Note:

C HAPTER 3: MECH
Version: 0.1.8 August 11, 2008
This chapter is part of the textbook:
¨ ¥
“Basics of Fluid Mechanics”
§ ¦

You can download the whole book if you like

from: www.potto.org.
This chapter is under GDL with a minor modifi-
cations. Potto License is no longer applied.

Please be aware that this book is updated fre-

quently — every three weeks or so.

G ENICK B AR -M EIR , P H .D.

M INNEAPOLIS , M INNESOTA
AUGUST 11, 2008
T HE LIST OF THE AVAILABLE BOOKS IN P OTTO P ROJECT

Avail-
ability
Project Progress Remarks Version for
Name Public
Download

Compressible Flow beta 0.4.8.2 4

Die Casting alpha 0.0.3 4
Dynamics NSY 0.0.0 6
Fluid Mechanics alpha 0.1.8 4
Heat Transfer NSY Based 0.0.0 6
on
Eckert
Mechanics NSY 0.0.0 6
Open Channel NSY 0.0.0 6
Flow
Statics early first 0.0.1 6
alpha chapter
Strength of Material NSY 0.0.0 6
Thermodynamics early 0.0.01 6
alpha
Two/Multi phases NSY Tel- 0.0.0 6
flow Aviv’s
notes

NSY = Not Started Yet

 CHAPTER 3
Review of Mechanics
This author would like to express his gratitute to Dan
Olsen (former Minneapolis city Engineer) and his friend
Richard Hackbarth.

This chapter provides a review of important definitions and concepts from

Mechanics (statics and dynamics). These concepts and definitions will be used in
this book and a review is needed.

3.1 Center of Mass

The center of mass is divided into two sections, first, center of the mass and two,
center of area (two–dimensional body with equal distribution mass).

3.1.1 Center of the Mass

In many engineering problems, the center of mass is required to make the calcula-
tions. This concept is derived from the fact that a body has a center of mass/gravity
which interacts with other bodies and that this force acts on the center (equivalent
force). It turns out that this concept is very useful in calculating rotations, moment
of inertia, etc. The center of mass doesn’t depend on the coordinate system and
on the way it is calculated. The physical meaning of the center of mass is that if a
straight line force acts on the body in away through the center of gravity, the body
will not rotate. In other words, if a body will be held by one point it will be enough to
hold the body in the direction of the center of mass. Note, if the body isn’t be held
through the center of mass, then a moment in addtional to force is required (to pre-
vent the body for rotating). It is convenient to use the Cartesian system to explain
this concept. Suppose that the body has a distribution of the mass (density, rho)
as a function of the location. The density “normally” defined as mass per volume.
Here, the the line density is referred to density mass per unit length in the x direc-
tion.

41
42 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS
In x coordinate, the center will be de-
fined as y

Z dm
1 z }| { z
x̄ = x ρ(x)dV (3.1)
m V

Here, the dV element has finite dimen- dV

sions in y–z plane and infinitesimal di-
mension in x direction see Figure 3.1. x

Also, the mass, m is the total mass of

the object. It can be noticed that center
Fig. -3.1: Description of how the center of
of mass in the x–direction isn’t affected
mass is calculated.
by the distribution in the y nor by z di-
rections. In same fashion the center of
mass can be defined in the other directions as following
Z
1
x̄i = xi ρ(xi )dV
m V
(3.2)
where xi is the direction of either, x, y or z. The density, ρ(xi ) is the line density as
function of xi . Thus, even for solid and uniform density the line density is a function
of the geometry.

3.1.2 Center of Area

t
In the previous case, the body was a dA
three dimensional shape. There are Y
cases where the body can be approxi-
mated as a two-dimensional shape be-
cause the body is with a thin with uni-
z
form density. Consider a uniform thin
body with constant thickness shown in
x
Figure 3.2 which has density, ρ. Thus,
equation (3.1) can be transfered into
dm Fig. -3.2: Thin body center of mass/area
Z
1 z }| { schematic.
x̄ = x ρ t dA (3.3)
tA ρ
|{z} V
V

The density, ρ and the thickness, t, are constant and can be canceled. Thus
equation (3.3) can be transfered into
Z
1
x̄i = xi dA
A A
(3.4)
3.2. MOMENT OF INERTIA 43
when the integral now over only the area as oppose over the volume.
Finding the centeroid location should be done in the most convenient coordi-
nate system since the location is coordinate independent.

