbed under different heads as
indicated in the focus group objectives and reported in a narrative form.
This may include expressions like majority of the participants were of the
view or there was a considerable disagreement on this issue.
Types of focus groups
The researcher has different kinds of group discussion methods available to
him or her. These are:
Two-way focus group: Here one respondent group sits and listens to the other
and after learning from them or understanding the needs of the group, they
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carry out a discussion amongst themselves. For example, in a management

school, the faculty group could listen to the opinions and needs of the student
group.
Dual-moderator group: Here, there are two different moderators; one
responsible for the overt task of managing the group discussion and the other
for the second objective of managing the group mind in order to maximize the
group performance.
Fencing-moderator group: The two moderators take opposite sides on the
topic being discussed and thus, in the short time available, ensure that all possible
perspectives are thoroughly explored.
Friendship groups: There are situations where the comfort level of the members
needs to be high so that they elicit meaningful responses. This is especially the
case when a supportive peer group encourages admission about the related
organizations or people/issues.
Mini-groups: These groups might be of a smaller size (usually four to six) and
are usually expert groups/committees that on account of their composition are
able to decisively contribute to the topic under study.
Creativity group: These are usually longer than one and a half hour duration
and might take the workshop mode. Here, the entire group is instructed, after
which they brainstorm in smaller sub-groups. They then reassemble to present
their sub-groups opinion. This might also stretch across a day or two.
Brand-obsessive group: These are special respondent sub-strata who are
passionately involved with a brand or product category (say, cars). They are
selected, as they can provide valuable insights that can be successfully
incorporated into the brands marketing strategy.
Online focus group: This is a recent addition to the methodology and is
extensively used today. Here, the respondents at the designated time in a webbased chat room and enters their ID and password to log on. The discussion
between the moderator and the participants is real time.

Self-Assessment Questions
16. A focus group discussion generally involves a ________ who steers the
discussion on the topic under study.
17. Online focus groups are conducted in ___________.

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18. The ideal number of participants in a focus group discussion is

(a) 26
(b) 610
(c) 812
(d) 1015
19. Special respondent sub-strata who are passionately involved with a brand
or product category are known as
(a) Brand-obsessive group
(b) Online focus group
(c) Special focus group
(d) Brand ambassadors

4.6 Primary Data Collection: Personal Interview Method

Personal interview is a one-to-one interaction between the investigator/
interviewer and the interviewee. The purpose of the dialogue is research specific
and ranges from completely unstructured to highly structured.
Uses of the interview method
The interview has varied applications in business research and can be used
effectively in various stages.
Problem definition: The interview method can be used right in the
beginning of the study. Here, the researcher uses the method to get a
better clarity about the topic under study.
Exploratory research: Here because the structure is loose this method
can be actively used.
Primary data collection: There are situations when the method is used
as a primary method of data collection, this is generally the case when
the area to be investigated is high on emotional responses
The interview process
The steps undertaken for the conduction of a personal interview are somewhat
similar in nature to those of a focus group discussion.
Interview objective: The information needs that are to be addressed by the
instrument should be clearly spelt out as study objectives. This step includes a
clear definition of the construct/variable(s) to be studied.
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Interview guidelines: A typical interview may take from 20 minutes to close to

an hour. A brief outline to be used by the investigator is formulated depending
upon the contours of the interview.
Structure: Based on the needs of the study, the actual interview may be
unstructured, semi-structured or structured.
Unstructured: This type of interview has no defined guidelines. It usually
begins with a casually worded opening remark like so tell us/me something
about yourself. The direction the interview will take is not known to the
researcher also. The probability of subjectivity is very high.
Semi-structured: This has a more defined format and usually only the
broad areas to be investigated are formulated. The questions, sequence
and language are left to the investigators choice. Probing is of critical
importance in obtaining meaningful responses and uncovering hidden
issues. After asking the initial question, the direction of the interview is
determined by the respondents initial reply, the interviewers probes for
elaboration and the respondents answers.
Structured: This format has highest reliability and validity. There is
considerable structure to the questions and the questioning is also done
on the basis of a prescribed sequence. They are sometimes used as the
primary data collection instrument also.
Interviewing skills: The quality of the output and the depth of information
collected depend upon the probing and listening skills of the interviewer. His
attitude needs to be as objective as possible.
Analysis and interpretation: The information collected is not subjected to any
statistical analysis. Mostly the data is in narrative form, in the case of structured
interviews it might be summarized in prose form.
Types of interviews
There are various kinds of interview methods available to the researcher. In the
last section we have spoken about a distinction based on the level of structure.
The other classification is based on the mode of administering the interview.

