POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY REVIEW NOTES

A. Photography
1. Literal Definition:
The word photography us derivative of two Greek words; phos
which means light and graphia meaning write. Therefore
photography best translates to write with light. (Herschel 1839)
2. Modern definition:
Photography is an art or science which deals of the reproduction of
images through the action of light
Upon sensitized materials, with the aid of camera and its accessories
and the chemical processes involved therein. (Aquino 1972)
3. Technical/Legal Definition:
Modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical,
thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images of scenes, or
objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma
rays, x-rays, ultra violet rays, visible light and infrared rays. This
definition is broad enough to include not only the conventional
methods of photography but almost and new process that may
developed. (Scott 1972)

PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY:
A photograph is both mechanical and chemical result of
photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from
sensitized materials (film or paper)
Light radiated of reflected by the subject must reach the film while
all other lights are excluded. The exclusion of all other lights is
achieved by placing the film inside a light tight box (camera).
The effect of light on the film is not visible in the formation of
images of objects. To make it visible, we need or require a chemical
processing of the exposed film called development.

The visual effect of light on the film after development varies with
the quantity or quality of light that reached the emulsion of the film.
Too great in the amount of light will produce a transparent or white
shade after development.
The amount of light reaching the film is dependent upon several
factors like lightning condition, lens opening used, shutter speed used,
filters used, etc.
B) Police Photography
Is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the preparation of photographic evidence, and its
application to police work. (Aquino 1972)
C) Forensic Photography
Is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime
scene and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for
purposes of court trial.
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
A. The Basic components Of Photography
1. Light
2. Equipment
3. Chemicals
B. True Photography
1839-is generally known as a birth year of photography.
William Henry Fox Tablot explained a process he had
invented (calotype) at a royal society of London.
The Calotype used paper with its surface fibers
impregnated with light sensitive compounds.
Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre- made a public demonstration
in Paris. The Daguerriotype in collaboration to Joseph
Nicephore Niepce.

 The Daguerreotype formed an image directly on the silver

surface of a metal plate.
With Talbots CALOTYPE the fixation was only partial while
the daguerreotype image were permanent with the use of hypo.
1848 Abel Niepce de Saint Victor introduced a process of
negatives.

Important Personalities in Police Photography

*Joseph Nicephore Niepce - was able to obtain camera images on
papers sensitized with silver chloride solution in 1816.He invented
a photographic process which he called "heliography" meaning
"writing of the sun"
*Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre - invented "Daguerreotype", an
early photograph produced on a silver or silver-covered copper
plate.It formed an image directly on the silver surface of a metal
plate.It was a positive process,thus,it yielded one of a kind images.
*William Henry Fox Talbot - invented a process called calotype,
a photographic process by which a large number of prints could be
produced from a paper negative.Calotype use paper with surface
fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.
Calotype vs. Daguerre - fixation in calotype was only partial
while
images in daguerreotype were made permanent with the use of
hypo (short for hyposulfite thiosulfate,sodium thiosulfate or a
solution of thiosulfate).

Sodium thiosulfate or hypo is a hygroscopic (readily taken up

and
retaining moisture) crystalline salt used especially as a
photographic fixing agent and a reducing or bleaching agent.
*John Frederick William Herchel - coined the term photography
and applied the terms negative and positive to photography.He
made improvements in photographic processes, particularly in
inventing the cyanotype process and variations (such as the
chrysotype) the precursors of the modern blueprint process.
- He discovered sodium thiosulfate to be a solvent of silver
halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his
discovery that this "hyposulfite of soda" (hypo) could be used as a
photographic fixer, to fix pictures and make them permanent after
experimentally applying it in 1839.

*Richard Leach Maddox - was an English photographer and

physician who invented light weight gelatin negative plates for
photography in 1871.

*Frederick Scott Archer - invented the photographic collodion

process which preceded the modern gelatin emulsion.

Collodion - is a wound dressing material made of nitrated

cotton
dissolved in ether and alcohol and other chemicals on sheet of
glass.

*George Eastman - founded the Eastman Kodak company and

invented roll film, helping bring photography to the mainstream.

Definition of Terms:

Photography - To write with light,from two Greek words, Phos light and Graphia - write.

Police Photography - It is an art or science which deals with the

study of the principles of photography, the reproduction of
photographic evidence, and its application to police work.