3.2 Moment of Inertia

As it was divided for the body center of mass, the moment of inertia is divided into
moment of inertia of mass and area.

3.2.1 Moment of Inertia for Mass

The moment of inertia turns out to be an essential part for the calculations of
rotating bodies. Furthermore, it turns out that the moment of inertia has much
wider applicability. Moment of inertia of mass is defined as

Z
Irr m = ρr2 dm (3.5)
m

If the density is constant then equation (3.5) can be transformed into

Z
Irr m = ρ r2 dV (3.6)
V

The moment of inertia is independent of the coordinate system used for the cal-
culation, but dependent on the location of axis of rotation relative to the body.
Some people define the radius of gyration as an equivalent concepts for the cen-
ter of mass concept and which means if all the mass were to locate in the one
point/distance and to obtain the same of moment of inertia.
r
Im
rk = (3.7)
m

The body has a different moment of inertia for every coordinate/axis and they are
R R
Ixx = V rx 2 dm = V (y 2 + z 2 ) dm
R R
Iyy = V ry 2 dm = V (x2 + z 2 ) dm (3.8)
R R
Izz = V rz 2 dm = V (x2 + y 2 ) dm
44 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS
3.2.2 Moment of Inertia for Area
3.2.2.1 General Discussion
For body with thickness, t and uniform density the following can be written

moment of
inertia for
area
Z zZ }| {
2
Ixx m = r dm = ρ t r2 dA (3.9)
m A

The moment of inertia about axis is x can be defined as

Z
Ixxm
Ixx = r2 dA = (3.10)
A ρt

where r is distance of dA from the axis x and t is the thickness.

Any point distance can be calculated
from axis x as y
p z
x= y +z2 2 (3.11)

Thus, equation (3.10) can be written as y’

C
Z ∆y x
¡ 2 ¢ z’
Ixx = y + z 2 dA (3.12)
A ∆x
x’
In the same fashion for other two coor-
dinates as
Z Fig. -3.3: The schematic that explains the
¡ 2 ¢
Iyy = x + z 2 dA (3.13) summation of moment of inertia.
A

Z
¡ 2 ¢
Izz = x + y 2 dA (3.14)
A

3.2.2.2 The Parallel Axis Theorem

The moment of inertial can be calculated for any axis. The knowledge about one
axis can help calculating the moment of inertia for a parallel axis. Let Ixx the
moment of inertia about axis xx which is at the center of mass/area.
′
The moment of inertia for axis x is
Z Z ³ ´ Z h i
′2 ′2 ′2 2 2
Ix′ x′ = r dA = y +z dA = (y + ∆y) + (z + ∆z) dA (3.15)
A A A
3.2. MOMENT OF INERTIA 45
equation (3.15) can be expended as

Ixx =0
z
Z }| { zZ }| { Z ³
¡ ¢ ´
2 2 2 2
Ix′ x′ = y +z dA + 2 (y ∆y + z ∆z) dA + (∆y) + (∆z) dA (3.16)
A A A

The first term in equation (3.16) on the right hand side is the moment of inertia
about axis x and the second them is zero. The second therm is zero because it
integral of center about center thus is zero. The third term is a new term and can
be written as
2 A
constant r z }| {
z
Z ³ }| ´{ z³ }| ´{ Z 2
2 2 2
(∆y) + (∆z) dA = (∆y) + (∆z) dA = r2 A (3.17)
A A

Hence, the relationship between the moment of inertia at xx and parallel axis
′ ′
x x is

Ix′ x′ = Ixx + r2 A (3.18)

2
The moment of inertia of several 1
y
areas is the sum of moment inertia of
each area see Figure 3.4 and therefore,
x
n
X
Ixx = Ixx i (3.19)
i=1 Fig. -3.4: The schematic to explain the sum-
mation of moment of inertia.
If the same areas are similar thus
n
X
Ixx = Ixx i = n Ixx i (3.20)
i=1

Equation (3.20) is very useful in h

the calculation of the moment of inertia dr

utilizing the moment of inertia of known r

bodies. For example, the moment of in-

ertial of half a circle is half of whole cir-
cle for axis a the center of circle. The
moment of inertia can then move the Fig. -3.5: Cylinder with the element for calcu-
center of area. of the lation moment of inertia.
46 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS
3.2.3 Examples of Moment of Inertia
Example 3.1:
Calculate the moment of inertia for the mass of the cylinder about center axis which
height of h and radius, r0 , as shown in Figure 3.5. The material is with an uniform
density and homogeneous.

