Afh36 2235v5

BY ORDER OF THE
SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE
AIR FORCE HANDBOOK 36-2235

VOLUME 5
1 NOVEMBER 2002
Personnel
INFORMATION FOR DESIGNERS OF INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS

ADVANCED DISTRIBUTED LEARNING:
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND DISTANCE LEARNING
RECORDS DISPOSITION: Ensure that all records created by this handbook are
maintained and disposed of IAW AFMAN 37-139, Records Disposition Schedule
NOTICE:
This publication is available digitally on the AFDPO www site at:
http://afpubs.hq.af.mil.
OPR: HQ AETC/DOZ (Gary J. Twogood)
Supersedes: AFH 36-2235, Volume 5, 1 October 1993
Certified by: HQ USAF/DPDT

(Col Patricia L. C. Priest)
Pages: 363/Distribution: F
Instructional Technology using technology to enhance the learning experience.

Whether through self-paced, computer-based instructional programs, or through video
teleconferencing technology to bring subject matter experts into the classroom, the
proper use of technology can greatly increase the effectiveness and efficiency of
instruction.
Instructional technology can be used to support traditional classroom instruction
(technology insertion) or it can be used to expand the reach of instruction through
distance learning, where instructors are physically separated from the learners and
where the learners may be separated from each other.
With increasing frequency, distance learning is becoming the instructional solution of
choice. Because distance learning usually employs multiple technologies, developing a
distance-learning program requires the active participation of numerous specialists.
These specialists make up the cross-functional team responsible for the analysis,
design, development, implementation and evaluation of the distance-learning program.
Each team member fulfills a unique function.
Instructional designers must become the guardians of educational integrity because the
distance learning development process involves critical hardware and software
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
integration, and there is increasing involvement from other functional specialists. There
are a number of reasons for this.
The education and training community does not control many of the resources that are
employed during the development and implementation of a distance-learning course.
Those who control the distance learning technology assets have often sought to exploit
their technologies to showcase new capabilities sometimes without adequate regard
for the principles of education and training.
Technology cannot drive the learning experience; technology is simply the way in which
instructional content is transmitted to the learner. It can either facilitate learning or
impede learning. The instructional designer must ensure that the selected technology
complements the established objectives and provides the best instructional solution.
In order to assume this responsibility, instructional designers must understand the
technology options. They must understand the capabilities and limitations of each
technology and the impact it has on the learner and the learning environment. In order
to participate as an effective team member, instructional designers must fully appreciate
the expertise that each member of the team contributes to the final product. This
handbook is designed to address these issues and provide the guidance necessary to
encourage instructional designers to ask the right questions as technologies evolve.
This volume provides information and guidance for designers of instructional systems
on how and under what conditions to incorporate training technologies into the
Instructional System Development (ISD) process. This guidance addresses the use of
instructional technologies in both resident and non-resident instructional systems. This
handbook should be used in conjunction with MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting
handbooks.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 6
Section A Instructional Technology........................................................................... 8
Section B Technology Insertion .............................................................................. 10
Section C Distance Learning .................................................................................. 12
Chapter 2 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT AND PROJECT
MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................ 17
Section A Overview of the ISD Process.................................................................. 19
Figure 1 ISD Analysis Phase......................................................................................... 20
Figure 2 ISD Design Phase........................................................................................... 21
Figure 3 ISD Development Phase ................................................................................. 22
Section B Overview of Project Management........................................................... 32
Section C The Instructional Technology Development Team ................................. 45
Section D Distance Learning Project Management ................................................ 61
AFH 36-2235
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Chapter 3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES .......................................................... 79

Section A Traditional Media .................................................................................... 82
Section B Computer-Mediated Communications .................................................... 85
Section C Interactive Multimedia Instruction ........................................................... 87
Section D Interactive Video Teletraining ................................................................. 89
Figure 4 Interactive Television ...................................................................................... 91
Section E Internet-Based Instruction ...................................................................... 93
Section F Support Technology Media ..................................................................... 97
Chapter 4 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES ANALYSIS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA ............................................................................................................... 101
Section A Media Feasibility Assessment .............................................................. 103
Section B Application of the Criteria to the Media................................................. 107
Section C Curriculum Analysis and Media Feasibility ........................................... 149
Section D Infrastructure and Resource Feasibility Analysis.................................. 160
Section E Comparative Cost Analysis................................................................... 163
Figure 5 Example of Life Cycle Cost of Instructional Programs .................................. 170
Section F Media Selection .................................................................................... 172
Chapter 5 ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR TRADITIONAL MEDIA ............................. 174
Section A Print Materials....................................................................................... 176
Section B Videotape ............................................................................................. 187
Figure 6 Lighting Triangle............................................................................................ 194
Section C Audiotape ............................................................................................. 198
Section D Audioconferencing................................................................................ 209
Chapter 6 ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR COMPUTER MEDIATED
COMMUNICATION................................................................................................. 218
Section A Audiographics....................................................................................... 220
Section B Computer Mediated Conferencing........................................................ 229
Chapter 7 ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
INSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 241
Section A Analysis Considerations ....................................................................... 245
Section B Design Considerations.......................................................................... 247
Section C Development Considerations ............................................................... 250
Section D Implementation Considerations ............................................................ 251
Section E Evaluation Considerations .................................................................... 252
AFH 36-2235
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Chapter 8 CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEO TELETRAINING

AND INTERACTIVE TELEVISION INSTRUCTION................................................ 254
Section A ITV Analysis and Design....................................................................... 256
Section B ITV Development.................................................................................. 269
Section C ITV Implementation .............................................................................. 277
Section D ITV Evaluation ...................................................................................... 283
Section E Special Considerations for VTC............................................................ 288
Chapter 9 ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERNET-BASED INSTRUCTION ......... 294
Section A IBI Analysis........................................................................................... 297
Section B IBI Design ............................................................................................. 302
Section C IBI Development................................................................................... 306
Section D IBI Implementation ............................................................................... 315
Section E IBI Evaluation ....................................................................................... 319
Chapter 10 SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY ..................................................................... 321
Section A Electronic Testing ................................................................................. 323
Section B Electronic Management Tools .............................................................. 325
Section C Electronic Help Desk ............................................................................ 328
Section D Electronic Publications ........................................................................ 329
Section E E-mail, Bulletin Boards, and Fax Conferencing .................................... 331
Section F Student Response Units and Audio-conferencing Units ....................... 332
Chapter 11 THE ADVANCED DISTRIBUTED LEARNING (ADL) INITIATIVE.......... 333

Section A ADL Background .................................................................................. 336
Section B ADL Implications for Design ................................................................. 338
Section C ADL Implications for Development ....................................................... 343
Figure 7 Data Flow Between CMI System and Learner .............................................. 346
Attachment 1 GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING
INFORMATION....................................................................................................... 348
References ........................................................................................................... 348
Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................ 352
Terms.................................................................................................................... 355
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
General Information
Purpose of
handbook
This volume provides information and guidance on applying the

application of the Instructional Systems Development (ISD)
process to implementing for instructional technology in resident
instructional systems (technology insertion) as well as using and
distance learning instructional systems to replace residential
instruction.
Content
This handbook contains the following chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Instructional Systems Development and Project
Management
Chapter 3: Instructional Technologies Definitions and
Descriptions
Chapter 4: Instructional Technologies Selection Criteria
Chapter 5: Instructional Systems Development Considerations
for Traditional Media
for Computer-Mediated Communication
for Interactive Multimedia Instruction and Support
Technology
for Interactive Video Teletraining
for Internet Based Instruction
Chapter 10: Support Technology
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains three sections:

Section
Title
Page
Instructional Technology
Technology Insertion
10
Distance Learning
12
AFH 36-2235
Additional
information
Volume 5
1 November 2002
For additional information see:

MIL-PRF-29612 Training Data Products
MIL-HDBK-29612-1 Department of Defense Handbook,
Guide for Acquisition of Training Data Products and
Services
Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to
Training and Education
Development of Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI)
Glossary of Training Terms
AF HDBK 36-2235 Volume 4, Managers Guide to New
Education and Training Technologies
AFDLO reference
The Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning

Distance Learning Office (AFIADLO) Home Page Web site is a
source for information and guidance about pertaining to
Instructional Systems Development (ISD) and distance learning.
http://www.au.af.mil/afdlowww.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/
Three key terms
Instructional Systems Development (ISD) is an adaptation of the

systems engineering process to the process of curriculum
development.
ISD is a systematic approach to developing instructional
materials by integrating the processes (phases) of
analysis, design, development, implementation, and
evaluation.
The ISD process has been traditionally used for the
development of individual-type instructional programs.
Technology Insertion is the use of appropriate instructional
technology in resident instructional programs.
Distance Learning is structured learning that takes place without
the physical presence of the instructor.
References
References are listed in Appendix A.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Section A
Introduction
This section identifies the instructional technologies that may be

selected for resident instructional programs or employed in the
distance-learning environment.
Instructional
technologies
Numerous technologies are available for delivering instruction.