Forensic Photography - the art or science of photographically

documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory
examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.

1.Take photographs of the following:

a.crime scene
b.suspects.
c.detainees
d.prisoners
e. aliens
f.apprehended persons
g.applicants for clearances
h.military and civilian personnel
i.unknown cadaver

j.applicant to possess firearm

k.other physical evidence
2. Conduct comparative examination and analysis of questioned
photographs or pictures to the known photographs.
3. Process color and black and white film, print, reduce and
enlarge
picture.
4. Reproduce picture and other printed matters.
5. Compose portrait by means of portrait composition.
6. Provides photographic intrusion detection devices.
7. Maintain Rogues Gallery (a collection of pictures of persons
arrested
as criminals)

Care and Handling of Camera

- Must be carried using a portable bag or built-in container to avoid
dust and dirt.
- Must be kept dry and avoided contact with water and other liquid
substances.
- Must be repaired only by qualified technician.
- Must not be cleaned by oil.
- Must not be fixed without proper equipment and tools to avoid
serious damage on it.

Basic Camera Parts and Functions

Camera is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image with a

shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image; a means of
holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to
show the photographer what the image is.

Camera originated from the term camera obscura. Camera obscura

(Latin veiled chamber ) is an optical device used, for example, in
drawing or for entertainment. It is one of the inventions leading to
photography. The principle can be demonstrated with a box with a
hole in one side (the box may be room-sized, or hangar sized).
Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface
where it is reproduced, in color, and upside-down. The image's
perspective is accurate. The image can be projected onto paper,
which when traced can produce a highly accurate representation.

1. Light Tight Box. This part of the camera is very essential

because
of its capability to exclude all unwanted light that may expose
the
sensitized materials or film. It is an enclosure that is devoid of
light.
2. Lens. The lens is the only responsible in focusing the rays of

light
coming from the subject. It is one of the most important parts of
camera because without lens, it is impossible to form a sharp
image
of the film.
3. Film H older. The film holder holds the film firmly inside the
camera. It
is always located at the opposite side of the lens of the camera.
4.Shutter. The shutter served as the barriers of the rays of light that
will enter and effect the film inside the camera. It is usually
placed
at the path of the light passing thru the lens.

Other Parts of the Camera

1. Viewing system
2. Film advancer
3. Shutter speed
4. Lens aperture
5. Focusing mechanism

Major Types of Camera

1.View Finder Type - The smallest and simplest type of camera.
This is
also known as instamatic camera. View finder camera suffers
parallax
error.

2.Single Lens Reflex Type - Cross section view of SLR system

1) Lens
2) Mirror
3) Shutter
4) Film or sensor
5) Focusing screen
6) Condensing lens
7) Pentaprism
8) Eye piece

The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is to

look behind the lens of the camera. In this manner the object can
be framed properly and recorded on the film. This type of camera
eliminates the problem of parallax error.

Twin Lens Reflex Camera - has two lenses, one for viewing and
focusing on the subject and for taking lens. In this type of camera,
the image to be photographed is seen as flat surface as the image is
reflected by the mirror behind the viewing lens. This suffers
parallax error.
Parallax - the difference between what the view finder on a point
and shoot camera sees and what the lens sees (and thus records on
film).At close shooting distances, the difference can cause you to

crop off the top of a subject's head.

Parallax error - the image you see through the view finder is
different from the image the lens will capture.
VIEW OR PRESS TYPE
1.Lens plane
2.Front standard
3.Lens axis
4.Base
5.Film holder/Ground glass
6.Rear standard
7.Film plane

View Or Press Type Camera - The biggest and most sophisticated

among the different type of camera. This type of camera is
practically useless for candid and action photography.
Special Cameras - These are cameras that have been devised that
offer unique advantage or serve special purposes. Among the
special cameras are: a. polaroid, b. panoramic cameras, c. aerial
cameras, d. miniature and ultra-miniature cameras e. digital
cameras (using computer processing.