S OLUTION

The element can be calculated using cylindrical coordinate. Here the convenient
element is a shell of thickness dr which shown in Figure 3.5 as

Z Z dV
r0
2 2
z }| { r0 4 1 1
Irr = ρ r dm = ρ r h 2 π r dr = ρ h 2 π = ρhπr0 4 = m r0 2
V 0 4 2 2

The radius of gyration is

s
1
2 mr0 2 r0
rk = =√
m 2

z
Example 3.2:
Calculate the moment of inertia of the b

rectangular shape shown in Figure 3.6. dx

a

x
S OLUTION

The moment of inertia is calculated uti-

Fig. -3.6: Description of rectangular in x–y
lizing equation (3.12) as following plane for calculation of moment of
  inertia.
0 dA
Z z}|{ Z a z}|{ 3
 2 2 a b
Ixx =  y +z  dA = z 2 bdz =
A 0 3

Example 3.3:
As measure to study the assumption of zero thickness consider a simple shape
to see the effects of this assumption. Calculate the moment of inertia about the
center of mass of a square shape with a thickness, t compare the results to a
square shape with zero thickness.

S OLUTION
′
The moment of inertia of transverse slice about y (see Figure mech:fig:squareEll)
3.2. MOMENT OF INERTIA 47
is
Ixx
t z}|{
z}|{ b a3
dIxxm = ρ dy (3.21)
12

The transformation into from local axis

′
x to center axis, x can be done as fol-
lowing dz

I 
xx
z}|{ r2 A
 b a3 z }| { a

z 2 |{z}
  b
dIx′ x′ m = ρdy  + |{z} ba 
 12 
r2 A
Fig. -3.7: A square element for the calcula-
(3.22) tions of inertia of two-dimensional to
three–dimensional deviations.
The total moment of inertia can be obtained by integration of equation (3.22) to
write as
Z t/2 µ 3 ¶
ba a b t2 + a3 b
Ixxm = ρ + z 2 b a dz = ρ t (3.23)
−t/2 12 12

Comparison with the thin body results in

Ixx ρ t b a3 1
= 2 3
= 2 (3.24)
Ixx m t ba + ba 1 + at 2

It can be noticed right away that

equation (3.24) indicates that ratio ap-
proaches one when thickness ratio is
approaches zero, Ixxm (t → 0) → 1. Ad-
Ixxm
Ixx

ditionally it can be noticed that the ratio

a2 /t2 is the only contributor to the er-
ror1 . The results are present in Figure February 28, 2008
t
a

3.8. I can be noticed that the error is

significant very fast even for small val-
ues of t/a while the with of the box, b Fig. -3.8: The ratio of the moment of in-
has no effect on the error. ertia of two-dimensional to three–
dimensional.
Example 3.4:
Calculate the center of area and moment of inertia of the parabola, y = αx2 , shown
in Figure 3.9.

1 This ratio is a dimensionless number that commonly has no special name. This author suggests to

call this ratio as the B number.