Most often, these technologies are used in combination with each
other to meet education and training requirements at an
acceptable cost. The following table lists the instructional
technologies that can be utilized used in both the resident
classroom and for the non-resident distance learning process.
Instructional
Technology
Traditional Media
Computer
Mediated
Communications
Interactive
Multimedia
Instruction
Interactive Video
Teletraining
Internet Based
Instruction
Types
Print
Videotape
Print and Slide
Audioconferencing
Print, Audio, and Slide
Television and Cable
Audiotape
Models and Mock-ups
Audiographics
Computer Mediated Conferencing/Collaborative
Computing
Interactive Courseware
Computer Based Instruction/Computer Based Training
Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction
Electronic Performance Support Systems/Job Performance Aids
Computer Simulation
Interactive Television
Video Teleconferencing
Text Only
Multimedia
Virtual Conferencing/Collaborative Conferencing
Continued on next page
AFH 36-2235
Instructional
Technology
Support
Technology
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Types
Electronic Testing
Computer Managed Instruction
Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL)
Electronic Help Desk
Electronic Publications
Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals
E-mail, Bulletin Boards, and Fax Conferencing
Voice Mail
Student Response Units, Audioconferencing Units (ACUs)
Table 1 Instructional Technologies
Benefits of
incorporating
instructional
technology
Instructional Technology (IT) is more than just applying

information technology to the learning environment; it is making
use of technology to promote learning by creating interactive,
structured, and integrated units of instruction. When
appropriately employed, IT can increase the effectiveness and
efficiency of instruction.
When inappropriately employed, the insertion of technology in
instructional courses can result in:
Ineffective instruction and substandard learning.
Increased learning time.
Excessive costs for course development, logistics, and
maintenance.
Increased personnel requirements.
Unacceptable changes in the training organization's
operating structure, functions, and resources.
A process for
selection
Instructional designers have long used technology to support

learning objectives in:
General Military Education and Training
Operations Training
AFH 36-2235
A process for
selection
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Professional Continuing Education

Professional Military Education
Graduate Education
Workshops
To make appropriate instructional technology choices, apply a
disciplined process to selecting the training solution. Using the
Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process helps structure
the analysis and design processes to facilitate selecting the
selection of the most resource-effective media solution.
This means that instructional designers must understand the
benefits and costs associated with each technology option, they
must understand the learning needs of the students, and they
must understand the impact of the learning environment on the
selection of presentation media and course design.
The goal
Each instructional situation presents unique challenges. The goal

of this handbook is to familiarize the user with the instructional
technology options, the strengths and weaknesses of each, and
the techniques and processes associated with managing projects
that are based on the effective use of alternative media.
There is a wide array of techniques and processes. It is
important to recognize that each IT program is unique each has
different requirements and constraints. It is the responsibility of
the project manager to tailor the guidance in this handbook to the
unique attributes of a given project.
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10
Section B
Technology Insertion
Application
While the instructor may or may not be present at the time the
student is actually using the instructional technology, technology
insertion applies only to the use of technology to support training
instructional programs conducted at the schoolhouse. That is,
instructional technologies can be integrated directly into a
traditional classroom or laboratory course of instruction, can be
used for remediation and self-study to reinforce learning in a
resident course, or can be used to augment or refresh training
received through a resident program.
Background
Technology insertion is not new. The use of language

laboratories where students use headphones to listen to foreign
language tapes and then repeat phrases into a microphone so
the instructor can monitor their progress represents one example
of technology insertion that has been employed for more than 30
years. A more recent example is the use of computer-generated
presentations to reinforce learning concepts.
Everything from flip charts to mock-ups to simulators can be used
to enhance traditional instruction. As technological options
evolve at an ever-increasing rate, project managers, instructional
designers, and instructors must understand how these
technologies work and how they can help or hinder the learning
process. These participants in the development process must
understand the roles now assumed (and sometimes funded) by
representatives of other organizations; they must understand the
infrastructure requirements and how to coordinate the resources
necessary to employ the new technologies effectively.
Benefits of
technology
insertion
Research indicates that the benefits of technology insertion,

appropriately applied, can include:
An increase in levels of interactivity with instructional
materials
An effective method of providing performance
measurement tools for assessing student progress and
mastery of learning objectives
AFH 36-2235
Benefits of
technology
insertion
(Continued)
Impact of
technology
insertion
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1 November 2002
11
An increase in student retention of instruction over time

Reduction in training time
Reduction in instructor requirements
An increase in the transfer of learning to the operational
job environment.
Technology insertion impacts instructional programs from
planning the training project through implementation and
evaluation of the course of instruction. Quality technology
insertion decisions rely on a structured Instructional Systems
Development approach, solid project management, and a
thorough understanding of the impact of each media alternative
the impact on learning, on instructional staff, on project
development and delivery, and on life cycle cost of the training
program.
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12
Section C
Distance Learning
Definition of
distance-learning
Distance learning is structured learning that takes place without

the physical presence of an instructor. The following key
attributes are essential for any Air Force DL program:
Physical distance between learner and instructor.
Academic institution or functional organization
sponsorship.
Part of a structured curriculum with stated objectives.
Two-way communication and feedback between sponsor
and learner.
Deployment outside the confines of the resident
schoolhouse.
Includes process to evaluate program effectiveness.
Background
Distance learning is not new; it has been an effective method of

instruction for more than 200 years.
The Boston Gazette ran ads for shorthand lessons by mail
in 1728.
Australias University of Queensland offered an external
degree program in the 1890s.
Columbia University offered extension programs in the
1920s, while other schools began using radio for
instructional purposes in the 1930s.
Effectiveness of
distance learning
There seems to be an assumption that unless a learner is in a

classroom to receive face-to-face instruction, the quality of the
learning will be compromised. Exhaustive research
overwhelmingly suggests otherwise:
Analysis of more than 600 courses spanning more than 40
years proves there is no significant difference in learning
outcomes for courses offered at a distance when courses
are properly designed and the best medium is selected.
Learning outcomes often increase with distance learning
because the student is more actively engaged in the
learning process.
AFH 36-2235
Effectiveness of
distance learning
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
13
Thus, there is no direct correlation between face-to-face

interactivity and student performance. What is important is the
quality of instruction, not location.
The key to success in distance learning is the teacher. If the
teacher on the system is good, the technology itself can become
almost transparent. Conversely, no technology can overcome
poor teaching; poor teaching is actually exacerbated at a
distance. OTAs Linking for Learning: A New Course for
Education
Application
Distance learning programs are packaged into units of instruction

and delivered to users at non-resident education and training
sites such sites range from distance learning centers to
learners own homes. The instruction can be delivered to the
user by:
Satellite networks
Terrestrial networks (e.g., computer networks, telephone
lines, modems, cable TV)
Mail
There are two modes of delivery for distance learning instruction:
Synchronous instruction: consists of real-time interaction
and transmission of instruction, and requires simultaneous
participation of all students and the instructor.
Asynchronous instruction: consists of other than real-time
interaction and the transmission of stored instruction or
files that do not require participation of all students and
instructors at the same time.
Benefits
Existing resident methods for instructing large groups of

individuals generate student travel costs and overhead expenses
such as facility operating and maintenance costs. The primary
objectives of distance learning are to extend the learning
environment (instructor and/or instructional media) to the
students at their location or remote site, increase learning
opportunities, and ensure mission readiness in a cost-effective
manner. Downsizing and reductions in military budgets have
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Benefits
(Continued)
1 November 2002
14
required the Department of Defense (DoD) to develop costeffective methods such as distance learning to educate, train, and
certify personnel.
Some of the benefits of distance learning are:
Increased training opportunities.
Timely instruction to multiple or individual students at
many locations.
Real-time access to widely dispersed subject matter
experts.
Increased flexibility in instructional media and methods.
Increased instructor and instructional media resource
sharing.
Increased productivity by providing instruction at students
work area.
Reduced student travel and facility expenses.
Air Force DL goals
Air Force distance learning goals are to:

Create an environment that recognizes the value of
distance learning.
Ensure availability of resources to meet education and
training requirements.
Ensure Total Force interoperability for all distance learning
instructional technology.
Capitalize on appropriate leading edge technology.
Improve educational and training efficiencies where
practical and cost effective.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
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15
Air Force Distance Learning Points of Contact

DL organizations in
the Air Force
Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning

Distance Learning Office: The AFIADLO, located at Maxwell
AFB Gunter Annex, was established as the focal point within the
Air Force for implementation of distance learning policy and
emerging technology. As the hub for distance learning, AFIADL
the office provides policy and guidance, as well as consultation
and support for the planning and development of distance
learning programs.
2 AF: 2nd Air Force is tasked with developing and providing
operations (technical) training for the Air Force. 2 AF is actively
delivering distance-learning courses using print materials,
videotapes, Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI), Interactive
Video Teletraining (IVT), and the Internet, as well as converting
existing resident courses to distance learning formats.
AFIT: AFIT wears two hats for distance learning: (1) AFIT
manages the Center for Distance Education and (2) is also the
Program Manager for the Air Technology Network (ATN), a
satellite-based education and training network.
AFRC: The Air Force Reserves Command (AFRC) is a
proponent of distance learning since it can simplify meeting the
training and education needs of reservists. AFRC uses T-Net, a
two-way video satellite broadcast system.
ANG: The Air National Guard is also a big proponent of distance
learning for the same reasons as the Reserve. ANG operates
the Warrior Network that is identical to ATN and has more than
200 receive sites across the US.
AU: Air University offers a number of PME and Professional
Continuing Education (PCE) courses using various distance
learning delivery media including paper-based, IMI, IVT, and the
Internet.
Extension Course Program / ECI: The Extension Course
Program, formerly the Extension Course Institute (ECI) and now
a major component within AFIADL, has operated as the Air
Forces oldest distance learning provider institution for more than
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
DL organizations in
the Air Force
(Continued)
1 November 2002
16
40 years. Today, the Extension Course Program ECI offers more

than 400 courses including career development and other
specialized courses.
MAJCOMs: MAJCOMs use distance learning for MAJCOMunique training.
Functional Organizations: Functional organizations (e.g., SC,
SG, and SE) use distance learning to educate and train members
on new requirements in career fields.
In this handbook
In this handbook, the user is presented with guidance on the

processes and tools needed to make informed decisions about
instructional technology and distance learning and their
application to todays learning instructional needs. While
distance learning is not a panacea, it is a viable means to expand
the impact of training instructional programs, increase readiness,
and develop and maintain critical skills.
Deciding to develop a DL course impacts the traditional
development processes. It requires designers to look again at
how information is organized. It requires special instructor skills
and constant attention to implementation issues. The following
chapters, which provide insight into the IT environment with
emphasis on distance learning, offer the project manager
guidance and best practices to support the IT planning process
and discuss each technology as it currently applies to distance
learning.
It is important to recognize that technology changes on an almost
daily basis. What was just a possibility three years ago is
standard practice today. This handbook is designed to provide
the user with the framework necessary to ask the right questions
as technologies advance and as the role of the instructional
developer evolves.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
17
Chapter 2
INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Overview
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the Instructional Systems

Development (ISD) process, an overview of the major processes
and principles associated with managing an instructional systems
development project, and the special considerations associated
with managing an instructional technology and/or DL
development project.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains four sections:

Section
A
References
Title
Page
Overview of the ISD Process
19
Overview of Instructional Systems

Development
19
The ISD Process and Instructional

Technology
24
Overview of Project Management
32
The Instructional Technology

Development Team
46
Distance Learning Project

Management
61
The material in this chapter is based on the following references:

MIL-PRF-29612, Training Data Products
MIL-HDBK-29612-1, Department of Defense Handbook,
Guide for Acquisition of Training Data Products and
Services
AFH 36-2235
References
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002

Distance Learning Curriculum Analysis and Media
Selection, Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL, 4 Feb 1994
AF Handbook 36-2235, Information for Designers of
Instructional Systems, Volume 4
AF Manual 36-2234, Instructional Systems Development
AFIADLO Home Page web site:
http://www.au.af.mil/afdlowww.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/
18
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
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19
Section A
Overview of the ISD Process
Overview of Instructional Systems Development
Introduction
This section provides an overview of the ISD process and

addresses the use of ISD for IT projects. Detailed information on
the ISD process may be found in MIL-PRF-29612, Training Data
Products, and its supporting handbooks.
Analysis phase
The Analysis Phase is the process used to identify the critical

tasks that are required for job performance. It identifies and
defines those tasks for which education or training must be
accomplished.
Course entry requirements are defined (prior education,
training, and/or experience).
The target population and training environment are
defined.
Mission/job performance requirements are identified to
develop a task list.
Critical tasks are identified; education and/or training must
be accomplished for each critical task.
The performance standards, performance behavior,
conditions of behavior and performance measurement
standards are determined for each critical task.
The knowledge, skills, and attitudes (including judgment
and decision-making knowledge and skills) required to
perform each job task are identified.
The following flowchart, figure 1, describes the ISD Analysis
Phase.
Continued on the next page
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
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20
Analysis phase (Continued)
Figure 1 ISD Analysis Phase
Training Situation
Analysis
Mission Analysis
NOTE 1
Collective
Task
Identification
NOTE 1:
ONLY those
individual tasks
that directly
support the
mission are
identified as an
output of mission
analysis.
(Task List)
Collective Task
Analysis
The lines between

Mission,
Collective, Job,
and Individual
Task
Analysis indicate
that data MAY be
exchanged
between the
various steps.
Task Analysis
Task
Statements
Job Analysis
Individual Task
Identification
(Task List)
Individual Task
Analysis
Design phase
The Design Phase is based on the results of the Analysis Phase.

Knowledge, skill, and attitude learning objectives are
developed.
Performance test items are developed.
Existing instructional materials are reviewed for
applicability.
The instructional methods and media are selected.
The Course of Instruction (phases, units, modules, and
lessons) is designed.
The Implementation Plan for the Course of Instruction is
designed.
A Training Information Management System for the
Course of Instruction is designed.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Design process
flowchart
1 November 2002
21
The following flowchart depicts the ISD Design Phase.
Figure 2 ISD Design Phase
Categorize
Categorize
Tasks
Tasks
Review Existing
Review Existing
Materials
Materials
Select Instructional
SelectMedia
Instructional
and Methods
Media and Methods
Identify
Identify
Prerequisite
Prerequisite
Requirements
Requirements
Construct Learning
Construct
Learning
Analysis
Hierarchy
Analysis Hierarchy
Conduct
Conduct
Evaluation
Evaluation
Develop Learning
Develop Learning
Objectives
Objectives
Design Training
Design Training
Sequence
Sequence
Update ISD/SAT
UpdateEvaluation
ISD/SAT Plan
Evaluation Plan
Develop Test
Develop Test
Items
Items
Select Learning
Select Learning
Strategy
Strategy
Update
Update
Management
Management
Strategies
Strategies
Development
phase
The Development Phase is based on the results of the Design

Phase.
The student and instructor lesson materials (instructor
guides, student guides, lesson plans and scripts, etc.) are
developed.
Instructional media are developed.
The implementation plan is updated.
Formative evaluation of instructional materials and the
Course of Instruction are accomplished.
Summative evaluation of the instructional materials and
the Course of Instruction are completed.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Development
process flowchart
1 November 2002
22
The following flowchart depicts the ISD Development Phase.
Figure 3 ISD Development Phase
Develop Job
Job Aids
Aids
Develop
Develop PaperPaperDevelop
based, ICW,
ICW,
based,
Audiovisual
Materials
Audiovisual Materials
Document
Document
Validation Plan
Plan
Validation
Prepare Plan
Plan of
of
Prepare
Instruction
/
Lesson
Instruction / Lesson
Plan
Plan
Revise ISD
ISD
Revise
Evaluation Plan
Plan
Evaluation
Finalize Training
Training
Finalize
Materials
Materials
Develop Training
Training
Develop
Materials
Materials
Validate and
and Revise
Revise
Validate
Training
Training
Document Revised
Revised
Document
Training
Materials
Training Materials
Implementation
phase
The Implementation Phase is completed after the Design and