Control of Cameras:
Knowing the controls on camera is necessary to produce a sharp

and normal image and negatives after photographing. There are

three important controls in a camera to be manipulated and
adjusted to its proper setting.
* Focusing control
* Diaphragm/Aperture control
* Shutter speed
Focusing Control
- The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of
the object. Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image is
called focusing. Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper
distance in order to form a sharp image.
Three Types of Focusing
1.Rangefinder Type (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera and
35mm
cameras)
2.Ground Glass Type (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera and digital
camera)
3.Scale Bed Type (e.g. press and view camera, and Polaroid
Evidence
Camera)
Rangefinder Type
The rangefinder type is classified into two:
1. Coincidence type - the object to be photographed looks double
when
the focusing control is not in proper distance, and by moving this
control, one of the objects will move and coincide with the other
object
to make as one and become accurate appearance of an object.
2. Split Type - Splits the objects to be photographed into two.

While
moving the focusing control, the split image will move and unite
to form
an undivided appearance and therefore the focus is accurate and
perfect.

Ground Glass Type

Ground glass type focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether
the object distance and the camera is out of focus or not. If the
object is not well focused, the object to be photographed will
appear blurred. To make it clear and accurate the focusing ring of
the camera is adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the
desired clearness of the object.
Scale-Bed or Focusing Scale
In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of the
object to be photographed is calculated by means of feet or meter.
There are cameras where estimated distance from the camera to
objects is being indicated in the focusing ring.
Diaphragm Control (lens opening)
A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop,
and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the
iris of the eyeit controls the effective diameter of the lens opening.
Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which
describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or

farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus.

Aperture and shutter speed are the fundamental controls available
to the SLR user: Varying one or other of these opens up a myriad
of creative possibilities. Both also control how much light reaches
the film so if you make the hole through which the light passes
into the camera (the aperture) smaller; you must keep this hole
open for longer (the shutter speed) to compensate.
Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made
automatically. The size of the aperture is measured using
f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers represent
fractions, the larger the f/number the smaller the aperture. The
widest aperture on a lens might be f/2, whilst the smallest aperture
available may be f/22.
Shutter Speed - is a device that allows light to pass for a
determined period of time, for the purpose of
exposing photographic film or a light-sensitive electronic sensor to
light to capture a permanent image of a scene.
Types of Shutter
1. Central shutters
2. Focal-plane

Central Shutters - are mounted within a lens assembly, or more

rarely behind or even in front of a lens, and shut off the beam of
light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism is usually used.
Focal Plane Shutter - In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a
type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front
of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the
photographic film or image sensor.

Types of Shutters (as to mechanism)

1.Focal-plane shutters
2.Leaf shutters
3.Diaphragm shutters
4.Central shutters
Focal-Plane Shutters - Focal-plane shutters are usually
implemented as a pair of cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which
shield the film from light.
Leaf Shutters - is a type of camera shutter consisting of a
mechanism with one or more pivoting metal leaves which
normally does not allow light through the lens onto the film, but
which when triggered opens the shutter by moving the leaves to
uncover the lens for the required time to make an exposure, then
shuts.
Diaphragm Shutters - is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a
number of thin blades which briefly uncover the camera aperture
to make the exposure.
Central Shutters - is a camera shutter normally located within the
lens assembly where a relatively small opening allows light to
cover the entire image. The term is also used for shutters behind,
but near to, the lens. Interchangeable lens cameras with a central
shutter within the lens body require that each lens has a shutter
built into it. In practice most cameras with interchangeable lenses
use a single focal plane shutter in the camera body for all lenses,
while cameras with a fixed lens use a central shutter. In
photography, shutter speed is a common term used to discuss
exposure time, the effective length of time a shutter is open; the
total exposure is proportional to this exposure time, or duration of
light reaching the film or image sensor.

There are many factors to be considered in using this control .

Some of these factors are:
1.The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its
ISO
2.The lighting condition
3.The motion of the subjects on different angles
4.The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc.
The different shutter speeds are:
1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30
sec, 60 o r 1/60 sec, 125 or 1/125 sec,250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500
sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000.
Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making
very long exposures:
B (for bulb ) - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release
is held.
T (for time ) - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is
pressed again.
Avoiding Camera Shake
Unless you are using a tripod, the first thing you should ensure
when choosing the shutter speed is that it is fast enough to avoid
camera shake. However tightly you hold your camera, it will
always move slightly as you fire. If you use too slow a shutter
speed this will mean blurred pictures. The speed you use depends
on the focal length of lens you are doing.
How to Hold Your Camera
To be able to use the slowest possible handheld speeds, you must
hold the camera correctly to avoid as much vibration as possible.
Low-level shooting - you dont always want to take your pictures

from
normal eye level. This kneeling position allows you to take shots
at
waist level.