48 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS
S OLUTION
p
For y = b the value of x = b/α. First
the area inside the parabola calculated
as
dA/2
Z √b/α z }| { 2(3 α − 1) µ b ¶ 32
2
A=2 (b − αξ )dξ =
0 3 α
The center of area can be calculated uti-
lizing equation (3.4).
³ The center ´ of ev- Fig. -3.9: Description of parabola for calcula-
2 b−αξ 2 tion of moment of inertia and center
ery element is at, α ξ + 2 the el-
of area.
ement area is used before and therefore
xc
dA
Z √b/α µ
z }|
2
¶{ z }| {
1 (b − αξ ) 3αb
xc = αξ 2 + (b − αξ 2 )dξ =
A 0 2 15 α − 5
(3.25)
The moment of inertia of the area about the center can be found using in equation
(3.25) can be done in two steps first calculate the moment of inertia in this coor-
dinate system and then move the coordinate system to center. Utilizing equation
(3.12) and doing the integration from 0 to maximum y provides
dA
zr }| {
Z b
ξ 2 b7/2
Ix′ x′ = 4 ξ2 dξ = √
0 α 7 α
Utilizing equation (3.18)
x x
I ′ ′ A c (∆x=x )2
z }| { z }|
µ ¶
{z
3 µ
}| {
¶2
2 4 b7/2 3 α − 1 b 2 3αb
Ixx = Ix′ x′ − A ∆x = √ −
7 α 3 α 15 α − 5
or after working the details results in
√ ¡ ¢
b 20 b3 − 14 b2
Ixx = √
35 α

3.2.4 Product of Inertia

In addition to the moment of inertia, the product of inertia is commonly used. Here
only the product of the area is defined and discussed. The product of inertia de-
fined as
Z
Ixi xj = xi xj dA (3.26)
A
3.2. MOMENT OF INERTIA 49
For example, the product of inertia for x and y axises is
Z
Ixy = x ydA (3.27)
A

Product of inertia can be positive or negative value as oppose the moment of

inertia. The calculation of the product of inertia isn’t different much for the calcula-
tion of the moment of inertia. The units of the product of inertia are the same as
for moment of inertia.
Transfer of Axis Theorem
Same as for moment of inertia there is also similar theorem.
Z Z
′ ′
Ix′ y′ = x y dA = (x + ∆x) (y + ∆y)dA (3.28)
A A

expanding equation (3.28) results in

0 0
zZ }| { zZ }| {
∆y x dA ∆x y dA
Ixy A A ∆x ∆y A
z }| {
Z zZ }| { zZ }| { z
Z }| {
Ix′ y′ = x ydA + x ∆ydA + ∆x ydA + ∆x ∆ydA (3.29)
A A A A

The final form is

Ix′ y′ = Ixy + ∆x ∆y A (3.30)
There are several relationships should be mentioned
Ixy = Iyx (3.31)

Symmetrical area has zero product of inertia.

′

Example 3.5: y
y

Calculate the product of inertia of straight edge triangle.

S OLUTION b x

The equation of the line is a

x
′

a
y = x+a
b
Fig. -3.10: Product of iner-
The product of inertia at the center is zero. The total tia for triangle.
product of inertia is
∆x ∆y A
z }| ¶{
z}|{ z}|{ µ
a b ab a2 b 2
Ix′ y′ =0+ =
3 3 2 18
50 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS

3.2.5 Principal Axes of Inertia

The inertia matrix or inertia tensor is
¯ ¯
¯ Ixx −Ixy −Ixz ¯
¯ ¯
¯ −Iyx Iyy −Iyz ¯ (3.32)
¯ ¯
¯ −Izx −Izy Izz ¯

In linear algebra it was shown that for some angle equation (3.32) can be transform
into
¯ ¯
¯ Ix′ x′ 0 0 ¯¯
¯
¯ 0 Iy′ y′ 0 ¯¯ (3.33)
¯
¯ 0 0 I ′ ′ ¯
z z

System which creates equation (3.33) referred as principle system.

3.3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

These laws can be summarized in two statements one, for every action by body
A on Body B there is opposite reaction by body B on body A. Two, which can
expressed in mathematical form as
X D (m U )
F= (3.34)
Dt

It can be noted that D replaces the traditional d since the addtional meaning
which be added. Yet, it can be treated as the regular derivative. This law apply to
any body and any body can “broken” into many small bodies which connected to
each other. These small “bodies” when became small enough equation (3.34) can
be transformed to a continuous form as
Z
X D (ρ U )
F= dV (3.35)
V Dt