Development Phases are completed.
The instructional system is fielded.
Operational evaluation (field evaluation) of the instructional
system is accomplished.
AFH 36-2235
Evaluation phase
Volume 5
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23
Evaluation is a continuous process that is integrated into each

phase of the ISD process. It starts in the analysis phase with the
formative evaluation of the development process and products
and continues for the life cycle of the instructional system.
It provides feedback used to modify the education
instructional or training program as necessary.
It identifies both intended and unintended outcomes so
that decision-makers can make necessary adjustments in
the instructional program.
It usually involves formal and informal processes that
measure the effectiveness of instruction, delivery systems,
and support functions.
There are three types of evaluation:
Formative
Summative
Operational
Formative
evaluation
Provides information about the effectiveness of products and

processes as they are being developed. Performed periodically
from initial ISD planning throughout the development phase; can
include small-group tryouts of instructional components; used to
validate design of individual components of the instructional
system for integration. Objective is to identify deficiencies early,
when revision is least expensive.
Summative
evaluation
Provides information to determine the summed effect of

instruction under operational conditions. Used to assess full
system integration and effectiveness of the individual
components; based on an operational tryout of the program
(normally 2 or 3 classes) using real student throughput and full
instructional system operation. Objective is to ensure that the
instructional system is fully integrated and achieves desired
outcomes.
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24
Operational
evaluation
Includes periodic internal and external evaluation of the

instructional program to ensure graduates meet established
education and training requirements. Performed periodically from
completion of the operational tryout throughout the life of the
instructional system. Objective is continuous improvement and
maintenance of instructional effectiveness.
Summary
Formative evaluation occurs at each phase of the project and

usually involves both an internal review by the team as well as a
review and approval by the customer. Formative and summative
(try-out) evaluation processes can involve validation of the
instruction (conducting a beta test of the instruction) with sample
student groups as appropriate. The objective is to identify and
address problems before the training instructional program is fully
deployed. This can involve the redesign of faulty lessons,
resolution of technical problems, and the refinement of support
documentation.
The course owner usually conducts the operational evaluation of
instructional effectiveness to determine whether the instruction
accomplished its intended purpose.
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25
The ISD Process and Instructional Technology (IT)

Introduction
With the increasing use of advanced technologies over the past

15 years, emphasis has been placed on defining the costs and
benefits of technology options earlier in the ISD process. Instead
of waiting until the design phase to identify the optimum mix of
media for a given instructional program, the IT development team
will begin considering support and delivery options as it analyzes
the course requirements. This section addresses the special
considerations associated with the development and
implementation of training programs delivered by means of
IT considerations
in the analysis
phase
Phase 1: Analysis
The analysis phase is very complex. As you will see later in the
section on project management, and again in Chapter 4, most
project planning decisions are made during this phase. This is
when the customer requirements are clarified and defined and
plans are developed. Information is gathered through the needs
analysis, task analysis, media analysis, audience analysis,
infrastructure/ resource analysis, environmental analysis, cost
analysis and other sources and processes to enable the IT team
to design and develop instruction.
The primary focus of the analysis phase is to establish the
boundaries of the instructional program, including:
Requirements
Type of learning required.
Prerequisite knowledge and skill requirements
Requirements and optimum processes for student
practice.
Feedback requirements.
Student data file requirements.
Course data management requirements.
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IT considerations
in the analysis
phase (Continued)
1 November 2002
26
Program Elements
Scope and sequence of the instructional content.
Optimum instructional media and delivery options.
Optimum level of student interaction.
Pre-testing and testing strategies.
Help functions.
Support materials.
Student tracking methods.
The IT team must evaluate the technical infrastructure and the
hardware and software options carefully.
The team will identify current and future hardware and
software requirements and resources (including access to
broadcast facilities, downlink locations, availability of adequate
computers, etc.) and the pros and cons of various instructional
technology options.
It is usually not worth it to develop an instructional program in
outdated software, just as it is usually not worth it to develop a
program that is so state-of-the-art that it relies on hardware
that is not available to the end users.
The IT team will examine the costs and benefits of each potential
training solution and will strive to identify that solution that will
deliver the greatest Return On Investment (ROI). That is, the
team must define the approach that, given all of the training
factors and constraints, will give the biggest bang for the buck.
Critical to the process of determining ROI is the accurate
calculation of the costs of employing the instructional
technology alternatives. The team will not be able to
choose intelligently among alternatives if the cost of each
alternative is not based on sound analysis. Chapter 4
identifies the cost factors that must be considered when
comparing instructional technologies.
During this phase, the project manager and IT team will conduct
the required DITIS and DAVIS searches, conduct COTS
AFH 36-2235
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IT considerations
in the analysis
phase (Continued)
1 November 2002
27
research, and identify development team training requirements.

The project manager also implements the metrics program, the
quality control program, and project evaluation procedures.
The selection of the correct medium/media is critical and this
decision must be made it is during the Analysis Phase that this
decision must be made. Guidance on media identification,
planning, selection, and implementation are presented in this
handbook. Chapter 3 identifies the media alternatives; Chapter 4
addresses the advantages and disadvantages of each medium;
and the subsequent chapters discuss the use of the media
alternatives. But the media selection and planning processes
must be completed before the project moves into the Design
Phase.
IT considerations
in the design
phase
Phase 2: Design
Because changes during the development and
implementation phases are costly, the development team
should use this phase to ensure all members of the project
understand what the resulting instructional program will
look like before full scale development begins. The
design phase documents how the instruction will look and
function.
Given the approved approach to training, the project
manager should arrange for the required staff training
(identified in the project planning) to enable the team to
design and develop instruction for the selected media.
The project manager will document the instructional
strategy for customer review and approval. This is a highlevel description of the design, including the look and feel,
navigation, testing, etc. The customer will also review and
approve plans for managing student data files.
The team may create a prototype so the customer can
actually review the look and feel of the design.
Once the prototype and instructional strategy have been
approved, the team creates flowcharts and storyboards.
Flowcharts make it clear how the instructional and
administrative elements will connect and how to navigate
through the instruction.
Storyboards should include screen text, graphics,
audio/video scripts, branching instructions, and
descriptions of
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28
IT considerations
in the design
phase (Continued)
functionality. High level scripts (outlines) for Interactive Video

Teletraining (IVT) or Computer-Mediated Communication
(CMC) instructors should be developed here. Templates and
web page designs for Internet instruction should also be
developed at this point.
The customers role as reviewer is particularly critical during
IT design efforts.
The project manager should schedule walk-throughs and
review sessions where the team explains to the customer
and Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) the decisions made
and materials developed.
The customer and SMEs have a responsibility to review
the design deliverables (instructional strategy documents,
flowcharts/ storyboard web page designs) thoroughly and
provide timely, specific, constructive feedback.
Remember that developing a prototype is a good way for the
customer to experience the teams vision of how the instruction
should be presented. It can save valuable resources later. Be
sure to avoid scope creep during this phase.
Instructional
technology
considerations in
the development
phase
Phase 3: Development
The length of the development phase depends on the complexity
of the project and the accuracy and level of detail achieved during
the design phase. Development activities include the preproduction, production, and post-production of the content and
various instructional media elements including audio, video,
graphics, animations, photos, and coordination of team
resources.
Depending on the complexity, this phase can involve
graphic artists, producers, directors, editors, animators,
narrators, programmers, quality assurance personnel, etc.
all working at the same time to create the instructional
media elements.
The customer should provide existing instructional media
such as photographs, videotapes, graphics, animation,
and illustrations. All final instructional media elements
must be reviewed and approved by the customer. At this
point, changes are costly.
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29
Instructional
technology
considerations in
the development
phase (Continued)
One common problem during the development phase is

that there are too many people with a variety of opinions
regarding production details (everyone is a director).
Therefore, the customer should designate one point of
contact to represent the collective point of view in any
situation.
During this phase, the development team should:
Assemble all of the instructional media elements described
on the storyboards into a fully functional application of
instructional technology. This is a tedious and exacting
process whether creating videotape, interactive
courseware, or presentation materials for the IVT
instructor.
Ensure the customer has the opportunity to review and
approve all instructional media elements. The main
purpose of these reviews is to make sure everything on
the storyboards is in the instruction and that there are no
discrepancies.
Develop the instruction in increments so the customer can
review each increment in progress as well as when
completed. The team must be vigilant in the area of
project scope, however, and not allow the customer to add
requirements at this point.
Plan for and document the quality control efforts during
this phase. Be sure to conduct a summative evaluation at
the end of the development phase to test IT products
(especially important for IMI and IBI).
Instructional
technology
considerations in
the implementation
phase
Phase 4: Implementation
All the IT products are developed. The customer is satisfied with
the product. The materials have been subjected to a rigorous
quality control process. Now it is time to deliver the program.
Hardware and software integration and compatibility, instructor
and student comfort with the technology, and special preparation
requirements all combine to create special challenges when the
training is based on the use of instructional technologies.
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Instructional
technology
considerations in
the implementation
phase (Continued)
1 November 2002
30
If the project involves technology insertion in the