When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds

- By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use
slower shutter speeds than usual. These allow you to use apertures
that would not otherwise be possible when using a handheld
camera and to shoot in the lowest light. Slow shutter speeds can
also be used for creative effect, as moving subjects will become
artistically blurred.
When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds
Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter
speed than that needed to avoid camera shake. Some blur may be
welcome with action subjects, but often we want to freeze the
action. Selecting the right shutter speed depends not only on the
velocity of the subject, but also on the direction in which it is
traveling.

The Lens - A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate

axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light, converging or
diverging the beam.
Types of Lenses
1. Biconvex
2. Biconcave
3. Plano-convex/plane-concave
4. Convex-concave or meniscus
5. Positive or converging lens
6. Negative or diverging lens

Biconvex - A lens is biconvex (or double convex , or just convex )

if both surfaces are convex.

Biconcave - A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just

concave ).

Plano-convex or Plano-concave - If one of the surfaces is flat, the

lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the
curvature of the other surface.

Meniscus - A lens with one convex and one concave side is

convex-concave or meniscus.It is this type of lens that is most

commonly used in corrective lenses.

Positive or Converging Lens - If the lens is biconvex or planoconvex, a collimated or parallel beam of light traveling parallel to
the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged
(or focused ) to a spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the
lens (known as the focal length ). In this case, the lens is called
a positive or converging lens. This lens is always thicker at the
center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it is bended
toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at a point.
It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where
light is coming from.

Negative or Diverging Lens - If the lens is biconcave or planoconcave, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is
diverged(spread); the lens is thus called a negative
or diverging lens. The beam after passing through the lens
appears to be emanating from a particular point on the axis in front
of the lens; the distance from this point to the lens is also known as
the focal length, although it is negative with respect to the focal
length of a converging lens.This lens is always thinner at the center
and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it is bended away
from each other as if coming from a point. It produces a virtual
image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.

Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations

1. Spherical Aberration
2. Coma
3. Curvature of Field
4. Distortion
5. Chromatic Aberration
6. Astigmatism
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification

Spherical Aberration - When light passing through near the

central part of a converging lens is bended more sharply than those
rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are
focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the
central part.

Coma - This is another form of spherical aberration but is

concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The
defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central
part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects reproduced at
the corners of the negative are comet-like form. Just like the
spherical aberration, it is reduced by combinations of lenses of
different curvatures.

Curvature of Field - This is a kind of defect where the image

formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in curved surface than a
flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical

aberration and coma.

Distortion - A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering

straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an
object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the
diaphragm is placed in front of the lens,straight lines near the
edges of the object tends to bulge outside. This is known as the
barrel distortion.If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens, straight
lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This isknown as the
pincushion distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the
diaphragm in between the lens component and the two opposite
distortions will neutralize each other.

Chromatic Aberration - This defect is the inability of the lens to

bring photographic rays of different wavelengths to the same
focus. Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared rays are
bent to the least when they pass through the lens. This defect is
reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made
up of glass of different curvatures.

Astigmatism - This defect is present when the size of image

produced by photographic rays of one wavelength is different from
the size produced by another. Size of the image increases as the
wavelength of the rays decreases. In color photography it produces
a rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in
black and white photography, it appears as a slight blue.

Types of Lenses (as to degree of correction to lens aberration)

1. Achromatic lens - corrected for chromatic aberration.
2. Rapid-rectilinear lens - corrected for distortion.
3. Anastigmatic lens - corrected for astigmatism as well as the
other lens
defects.
4. Apochromatic lens - also corrected for astigmatism but with
higher
degree of correction to color.

Focal length - is the distance measured from the optical center of

the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity
position or far distance. Focal length is a measure of the lightbending power of a lens. It is invariably measured in millimeters
(mm). The longer the focal length of a lens, the narrower the angle
of view , and the larger objects appear in the viewfinder without
the need to move any closer to them.

Focal Distance - is the distance from the optical center of the lens
to the film plane.

Telephotos - are long focal length lenses.

Telephotos are lenses with focal lengths greater than 50mm. They
range from 70mm short telephotos to "long toms" with focal
lengths of 1000mm or more.

Wide angles - are short focal lengths.