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Figure 4.3 presents a classification of the types of personal interview.

Interview
Methods

Telephone
Interviewing

ComputerAssisted

Traditional

Personal
Interviewing

At Home

Mall
Intercept

ComputerAssisted

Figure 4.3 Types of Personal Interview

Personal methods: These are the traditional one-to-one methods that have
been used actively in all branches of social sciences. However, they are
distinguished in terms of the place of conduction.
At-home interviews: This face-to-face interaction takes place at the
respondents residence. Thus, the interviewer needs to initially contact
the respondent to ascertain the interview time.
Mall-intercept interviews: As the name suggests, this method involves
conducting interviews with the respondents as they are shopping in malls.
Sometimes, product testing or product reactions can be carried out through
structured methods and followed by 2030 minute interviews to test the
reactions.
Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI): This technique is carried
out with the help of the computer. In this form of interviewing, the respondent
faces an assigned computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the
computer screen by using the keyboard or a mouse. A number of predesigned packages are available to help the researcher design simple
questions that are self-explanatory and instead of probing, the respondent
is guided to a set of questions depending on the answer given. There is
usually an interviewer present at the time of respondents computerassisted interview and is available for help and guidance, if required.
Telephone method: The telephone method replaces the face-to-face interaction
between the interviewer and interviewee, by calling up the subjects and asking
them a set of questions. The advantage of the method is that geographic
boundaries are not a constraint and the interview can be conducted at the
individual respondents location. The format and sequencing of the questions
remains the same.
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Traditional telephone interviews: The process can be accomplished using

the traditional telephone for conducting the questioning.
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing: In this process, the interviewer
is replaced by the computer and it involves conducting the telephonic
interview using a computerized interview format. The interviewer sits in
front of a computer terminal and wears a mini-headset, in order to hear
the respondent answer. However, unlike the traditional method where he
had to manually record the responses, the responses are simultaneously
recorded on the computer.
Since the interview requires a one-to-one dialogue to be carried out, it is
more cumbersome and costly as compared to a focus group discussion. Also,
conduction of interview requires considerable skills on part of the interviewer
and thus adequate training in interviewing skills is needed for capturing a
comprehensive study-related data.

Self-Assessment Questions
20. The interview method is a one-to-one interaction between _________
and the _____________.
21. The __________ interview has no defined guidelines.
22. When interviews are conducted with the help of the computer they are
called _________.

4.7 Case Study

The Pink Dilemma
The Indian television industry has seen an exponential growth since the
satellite television first came to India. Today, though cable penetration is
only about 70 per cent (according to various industry estimates), the class
of people watching cable TV is defined as the consuming class in India.
By 2002, the share of cable and satellite television was 86.9 per cent of the
total television advertising as against a meagre 31.3 per cent in 1994.
General entertainment television in Hindi is the fuel for growth in the
television industry with a 46.8 per cent share of the total viewership and an
even higher 57.4 per cent share of the total advertising revenue.
Sony Entertainment Television is a key player in this space and has been a
consistent and strong number two behind Star Plus, which has been the
undisputed leader since July 2000. In India, most homes are single-TV
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homes. Hindi is the preferred language for consuming entertainment across

India (except the four southern states) and that makes the Hindi general
entertainment television an intensely competitive space. It consists of five
players. Star Plus has been the undisputed leader since July 2000 and has
significantly consolidated its position thereafter. In September 2003, Star
Plus had nearly five times as much viewership as its nearest rival Sony
Entertainment Television. The other contenders are Zee TV, Sahara TV
and SAB TV. The key factor is that during primetime (specifically in the 9
10 pm slot) which is the focus of this case, the females influence the choice
of channel to view.
Sony Entertainment Television dominated the 910 pm band, with two of
its leading shows, Kkusum and Kutumb until mid-2002, after which the four
daily shows of Star Plus took over.
Despite several high profile attempts to regain lost audiences, Sony
Entertainment Televisions share in this band continued to erode. Star Plus
had established a clear dominance over Sony Entertainment Television.
(Star Plus average range of Television Ratings [TVRs] is approximately
13.2 TVRs, as compared to Sony Entertainment Televisions 1.3 TVRs).
Besides, Sony Entertainment Television was now perceived as a me-too
to Star Plus.
Sony Entertainment Television realized that women were the primary target
audience, who could get eyeballs for the channel. The challenge, therefore,
was to create and sell a distinct viewing alternative, going beyond the clichd
family dramas with storylines revolving around family conflicts and kitchen
politics, which is the predominant fare on general entertainment channels
today.
Discussion Questions
1. What could be the probable sources of establishing the market share
of the channel that are used in the case? Can one rely on the authencity
of Sonys dominance? Why/Why not?
2. To help Sony achieve its target of understanding what Indian women
want, what secondary data sources would you suggest?
3. Is it possible to use a primary data collection method here? Suggest
which one and explain why.
[Hint: Whether or not Sonys dominance can be taken as correct depends
on the transparency of the methodology followed by the rating agency which