schoolhouse, the implementation phase may likely
become the responsibility of the instructor or course
owner.
Most instructors are comfortable with traditional media and
computer-based support materials. Even so, conduct a
pilot course where instructors integrate the chosen media
into the instructional program and develop an appropriate
pace of instruction.
During the pre-production phase for IVT, include
rehearsals for instructors with the studio staff. Coach them
on techniques such as maintaining eye contact with the
camera, setting the stage for the students (helping them
become comfortable with the use of the chosen media),
and establishing clear-cut rules, procedures, and
processes.
Prepare the studio environment for live broadcast if
applicable and conduct an equipment check well before,
as well as just prior to broadcast.
f the project is DL,
Ensure that the implementation process is
continuously monitored by the appropriate support
organizations. Be sure to maintain communications
with supporting organizations. The failure to
coordinate effectively is never more obvious than
during the implementation phase.
Conduct final coordination with facilitators, field
representatives, or site POCs and distribute all
materials just prior to implementation (to ensure
everyone has the latest version of the training
materials).
Ensure appropriate student help is available for the
duration of the implementation phase. (See the
next section for information on special DL issues.)
If not already done, the course owner must provide input to
the Air Force Catalog (AFCAT), the Air Force Training
Management System (AFTMS), and ensure course
materials are fielded for student use.
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Instructional
technology
considerations in
the evaluation
phase
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1 November 2002
31
Phase 5: Evaluation
Research indicates that the instructional format itself actually has
little effect on student achievement as long as the delivery
technology is appropriate to the instructional content and all
students have access to the same technology. However, it is
important to establish that the chosen media is the appropriate
vehicle for the given instruction prior to implementation. An
analysis of student data files after implementation will be key in
determining the overall effectiveness of the IT program.
Formative evaluations should be used throughout the Analysis,
Design, and Development Phases to verify that the selected
media is effective in supporting the training learning objectives.
Summative and operational evaluations will be the joint
responsibility of the IT team, support organizations, and the
course owner. The IT team must define and collect appropriate
metrics data and forward necessary reports to senior
management as requested. See the next section for information
on metrics.
The following project management activities should be
accomplished during this iterative phase.
Monitor established milestones, budget expenditures, and
development progress against what was planned.
Compare estimated and actual ROI.
Review instructional content and materials for accuracy,
currency, and availability.
Monitor processes to measure the impact of instructional
technology on student performance and learning
outcomes.
Compile and analyze evaluation results. Analyze student
data files.
Document inspection and evaluation results, including
course/instructional deficiencies, support system
problems, administrative barriers, efficiencies realized
(cost, labor, training time), and other metrics that could
contribute to lessons learned and quality improvement of
the instructional system.
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Section B
Overview of Project Management
Introduction
The desired result of the ISD process is customer satisfaction

which means the delivery of a cost-effective instructional program
that adequately meets the established learning need and is
provided to the right people at the right time. Project
management is the means by which all the planning, analysis,
development, implementation, and evaluation actions discussed
in the previous section are coordinated and controlled. This
section addresses first the planning that must take place before
the project even begins and then defines the general
management principles and processes associated with an
instructional systems development project.
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33
Project Planning
Purpose
The Project Managers primary tool is the project plan its proper
development and implementation are the keys to delivering a
quality instructional program. The project plan can take any one
of a variety of forms, from a formal deliverable to a folder that
contains the agreed-to plan of action and milestones. The
degree of formality is dependent on the scope and complexity of
the project.
Regardless of the form it takes, project planning information must
be documented it is used to define the scope of the
development project (including deliverables), the resources
required to accomplish each phase of the project (including
personnel and costs), and the project schedule. In this
handbook, the term project plan refers to project planning
documentation however formal or informal.
The project plan is the vehicle used to confirm senior
management and customer buy-in. It is worth the time it takes to
develop, not only because it structures the program, but also
because it serves as a convenient tool to make sure there is a
common understanding between the development team and the
customer about requirements, responsibilities, timelines, and
expectations.
Note:
The scope of the project plan depends on the scope of the

assigned tasking. If the scope of assigned tasking is limited to
defining the instructional alternatives before the customer
commits to the development effort, the scope of the project
planning might be limited to the Analysis Phase. Once the
customer has selected the solution (the desired approach) and
expanded the tasking to include the actual development of the
instructional program, the project plan is then updated to reflect
the entire instructional system development effort.
The project plan is a tool.
It is up to the project manager to make it an effective tool.
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Prepare to begin
Volume 5
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34
The project manager begins by assembling all available data

about the project.
What does the team have to produce and how is it going to
get there?
How will the team know it is on track and doing a good
job?
What resources are required to get the job done?
What are the points along the way where the customer will
participate in the process?
Who needs to be involved and what are their
responsibilities?
What is the experience level of the team?
Each of these questions must be answered and documented
BEFORE the IT team gets authorization from senior management
to begin its work.
Define the project
There are six major steps associated with project definition.

Step
Step 1: Identify
customer
requirements
Definition
Identify customer requirements.
Define the IT development process, from inputs to

outputs of the development process.
Define and establish required support processes.
Define staffing and resource requirements
Develop a master schedule.
Obtain senior management buy-in.
In order to complete the most critical step in any development

process defining what is required it is essential that the
project manager correctly identify the primary customer. Who is it
that must ultimately be satisfied with the product? While there
are often several customers of instructional systems, the primary
customer is the person or organization that retains decisionmaking authority. This usually is the training manager, course
director, program manager, or an instructor who works directly
with the career field functional managers.
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35
Identifying other
customers
Other customers of the instructional system include the students,

students supervisors, other individuals who will work with
students after they have completed their instruction, and the
subject matter experts working with the project. In addition,
senior-level managers, MAJCOMs, instructors, and support
personnel are customers of the project team. Customer feedback
throughout the life cycle of the instructional system is a critical
component of the quality assurance process.
Defining the
customers needs
During the Analysis Phase, the requirements and views of each

identified customer group must be solicited and defined the
better defined the requirements, the better the chances of fulfilling
them successfully. It is impossible to design an adequate
instructional system without defining these requirements. The
data collected will feed the task, training situation, and media
analysis processes as described in MIL-PRF-29612 and its
supporting handbooks. Understanding the customers
requirements will help instructional designers determine the
instructional delivery media best suited to the training situation
and learning needs. Refer to Chapter 4 for a discussion of media
selection criteria.
Obtaining and
keeping customer
Buy-In
The ultimate goal is a satisfied customer. And a customer who

has helped make decisions along the way is far more likely to feel
invested in the final product. The project plan should be built
around customer reviews and feedback. If the customer
disagrees with the teams solutions or ideas, it is better to find out
and make adjustments early in the process. Surprising the
customer is the surest road to failure there is a chance s/he will
be satisfied but there is a greater chance that the team did not
anticipate every decision the customer would have made.
Step 2: Define the

development
process
First, the project manager must think through the entire project
from the beginning through to delivery of the end product; it may
be helpful to gather trusted advisors and conduct a brainstorming
session. Think of the ISD process what does the team have to
do to get through the Analysis Phase? Refer to MIL-PRF-29612
and the supporting handbooks for a detailed description of the
ISD tasks the team will have to complete.
AFH 36-2235
Step 2: Define the

development
process
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
36
List the steps, or tasks, required for each phase. Tailor the tasks
as appropriate to the scope of the project. Make sure the inputs
and outputs of the process are clearly defined and that the
products to be delivered to the customer are identified. Once the
list is completed, look at the whole list and make sure all tasks
are included and that they progress logically from one to the next.
For each task, identify the information in the following table:
Task Information
Description
Title/Name of the Keep It Short and Simple
task
Purpose of the
Clearly state the purpose of the task what
task
is the value added to the project?
Steps necessary
to achieve the
task
These are subtasks and should be as

detailed as is useful. They should be
descriptive enough to enable a team member
to understand clearly what must be done and
how it should be accomplished. There is no
need for micro-management, but there is a
requirement for clarity.
Include In-Process Reviews (IPRs) with the
customer and consultations with Subject
Matter Experts as well as internal quality
control reviews.
Include recurring and periodic reports under

a project management task; development of
such reports takes time and staff resources.
Products resulting Include draft deliverables and interim
from the task
deliverables such as sample lessons.
Documentation
Include reference materials, technical
used in
manuals (make sure the team has the latest
developing the
version), Instructional Technology data
products
(information on the technologies and
equipment systems to be employed for
development and delivery of the product),
etc.
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Step 2: Define the

development
process
(Continued)
1 November 2002
Task Information
Skills required to
accomplish the
task
Other resources
required to
accomplish the
task
Organizations/
Agencies with
which the project
must interface to
accomplish the
task
Review and
approval process
for the
task/deliverable
37
Description
Identify by job and skill level (e.g., Senior
Instructional Designer).
Support tools, software, etc.
Include internal and external organizations

and agencies; identify the points at which
interface is essential.
List all reviews (internal and external) and

estimated time each cycle will take.
Table 2 Development Process Task Information