A lens with a focal length of 50mm is known as a standard lens
the view that it gives is similar to that of the human eye . Any lens
with a shorter focal length, and wider angle of view, is known as
wide-angle.

How Focal Length Affects Image Size - Lenses work on the

principle that light affecting from a subject can be bent using the
refractive properties of glass to form a miniature image of the
subject. Lenses with short focal lengths, such as the wide-angle
lens, produce a small image. Telephoto lenses, with longer focal
lengths, produce a larger image, when taken from the same
distance.

Zoom Lens - It is a kind of lens with variable focal length.

Does Focal Length Affect Depth of Field?

Aperture is not the only factor that affects how much of a scene is
in focus. You should also take into account the focal length of the
lens being used and the distance that the lens is focused at
(generally the distance from the camera to your subject). The
longer the focal length, the more restricted depth of field
becomes.So, all things being equal, a wide-angle lens keeps more
of the scene in focus than a telephoto one. In addition, depth of
field becomes increasingly more limited the closer you are to the

subject that your lens is focused on.

Factors Affecting Depth of Field

1. Aperture - The larger the aperture the less depth of field. For
maximum depth of field, use the smallest aperture.
2. Focused Distance - The closer the subject you focus on, the less
depth
of field. Depth of field is greater with distance subjects.
3.vFocal Length - The longer the lens you use, the less depth of
field you
will have. Wide-angle lenses give the greatest depth of field.

Films and Papers

A.Black and White Films

1.Emulsion - a suspension of a sensitive silver salt or a mixture of

silver
halides in a viscous medium (as a gelatin solution) forming a
coating on
photographic plates, film, or paper.
2. Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - a layer found in modern
photographic films. It is placed between the light-sensitive
emulsion
and the tough film base, or sometimes on the back of the film
base.

The light that passes through the emulsion and the base is
absorbed
by the opaque anti-halation layer. This keeps that light from
reflecting
off the pressure plate or anything else behind the film and reexposing
the emulsion, reducing contrast. The anti-halation layer is
rendered
transparent or washed from the film (as in K-14 films) during
processing
of the film.
3.Film Base- A film base is a transparent substrate which acts as a
support medium for the photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it.
Despite the numerous layers and coatings associated with the
emulsion
layer, the base generally accounts for the vast majority of the
thickness of any given film stock.
Historically there have been three major types of film base in use:
cellulose nitrate,cellulose acetate (cellulose diacetate, cellulose
acetate propionate, cellulose acetate butyrate, andcellulose
triacetate), and polyethylene trephthalate polyester (Kodak tradename: ESTAR).

Characteristics of B & W Films:

1.Emulsion Speed

2.Spectral Sensitivity
3.Granularity or Graininess

Emulsion Speed
a. ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed
in
arithmetical value.
b. DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normen) rating, which is expressed in
logarithmic value.
c. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is
expressed in
the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.
Spectral Sensitivity
a. Blue sensitive film sensitive to UV rays and blue color only
b. Orthochromatic film sensitive to UV rays, to blue and green
color.
It is not sensitive to red color.
c. Panchromatic film sensitive to UV radiation to blue, green,
and red
light or all colors.
d. Infra-red film sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red light
and
infrared rays.

Granularity or Graininess
- This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed

after development of an exposed film. Generally, the size of

metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the
film and the type of developing solution that is used in processing.

Rules to remember:
1.The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the
grain.
2. The higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are
the
grains.
3. A film developer will produce a finer grain that a paper
developer when
used for film processing.

B. Color Films
A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support
or base.

Main types of color film in current use

1.Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed) image
when
exposed, which is permanently fixed during developing. This is
then
exposed onto photographic paper to form a positive image.
Ex:Kodacolor
2.Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative

image
when exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during
developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen. Ex:
Kodachrome

C. Photographic Papers (Black & White)

Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlled manner,
either by placing a negative in contact with the paper directly to
produce a contact print, by using an enlarger in order to create a
latent image, by exposing in some types of camera to produce a
photographic negative, or by placing objects upon it to
produce photograms. Photographic papers are subsequently
developed using the gelatin-silver process to create a visible
image.

Characteristics of a Photographic Paper

1.Chloride paper - has a slow speed and is suited for contact
printing.
2. Bromide paper - has a fast speed and is recommended for
projection
printing or enlarging.
3. Chloro-bromide paper - is a multi-speed and could be used in
both
contact printing and enlarging.