The external forces are equal to internal forces the forces between the “small”
bodies are cancel each other. Yet this examination provides a tool to study what
happened in the fluid during operation of the forces.
Since the derivative with respect to time is independent of the volume, the
derivative can be taken out of the integral and the alternative form can be written
as
Z
X D
F= ρ U dV (3.36)
Dt V
3.4. ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND TORQUE 51
The velocity, U is a derivative of the location with respect to time, thus,
Z
X D2
F= ρ rdV (3.37)
Dt2 V
where r is the location of the particles from the origin.
The external forces are typically divided into two categories: body forces and
surface forces. The body forces are forces that act from a distance like magnetic
field or gravity. The surface forces are forces that act on the surface of the body
(pressure, stresses). The same as in the dynamic class, the system accelera-
tion called the internal forces. The acceleration is divided into three categories:
Centrifugal, ω×(r × ω), Angular, r × ω̇, Coriolis, 2 (Ur × ω). The radial velocity is
denoted as Ur .

3.4 Angular Momentum and Torque

The angular momentum of body, dm, is defined as
L = r × Udm (3.38)
The angular momentum of the entire system is calculated by integration (summa-
tion) of all the particles in the system as
Z
Ls = r × U dm (3.39)
m

The change with time of angular momentum is called torque, in analogous to the
momentum change of time which is the force.
DL D
Tτ = = (r × Udm) (3.40)
Dt Dt
where Tτ is the torque. The torque of entire system is
Z Z
DL D
Tτ s = = (r × Udm) (3.41)
m Dt Dt m
It can be noticed (well, it can be proved utilizing vector mechanics) that
D D Dr D2 r
Tτ = (r × U) = (r × )= (3.42)
Dt Dt Dt Dt2
To understand these equations a bit better, consider a particle moving in x–y plane.
A force is acting on the particle in the same plane (x–y) plane. The velocity can be
written as U = uî+v ĵ and the location from the origin can be written as r = xî+y ĵ.
The force can be written, in the same fashion, as F = Fx î + Fy ĵ. Utilizing equation
(3.38) provides
 
î ĵ k̂
L = r × U =  x y 0  = (x v − y u)k̂ (3.43)
u v 0
52 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS
Utilizing equation (3.40) to calculate the torque as
 
î ĵ k̂
Tτ = r × F =  x y 0  = (x Fx − y Fy )k̂ (3.44)
Fx Fy 0

Since the torque is a derivative with respect to the time of the angular momentum
it is also can be written as
D
xFx − yFy = [(xv − yu) dm] (3.45)
Dt

The torque is a vector and the various components can be represented as

Z
D
Tτ x = î • r × U dm (3.46)
Dt m

In the same way the component in y and z can be obtained.

3.4.1 Tables of geometries

Th following tables present several moment of inertias of commonly used geome-
tries.
3.4. ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND TORQUE 53

Table -3.1: Moments of Inertia for various plane surfaces about their center of gravity (full
shapes)

Shape Picture xc , yc A Ix x
Name description

XX b b a ab3
Rectangle b/2 ; ab
2 2 12

XX
b a ab ab3
Triangle
b/3 3 3 36

XX a=b b
b π b2 πb4
Circle
b/2 2 4 64

XX a>b b b b π ab Ab2
Ellipse
2 2 4 64
b/2
a
6α−2
3 ×
√

y = αx2 XX 3αb
¡ b ¢ 32
b (20 b3√−14 b2 )
b 15 α−5 35 α
xc α
Parabola
a
54 CHAPTER 3. REVIEW OF MECHANICS

Table -3.2: Moment of inertia for various plane surfaces about their center of gravity

Shape Picture xc , y c A Ixx

Name description

r
XX 4r π r2
Quadrant r 4 ( 16
π 4
− 9π )
4r 3π 4
of Circle 3π

XX
b 4b πab
Ellipsoidal a b3 ( 16
π 4
− 9π )
4b 3π 4
Quadrant 3π

a
4b πab
Half of XX
b a b3 ( 16
π 4
− 9π )
3π 4
Elliptic 4b
3π

XX
Circular α 0 2α r2 r4
4 (α− 21 sin 2α)
α
Sector
r

XX α α 2 r sin α
Ix′ x′ =
3 α 2 r sin α 2
Circular 3 α 2α r
Sector r4
r 4 (α+ 12 sin 2α)