Step 3. Define and
establish required
support processes
There are a number of support processes that must be defined

before the planning process is completed. By defining the
requirements associated with quality assurance and metrics
programs early in the planning process, the project manager
ensures that such processes are an integral part of the program
and that necessary resources are allocated.
Establish a quality
assurance program
Quality assurance is the organized creation of beneficial change

to the process of designing and developing products, whether an
instructional program or an aircraft. The objective of quality
assurance is to foster improvement in the process and products,
as they are being designed and developed rather than waiting
until after they are implemented. It has become a primary
function of Project Management.
Each phase of the ISD process is designed to force project
managers and designers to ask the right questions to help focus
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Establish a quality
assurance program
(Continued)
1 November 2002
38
on the effectiveness of the instructional system to force them to

ask whether some aspect of the system could be improved.
Customer satisfaction is the number one goal; and customer
satisfaction translates into meeting instructional requirements in
the most effective and efficient manner possible.
Continuous improvement of Air Force instructional programs is
essential to the readiness of our forces. With decreasing
manpower and budgets, instructional designers must find more
effective and efficient ways to maintain the skills of Air Force
personnel. A proficient project manager will make quality
assurance an integral part of the instructional system life cycle
management process (from inception through retirement).
Develop quality
control procedures
The Quality Control (QC) process, part of the quality assurance

program, must be an integral part of the project. The QC
procedures should be updated throughout the project to ensure
that lessons learned in one part of the project are applied to work
remaining to be accomplished. Include the following in the QC
procedures:
Establish a review and approval process to make sure that
all products meet quality standards. A form documenting a
deliverables progress through the QC process should be
developed and retained with the deliverable files.
The review and approval form should be filled out and
attached to each product associated with a lesson. As the
product is reviewed and approved, the approving authority
should sign the document. The document should be
complete for each product associated with the lesson. The
primary author should date the form to tell the reviewer
when the review must be completed. The form should not
be signed until all suggested corrections are made,
checked, and approved. Disapproved products should be
returned to the author for correction.
QC is the collective responsibility of the entire
development team. Each member should be assigned
specific review and approval duties.
Make sure the quality control steps for each task are
included in the project planning.
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Develop project
metrics
Establish the means by which project progress will be measured.

Some organizations have established reporting processes that
dictate the data the project manager needs to collect, analyze,
and present to senior management and the customer. Metrics
and reporting requirements for DL projects have been defined by
the AFIADLO. The project manager should investigate current
requirements before establishing and integrating a metrics
program into the project.
Track costs
Make sure you have a process to collect and track costs

associated with the project. You will have to estimate costs prior
to initiating an IT project and monitor actual costs associated with
project development. More information on cost analysis and cost
models is included in Chapter 4.
Step 4. Define
staffing and
resource
requirements
The required skill levels for each task were defined during the
initial step in this process. They indicate the type of expertise
needed for the project team. The required implementation date
directly affects the number of people required. Given enough
time, one highly skilled person could probably develop an entire
IT program. However, there is usually a point at which assigning
more people to a task does little or nothing to accelerate the
schedule. Therefore, scheduling constraints must be identified
early in the process. Be prepared to recommend contract and
outsourcing options if in-house resources are scarce.
Given the tasks, the skill requirements, and the schedule, identify
the numbers of people required to accomplish each task. Dont
forget to identify the staffing requirements for life-cycle
maintenance of the course after the IT product is implemented.
Sometimes senior management will require that staffing
requirements be expressed in hours, other times they require that
staffing be expressed as FTEs (Full Time Equivalents). The
bottom line is that the project manager must determine how many
people and what skill mix is required to accomplish each task.
The project manager will map out a staffing requirements chart,
which shows when the various staffing resources are required to
support the established schedule.
AFH 36-2235
Refine team
composition
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40
Once all of the tasks are analyzed to define staffing requirements,

it is good practice to back up and look at the staffing plan as a
whole. Review the tasks, schedule, and staffing plan. Look for
ways to realize efficiencies.
Can tasks be staggered more effectively to make better
use of staff?
Are there coordination or support functions that have been
overlooked?
The challenge is to optimize staffing resources to have enough
staff so that the work can be accomplished without driving
everyone over the edge, but to tailor the process and staffing
carefully enough so that team members are not sitting around
waiting for others to finish their tasks.
Define IT team
positions and
responsibilities
With staffing requirements defined, identify the general roles and

responsibilities of each position. Team member position
descriptions may be modified to accommodate the individual
strengths and weaknesses of team members as the development
team evolves.
The project plan is also the place to explain how the staffing
resources will be organized. Subteams should be identified and
associated responsibilities defined.
More information on IT Team composition is included in
Section C.
Identify resource
requirements
Identify other resources needed for the project. Be sure to

include facilities and equipment requirements, needed software
and development tools, and services or resources needed from
support organizations.
AFH 36-2235
Step 5. Develop a
master schedule
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41
The project manager must identify any scheduling or time

constraints that impact the staffing and resource requirements.
Include any events that will affect the development schedule.
Often, there is a target date by which the instructional program
must be delivered (e.g., for an equipment maintenance-training
program, the training schedule might be driven by the delivery of
the new equipment system to the initial installation site).
Working back from the required delivery date, define the
schedule for each task. Some tasks can be done concurrently
while others are dependent (when the results of one task must be
available before another task can begin). Include the review and
approval cycles for each deliverable.
Based on the length of time it will take to accomplish each task,
identify the start and end dates. This is usually developed using
a scheduling software package, but can be accomplished
manually on graph paper.
When the project schedule is drafted, examine it carefully and
make sure it makes sense. Make adjustments based on revised
task sequencing and dependencies. Software tools can be used
to develop GANTT or PERT charts that reflect task sequence and
dependency.
Incorporate
staffing and
resource
requirements
Insert staffing and resource requirements data into the schedule.

This is a critical component of the project plan. The master
schedule should give a clear overview of what needs to be
accomplished, when it will be accomplished, who is responsible
for accomplishing each task, and when the customer and SMEs
will participate in the process. Validate and adjust as necessary
the staffing resources assigned to each task.
Step 6: Obtain
senior
management
buy-in
The project manager must ensure that managers and customers

understand the scope of the project and the impact it will have on
manpower, budgets, and schedules. The best way to ensure
customer and managerial support is to obtain their approval of
the project plan. The first step in getting buy-in is to establish a
reasoned, well-planned view of the proposed project.
AFH 36-2235
Assemble the
project plan
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42
Assemble the data to tell a solid story. Include the following:

What does the team have to produce and how is it going to
get there?
Task list
Deliverables
Life-cycle support
Development team structure
How will the team know it is on track and doing a good job?
Master schedule (GANTT or PERT charts)
Internal evaluation procedures/Quality assurance program
In-process reviews with the customer
Project metrics
What resources are required to get the job done?
Staffing
Facilities/Equipment/Networks
Software/Development tools
What are the points along the way where the customer will
participate in the process?
Review and Approval Cycles
In-Process Reviews
Who needs to be involved and what are their responsibilities?
Coordination with other organizations/agencies
Upper management responsibilities
Customer/SMEs
Remember that this information can be compiled into a formal
Project Plan, a Plan of Action and Milestones (POA&M) chart,
listed in an MOA/MOU with the customer, or summarized in a
briefing for senior management. In any event, the project
manager and the development team will use the planning
documentation on a daily basis its form should support that
purpose.
AFH 36-2235
Management
buy-in
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43
The project manager may be required to submit the project

planning documentation for internal review and approval before it
is formally reviewed with the customer. It is the project
managers responsibility to ensure that all senior management
questions are adequately addressed.
Keeping management informed is the key to success. Submit
both formal and informal reports to senior management to make
sure they know how hard the project team is working, how well
the project is being managed, how pleased the customer is.
But dont hide bad news. Dont let issues grow until they are fullblown problems. Define the problem carefully and develop a plan
of action for addressing it. Explain the risks and costs and
explain why this approach is the best way to solve the complete
problem.
It is important to recognize that the morale of the entire project
team can be deeply affected by the way management views the
project. Get senior management involved early and then
maintain the dialog. Let them know the project team values their
advice and support.
Commitment of
resources
Obtaining resources frequently requires endorsement or approval

of senior management. It is prudent project management to
involve senior management early, to identify project support
requirements early and clearly, and to keep senior management
informed about issues before they become problems. The
course owner or customer can often help identify (and emphasize
to senior management the importance of) support resource
requirements.
Identify and obtain senior-level management endorsement or
approval for:
Purchasing hardware, software, or curriculum materials.
Training for the project team.
Facility resources.
Manpower and support personnel.
Selection, training, and assignment of personnel.
Obtaining assignment longevity/commitment of personnel
resources.
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activities
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1 November 2002
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The following list summarizes the planning activities

accomplished by the project manager. It provides some
reminders and key points to consider while developing and
managing the project plan.
Analyze Requirements
Validate the instructional need.
Analyze alternative media solutions to the instructional
problem; conduct cost/benefit and ROI analyses to define the
optimum IT solution. Identify the recommended solution in the
project planning documentation. (See Chapter 4).
Identify management constraints (including cost and schedule
constraints) that could affect development and implementation
of the instructional system.
Plan for system resource requirements including funding,
equipment, personnel, facilities, and maintenance. Plan to
monitor resource utilization throughout the project cycle and
track project costs.
Develop Strategies
Develop and document the management strategy for the
development, implementation, and life cycle support of the
instructional system.
Develop a POA&M for each phase of the project to reflect all
associated tasks and the related task performance schedule.
Identify and establish liaison with related support
organizations (e.g., faculty development, information
management, and facilities).
Establish a metrics program. Determine what data will be
collected, who the recipient of the data will be, how often it
needs to be collected, data sources, and what the purpose of
the data is (what it will be used for). Allocate resources for
metrics program design and implementation as well as data
collection and processing.
Ensure the project planning documentation incorporates an
appropriate quality assurance program to include formative,
summative, and operational evaluations.
Ensure project-planning documentation reflects on-going
customer involvement in the design, development, and
implementation of the training instructional program through
periodic reviews and working sessions.
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(Continued)
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Staffing
Identify staffing requirements and establish project team
membership; ensure appropriate cross-functional
representation (e.g., subject matter experts, user group
representatives, instructional designers, graphic artists,
evaluation specialists, and technical writers). Plan for any
additional staff training, if necessary. (See next section on
Instructional Technology Teams).
Define team operating guidelines and clarify roles and
responsibilities. Monitor the team to ensure all members
fulfill his/her/their responsibilities.
Make recommendations for contracting out the project if inhouse resources are inadequate to meet the need in the
specified timeframe.
Plan for the certification of instructors and instructors
supervisors, site and subject matter facilitators, and
continuation training programs to ensure continued
qualification of the instructional staff.
Implementation
Obtain senior management and customer approval to
implement the project plan. Keep them in the loop
throughout the project.
Implement the plan and manage the ISD process.
Provide briefings on the status of the project and adherence
to the project plan.
Avoid scope creep. Do not allow the customers or a creative
development team to add unnecessary bells and whistles or
to broaden the scope of the project without solid justification.
When things change (as they always do), assess the impact
on scheduling and budgets. Do not incorporate the change
until required contractual actions have been completed.
Once management has approved the change, adjust the
project plan accordingly.
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Section C
The Instructional Technology Development Team
Introduction
The project manager must identify special skills required to fulfill

project requirements. This presents special challenges to the
manager of an Instructional Technology project. This section
explains the special skill sets that may be required for successful
development and implementation of an IT program. It is provided
to help the project manager tailor the skill mix of the IT
development team to the unique features of the project. This
section also provides suggestions for getting the IT development
team organized and off to a solid start.
IT team
The development organization should have a core management

team that serves to organize and coordinate all IT resources
regardless of the type of IT project. The IT Team comprises key
members who ensure the following essential functions are
established and coordinated (some members may oversee more
than one function).
Table 3 Roles and Responsibilities of the IT Team
IT TEAM
Role
Project
Management
Subject Matter
Expert (SME)
Instructional
Design
Responsibilities
This function ensures the capability to direct the overall development
process, including coordination of projects with senior management
and support organizations. A project manager is assigned for each
project.
This function Coordinates the identification and provision of subject
matter expertise. SMEs are those who have a thorough knowledge
of a job, tasks/duties, or a particular topic and are qualified to assist
in the instructional development process. SMEs review lessons and
instructional material for technical accuracy and currency. They may
also author lessons as required.
This function ensures the capability to develop standards and
instructional strategies for lessons. Instructional designers may
assist with lesson authoring when required. They review completed
lesson designs, flowcharts, and storyboards for instructional integrity
and conformance with standards and strategies.
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IT team (Continued)
Role
Instructional
Development
Registrar
Visual
Information
Support
Quality Control
Evaluation
Support
Student
Support*
Production,
Editing and
Distribution*
DL Site
Administration*
IT TEAM (Continued)
Responsibilities
This function ensures the capability to author lesson designs,
flowcharts, and storyboards for the selected medium. Instructional
developers design and/or create static and animate graphics,
performance exercises, simulations, and interactive sequences.
They also program lessons with authoring systems, write scripts and
narration, develop home pages and hot links, etc.
This function ensures the capability to register students properly for a
course, track student progress through a course, and update student
records.
This function ensures the capability to develop and control audiovisual material such as slides, filmstrips, audiotapes, and videoclips.
Visual information support specialists manage audio-visual
equipment, broadcast facilities and video production capabilities.
They also assist with graphics support.
This function ensures the capability to establish procedures for the
continuous monitoring of ISD processes and the review of all
materials and products produced by the IT development team.
This function ensures the capability to establish and implement an
evaluation program. Evaluation support specialists develop
processes and materials to gather information about student
performance and satisfaction. They also assist with overall program
evaluation and the collection of metrics data. Usually, this function is
performed by course directors, training managers, instructors, or a
formal office to identify standards and evaluation processes.
This function ensures the capability to assist students with
administrative functions and help solve technical problems that
students have. Student support specialists may establish an
electronic help desk, or on-line support provided throughout the
implementation of a training program.
This function ensures the capability to produce, duplicate, and
distribute course materials to students or remote-site locations. This
may involve editing, formatting, and production of print materials,
computer discs, or electronic publications.
This function ensures the capability to schedule and implement DL
courses in the field, usually at base-level DL Centers within the
educational services office (ESO) or through a Job Site Training
POC.
* denotes functions of particular importance to DL
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IT Development Team Roles and Responsibilities

Define functions
and
responsibilities
In the project definition phase, the project manager identified the

staffing requirements for the specific IT project. Now a
development team must be put together.
Each development team comprises members who perform
different functions. They come from academic, technical,
support, contract organizations, etc. to ensure a systems
approach to project development and execution.
A team members assigned responsibilities should be based on
his/her individual area(s) of expertise related to the type of
instructional technology used in the project. Some members may
perform more than one function. If the project is large is scope,
several people may be required to perform the same function.
Whatever the team composition, the project manager must
ensure that roles and responsibilities are clearly defined. Only
then can subteams and team members begin to function
effectively and be held accountable.
These functions are a guide. Based on available manpower,
some team members may fulfill multiple functions.
The following paragraphs identify the special skill sets that will be
required to develop and implement various instructional
technology programs. These descriptions are provided as a
checklist for the project manager as s/he refines the composition
of the development team. The use of these resources may be
coordinated through the IT Team.
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Specialized Skill Sets