Exposure and development latitude

Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the
ideal exposure or development without appreciable loss of print
quality.

1. Exposure latitude Generally, photographic papers do not have a

wide
exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all times.
2. Development latitude Papers that do not change appreciable in
contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in
development
has a good latitude. However, for best quality the developing
time
should be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer.

Contrast Range or Grade

In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are
indicated by numbers - # 0 to 5
1.#0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative
2.#2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negative
3.#3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives

Which Film to Use

Film is available in variety of 'speeds'. The faster the film the more
sensitive it is to light, and the shorter the exposure needed. Fast
film produces a grainier image.Film speed is measured on the ISO

scale. A film rated as ISO 100 is four times slower than an ISO
400film, and needs four times more light for the same shot.

Filters
In photography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an
optical filter that can be inserted in the optical path. The filter can
be a square or rectangle shape mounted in a holder accessory, or,
more commonly, a glass or plastic disk with a metal or plastic ring
frame, which can be screwed in front of the lens.
Types of Filters
a. Light Balancing Filter
b. Color Compensating Filter
c. Neutral Density Filter
d. Polarizing Filter

Light Balance Filter - A filter used to change the color quality of

the exposing light in order to secure proper color balance
for artificial light films.
Color Compensating Filter - This is used to change the over-all
color balance of photographic result obtained with color films and
to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.
Neutral Density Filter - This filter is used when the light is too
bright to allow the use of desired f-number or shutter speed with a
particular film.
Polarizing Filter - It is used to reduce or minimize reflections on
subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces.
Exposure - is simply a combination of the aperture and shutter
speed. Thus, it is defined as the product of the total light intensity
and the length of time it strikes the emulsion.
Exposure is subjective and errors in calculation will result to
overexposure or underexposure.
Proper exposure is dependent on:
a. Film speed
b. Lighting condition
c. Type of subject

Light: Its Characteristics and Sources

Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we begin with
the electromagnetic spectrum which is basically a grouping of all

electromagnetic radiation arranged according to the amount of

energy contained in the radiation. Visible light is a part of this
electromagnetic spectrum that creates the sensation of light when it
falls on the human eye. The properties of all electromagnetic
radiation can be described by three inter-related terms. These are
wavelength, frequency and energy. Since light is a part of this
spectrum, it too can be described by these terms. Hence, it is
important to understand these terms as a first step towards
understanding light.

Wavelength
Simplistically, we can think of light traveling as a wave. A typical
wave form (e.g., ripples on the surface of water) has crests (or
peaks) and troughs (or valleys). The distance between two
consecutive peaks (or troughs) is called the wavelength, and is
denoted by the Greek letter (lambda).The wavelengths of visible
light are measured in nanometers (nm) where 1 nm = 1 billionth of
a meter (10-9 meters). The wavelength of visible light is between
400-700nm. The combined effect of the complete range of
radiation between 400-700nm appears as white light to the human
eye.

Rainbow Colors:
* Violet - 400 to 440nm
* Blue - 440 to 490nm
* Green - 490 to 540nm

* Yellow - 540 to 590nm

* Orange - 600 to 650nm
* Red - 650 to 700nm

4 Photographic Rays of Modern Photography

1.X-Rays - 1 to 30 nm
2.UV Rays - 30 to 400 nm
3.Visible Light - 400 to 700 nm
4.Infrared Rays - 700 to 100 nm

Primary Colors of Light

1.Red
2.Green
3.Blue

Secondary Colors of Light

1.Yellow
2.Cyan
3.Magenta

White - is the presence of all color.

Black - is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.

Primary Colors of Coloring Matters

1.Red
2.Yellow

3.Blue

Bending of Light - When traveling in open space, light travels in a

straight line (186,000 miles/second). However, when light comes
in contact with an object, it may be bended in the following
manner:

* Reflection
face, it bounces off in all directions due to the
microscopic irregularities of the interface.
* Refraction - It is the change in direction of a wave
due to a change in its speed. This is most commonly observed
when
a wave passes from one medium to another.
* Diffraction - It is described as the apparent bending of waves
around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past
small
openings.It is also described as the bending of light when it
hits a
sharp edge of an opaque object.
Examples of Diffraction
1.The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a
diffraction
grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern we see when

looking at a disk;
2.The hologram (a picture that changes when looked at
from
different angles) on a credit card.