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is citing it as number one. Secondary data could be available from companies

like Price Waterhouse Cooper, IMRB, Nielsen and others.
The students can do a search on what could be the sources for this
kind of data.
To identify what could be probable sources of primary or secondary
data the researcher must be able to identify the information need and
then see whether to seek it through primary or secondary sources
Next evaluate the two in terms of accuracy, accessibility and cost of
attaining it.]

4.8 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:
The researcher has access to two major sources of this data: original as
in primary sources or secondary data.
The secondary information is useful, fast and cost-effective way of testing
and achieving the study objectives.
Secondary data could be collected and compiled within the organization/
industry.
Data collected from an outside source is termed as external data source.
The observational method is the simplest method of primary data
collection. This can be differentiated into structure-unstructured; human
mechanically observed data.
The focus group discussion is a cost effective method and can ideally be
done on a small group of respondents to obtain meaningful data.
Interview method involves a dialogue between the interviewee and the
interviewer. This can range from unstructured to completely structured.
Today the interviewer can make use of the telephone as well as computer
to assist him in conducting the interview.

4.9 Glossary
External source of data: Information that is collected and compiled by
an outside source that is external to the organization.

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Focus group discussion: A form of structured group discussion involving

people with knowledge and interest in a particular topic and a facilitator.
Online database: a database that can be accessed by computers.
Primary data: Original, problem or project-specific and collected for the
specific objectives and needs spelt out by the researcher.
Secondary data: Information which is not topical or research-specific
and has been collected and compiled by some other researcher or
investigative body.
Syndicated data: Information gathered by a service or company for public
release and sold by subscription.

4.10 Terminal Questions

1. Distinguish between secondary and primary methods of data collection.
2. How can secondary data be classified? Elaborate on each type with
suitable examples.
3. What are syndicated data sources?
4. What is the observation method? What are the different types of
observation methods available to the researcher?
5. What are focus group discussions? What are the types of focus groups
available to the researcher?
6. Explain the interview method of data collection. What are the uses of the
technique? What are the different types of interviews?

4.11 Answers
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. False
4. True
5. False
6. Internal

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7. Secondary
8. Central Statistical Organization
9. Ministry of Planning
10. False
11. True
12. (a) Primary data
13. (c) Trace analysis
14. False
15. False
16. Moderator
17. Web-based chat rooms
18. (c) 812
19. (a) Brand-obsessive group
20. Investigator/interviewer, interviewee
21. Unstructured
22. Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. The data sources could be either problem specific and primary or historical
and secondary in nature. Refer to Section 4.2 for further details.
2. Secondary data can be divided into internal and external sources. Refer
to Section 4.3.3 for further details.
3. Information gathered by a service or company for public release and sold
by subscription is called syndicated data. Refer to Section 4.3.3 for further
details.
4. Observation is a direct method of collecting primary data. Refer to Section
4.4 for further details.
5. Focus group discussion is a highly versatile and dynamic method of
collecting information from a representative group of respondents. Refer
to Section 4.5 for further details.
6. Personal interview is a one-to-one interaction between the investigator/
interviewer and the interviewee. Refer to Section 4.6 for further details.

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4.12 References
1. Bhattacharyya, D K. (2006). Research Methodology. New Delhi: Excel
Books.
2. Chawla D and Sondhi, N. (2011). Research Methodology: Concepts and
Cases. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
3. Malhotra, N K. (2002). Marketing ResearchAn Applied Orientation. 3rd
edn. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
4. Pannerselvam, R. (2004). Research Methodology. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
5. Easwaran, Singh, SJ. (2006). Marketing ResearchConcepts, Practices
and Cases. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

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