Kinds of Objects
1.Transparent objects - allows sufficient visible light to pass
through
them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2.Translucent objects - allows light to pass, however diffuse it
sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly
distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be
recognizable but sharp detail and outlines are obscured.
3.Opaque objects - so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the
object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible.

Sources of Light
1.Natural Light Source
2.Artificial Light Source

Natural Light Source (Sunlight)

1. Bright sunlight - a lighting condition where objects in open
space cast
a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.

2. Hazy Sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent

shadow.
3. Dull Sunlight - objects in open space cast no shadow
1.Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but
objects at
far distance are clearly visible.
2.Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast not shadow and
visibility of
distant objects are already limited.

Artificial Light Source - Light sources of this category are manmade and is divided into the continuous radiation and the short
duration.

Forensic Light Sources

1.UV Lamp
2.LASER - Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of
Radiation.
3.Alternative Light Sources
4.Forensic Light Sources

DEVELOPING, PRINTING AND ENLARGING

Chemical Processing
1.Black & White Processing - development, stop-bath, and
fixation.
2.Color Processing - development, stop-fix, and stabilizer

Development - It is the conversion of latent image in an emulsion

into visible image.
1.B & W Emulsion - reducing exposed silver halide crystals (black
silver)
into metallic silver. (Same reaction is found in photographic
papers.)
2.Color Emulsion - Developed silver is replaced with cyan,
yellow, and
magenta dye.

Stop-Bath - The purpose of the stop bath is to halt the

development of the film, plate, or paper by either washing off the
developing chemical or neutralizing it.
Fixation - The fixer removes the unexposed silver halide
remaining on the Photographic film or photographic paper, leaving
behind the reduced metallic silver that forms the image, making it
insensitive to further action by light. Without fixing, the remaining
silver halide would quickly darken and cause severe fogging of the
image. The most common salts used are sodium thiosulfate commonly called hypo - and ammonium thiosulfate, commonly
used in modern rapid fixer formula.
Film Processing - It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or
mechanized equipment.
Note:
Panchromatic materials - handled in total darkness.

Blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers - handled

under a safe light.
Equipment for Film Processing
1.Tank or tray
2.Developing reel
3.Opener for film cartridge (pliers)
4.Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
5.Thermometer
6.Timer
7.Funnel
8.Photographic sponge
9.Film clips for drying
10.glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions
Developer Formulation
Typical component:
1.Solvent (water)
2.Developing agent
3.Preservative
4.Accelerator or activator
5.Restrainer
D-76 Film Developer Formula
1.Water 520 C
- 750 ml
2.Elon
- 2 gm
3.Hydroquinone
- 5 gm
4.Sodium Sulfite
- 100 gm
5.Borax (granules)
- 2 gm
6.Water to make
- 1 li
Dektol - Paper Developer
1.Water 520C or 125 0F - 500 m l
2.Elon
- 311 gm
3.Hydroquinone
- 12 gm

4.Sodium Sulfite
5.Sodium carbonate
6.Potassium bromide
7. Water to make -

- 4.5 gm
- 67.5 gm
- 1gm
- 1 li

Stop-Bath - Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial

acetic acid.
Fixing Bath Formula
1.Water
2.Dissolving agent
3.Preservative
4.Neutralizers
5.Hardeners
Typical Fixing Formula:
1.Water 520C or 125 0F
2.Hypo
3.Sodium sulfite
4.Acetic Acid (28%)
5.Boric Acid (crystals)
6.Potassium alum
7 Water to make

- 600 ml
- 240 gm
- 15 gm(anhydrous)
- 480 ml
- 7.5 gm
- 15 gm(fine granular
- 1 li

Photographic Painting
1.Contact Printing - It is a procedure of exposing photographic
print
materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
reproduced.
2.Projection Printing or Enlarging - It is a type of printing where
the
image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print

material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main

equipment
is Enlarger, the so-called camera in reverse.
Equipment for Paper Developing
1.Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath, and
the
fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints
size).
2.Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to
hold the
prints.
3.Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
4.Timers
5.Paper cutter
6.A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.
APPLICATION TO POLICE WORK
General Application
1.Identification purposes
2.Recording and preserving of evidences
3.Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the
naked
eye.
4.Recording action of offenders
5.For court exhibits
6.For crime prevention
7.Public information
8.Police training

Specific Applications

1.Identification Photographs
2.Crime-Scene Photography

Forensic photography - sometimes referred to as police

photography, forensic imaging or crime scene photography. - is the
art of producing an accurate reproduction f a crime scene or an
accident using photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an
investigation.
Photography - is the art, science and practice of creating durable
images by recording light. The word photography was derived
from the Greek word "phos" - light and "graphe" - drawing.
Photograph - is an image created by light falling on a lightsensitive surface usually photographic film or electronic imager.
Sir John Herschel - made the word photography known to the
world in a lecture before the royal society of London on 1839.
Camera - is a device that records and stores images.
History of camera

Mo Ti - 5th century BC Chinese philosopher who noted that

a pin hole can form an inverted and focused image when light
passes through the hole and into a dark area. He is the first
recorded person to have exploited this phenomenon to trace
the inverted image to create a picture.
Aristotle - in 4th century BC, described observing a partial
solar eclipse in 330 BC by seeing the image of the sun
projected through the small spaces between the leaves of the
tree.
Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) - an Egyptian scientist who
wrote about observing a solar eclipse through a pin hole and

he described how a sharper image could be produced by

making the opening of the pin hole smaller.
Roger Bacon - English philosopher and Franciscan friar who
in his study of optics, included a discussion of the physiology
of eyesight, the anatomy of the eyes and brain and considered
light, distance, position, size, direct vision, reflected vision
and refraction, mirrors and lenses.
Johannes Kepler - a German mathematician and astronomer
who applied the actual name of camera obscura and later
added a lens and made the apparatus transportable in the form
of a tent.
Robert Boyle - a British scientist who, with his assistant
Robert Hooke developed a portable camera in the 1660.
Johann Zahn - in 1685, built the first camera obscura that
was small enough for practical use as a portable drawing aid
because the only way to preserve the images produced by the
camera was to manually trace them.
Joseph Nicephore Niepce - was a french inventor who is
noted for producing the first known photographs in 1825 by
using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles and
Vincent Chevalier in Paris.
1920 - the electronic video camera tube was invented, starting
a line of development that eventually resulted in digital
cameras which largely supplanted film cameras after the turn
of the 21st century.
William Henry Fox Talbot - a British inventor and pioneer
of photography. He was the inventor of calotype process, the
precursor to most photographic processes of the 19th and 20th
century.
Lumiere Brothers - introduced the autochrome, the first
commercially successful color process.
Kodachrome - the first modern integral tripack color film,
was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three basic

color components in a multi layer emulsion.

camera obscura

camera obscura

Camera obscura - obscura means dark or darkened chamber

room, is an optical device that projects an image of its
surroundings on a screen. It is used in drawing and for
entertainment and was one of the inventions that led to
photography. The camera obscura is the forerunner to the
photographic camera.

Basic Modern Camera Parts

1. Lens - the light enters through the lens, this is
where photo process begins.
2. View Finder - is what the photographer looks
through to compose and in many cases to focus,
the picture.
3. Body - the basic most part of a camera. It is the
box that holds the film and the camera controls.
4. Shutter Release - is a button found on many
cameras used to take the picture.
5. Aperture - is a hole or an opening thorough which
light travels. The aperture affects the image's
exposure by changing the diameter of the lens
opening which control the amount of light reaching
the image sensor.
6. Image Sensor - converts the optical image to an

electronic signal.
7. Memory Card - stores all the image information.
8. LCD Screen - typically replaced the view finder.
9. Flash - provide extra light during dim, low light
situations.
10. User Control
Exposure - total amount of light allowed to fall on the
photographic medium during the process the of taking photograph.
Film Speed - is the measure of a photographic films sensitivity to
light.
Shutter Cycle - is the process of the shutter opening, closing and
resetting to where it is ready to open again.
Shutter - is a device that allows light to pass for a determined
period of time for the purpose of exposing photographic film or
light sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent
image of a scene.
Red Eye Effect - is the common appearance of red pupils in color
photographs of eyes. It occurs when using a photographic flash
very close to the camera lens in ambient low light.
Photographic Emulsion - is a light sensitive colloid such as
gelatin, coated into a substance. In silver gelatin photography, the
emulsion consists of silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin
and the substance may be glass, plastic film, paper or fabric.