Special skills
Depending on the IT employed, the development team will

require specialized expertise. The following charts identify the
key skills required for each of the technologies addressed in this
handbook. Multiple skills may be provided by an individual,
depending on the scope of the IT project and the skill set of the
individual.
CMC functions
For a Computer Mediated Communication development project,

the development team may require the following additional
functions described in Table 4.
CMC FUNCTIONS
Role
Instructor
Support Staff
Instructional
Designer
Courseware
Developer
Webmaster
Help Desk
Responsibilities
Hosts the learning session. Defines ground rules, introduces
thread, guides discussion, asks questions, integrates responses,
summarizes, and ends session.
Handles the administrative actions needed to support a computer
mediated conference such as taking registration, mailing
instructional materials, publishing the help desk number,
compiling critiques, etc.
Develops standards and instructional strategies for computer
mediated conferencing lessons. Assists with lesson authoring
when required. Reviews completed lesson designs and
flowcharts for instructional integrity and conformance with
standards and strategies.
Authors lesson designs and flowcharts. Designs and creates
performance exercises, simulations, and interactive sequences.
Works with the courseware developer and instructional designer
in the creation of the course by providing technical assistance for
Web issues.
Is available up to 24 hours a day to handle technical questions or
problems for both instructors and learners.
Table 4 Roles and Responsibilities in a Computer Mediated Communication Project
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Interactive
audioconferencing
functions
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To conduct an interactive audioconference (either as technology

insertion or DL), the IT development team may require the
following additional functions described in Table 5.
INTERACTIVE AUDIOCONFERENCING FUNCTIONS

Role
Moderator
Support Staff
Content Expert
Responsibilities
Hosts the learning session. Conducts roll calls, introduces
speakers, defines ground rules, guides discussion, defines
breaks, summarizes, and ends session.
Handles the administrative actions needed to support an
interactive audioconference such as taking registration, mailing
instructional materials, reserving and publishing the audiobridge
number, establishing the conference call, compiling critiques, etc.
Can be the course instructor or a guest speaker.
Table 5 Roles and Responsibilities in an Interactive Audioconference Project

IMI functions
For an Interactive Multimedia Instruction development project, the

IT development team may require the following additional
functions described in Table 6.
IMI FUNCTIONS
Role
Courseware
Developer
Courseware
Programmer
Graphic Artist
Media Specialist
Responsibilities
Authors lesson designs, flowcharts, and storyboards. Designs
and/or creates static and animate graphics, performance
exercises, simulations, and interactive sequences. Programs
lessons with authoring systems.
Programs lessons with authoring systems or programming
languages. Develops static and animated graphics with
authoring languages. Assists in converting American Standard
Code for Information Exchange (ASCII) code when automatic
conversion is unavailable. Develops subroutines and writes
applications to read/analyze student data files.
Develops graphics, and is the advisor for visual conventions.
Films motion and still-frame sequences. Coordinates audio
narration. Assists in planning pre-master media layout.
Table 6 Roles and Responsibilities in an Interactive Multimedia Instruction Project
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IVT functional team
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For an Interactive Video Teletraining development project, the IT

development team may require the following additional functions
described in Table 7.
INTERACTIVE VIDEO TELETRAINING FUNCTIONS

Role
Scheduler
Instructor
Producer/Director
Videographer
Engineer/
Equipment
Maintainer
Production
Assistant
Broadcast Center
Manager
Responsibilities
Schedules uplink/broadcast facilities for rehearsals and
broadcasts. Ensures that downlink facilities are identified and
scheduled to receive programs. Also, schedules programming
with satellite/network manager. Enters program schedule into
annual and quarterly DL Guide.
Presents live instruction to DL audience using teaching skills and
techniques suitable for IVT delivery. Usually a subject matter
expert who has completed the required IVT instructor course and
understands the dynamics of this instructional environment.
Actually puts the live broadcast out to the network. Works with
the instructor to ensure best delivery of lessons, recommends
corrections to slides and graphics not designed for TV, edits
prerecorded videos, and designs and produces video graphics.
Conducts training for new instructors.
Operates camera during the actual broadcast unless remote
cameras are used.
Keeps video and related equipment in good working condition.
Talks with the network management center (satellite manager) to
ensure proper broadcast electronics to the satellite. Operates
audio bridge during live broadcast. Works with downlink sites to
ensure proper alignment of equipment, and to help identify
downlink IRD numbers and POCs.
During live broadcast is responsible for audio output, graphic
generator, videotape inserts, clock, and video taping of
broadcast.
Overall manager of the studio. Usually schedules equipment,
personnel, and equipment purchases and may serve as program
scheduler. Develops procedures for quality control and customer
satisfaction. Maintains records for studio utilization, costs, and
other metrics data.
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IVT functional team (Continued)
INTERACTIVE VIDEO TELETRAINING FUNCTIONS (Continued)

Role
Subject Matter
Facilitator
Job Site or DL
POC
Site Coordinator or
Site Monitor
Responsibilities
Facilitates instruction at a downlink site through such things as
overseeing special projects or practical exercises, observing
hands-on activities, facilitating guided discussion, monitoring
tests, and answering questions. Usually this person has
completed special training or certification prior to assuming this
role.
Organization or person at base level responsible for all aspects of
Technical Training DL administration.
Person at base level who ensures the downlink classroom and
equipment are ready to use. Assists Job Site or DL POC or
Subject Matter Facilitator in using the classroom equipment and
by providing minor administrative support.
Table 7 Roles and Responsibilities in an Interactive Video Teletraining Project
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IBI functional team
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For an Internet-Based Instruction development project, the IT

development team may require the following additional functions
described in Table 8.
INTERNET-BASED INSTRUCTION FUNCTIONS
Role
Webmaster
Server/Systems
Administrator
Programmer
Authoring System
Specialists
Graphic Artist
Instructor
Help Desk
Responsibilities
Manages the Web site. Provides configuration control of Web
based content and maintenance of information presented.
Develops procedures for quality control and customer
satisfaction.
Responsible for information security and stability, as well as
hardware/software management. Maintains network system and
trains staff on use.
Programs lessons in selected authoring languages (e.g., HTML,
Java, ActiveX). Integrates media and source materials into
structured instructional format. Develops subroutines.
Ensures compatibility and compliance with established standards.
Selects media presentation techniques and software.
Implements programming standards and guidance in the
development of new courseware, as well as conversion of
existing courseware.
Develops graphics and media content in the appropriate format
utilizing compression and optimization techniques. Advisor for
visual conventions. Ensures graphic conventions and screen
presentation quality and consistency.
Subject matter expert who has completed the IBI instructor
course and understands the dynamics of this instructional
environment; responsible for coordinating the learning process.
Can communicate with students on-line via e-mail or via other
media (may establish supporting audioconferences to discuss
related topics with groups of students).
Provides responsive support (either on-line or via e-mail) to
student questions about system operation. Requires internet
expertise as well as expertise on software application(s)
employed.
Table 8 Roles and Responsibilities in an Internet-Based Instruction Project
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QC team
responsibilities
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54
While quality control is the collective responsibility of the entire IT

development team, each member should be assigned specific
review and approval duties. Examples are provided in Table 9.
QUALITY CONTROL RESPONSIBILITIES OF IT DEVELOPMENT TEAM MEMBERS

A
Position Title
B
Quality Control
Responsibility
Authors an easy-tounderstand, technically
accurate lesson that is
consistent with design
documents.
Reviews lesson products for
instructional integrity and
conformance with design
documents.
Courseware
developer
Instructional
designer
Subject matter
expert

technical accuracy, currency,
and completeness.
Courseware
programmer
Graphic or
computer
artist
Media
specialist
Programs lessons according to

design documents and
storyboard instructions.
Assists in the development of
clear, easy-to-read graphics
according to storyboard
instructions. Checks all lesson
paths, especially in test and
evaluation components.
Develops clear, uncluttered,
easy-to-read graphics
according to storyboard
instructions.
Produces high quality, clear
videotape according to shot list
and storyboard instructions.
C
Significance of Review and
Approval Sign-Off
Product has been reviewed
and is judged to be satisfactory
and consistent with design
documents.
and is judged to be
instructionally effective and
documents.
and is judged to be technically
accurate, current, and
complete.
Operational lesson has been
reviewed online and is judged
to be "bug"-free and to operate
as specified. Static graphics
are clear; animated graphics
operate as specified and
correct video and graphics are
called into lesson at the correct
location.
Online graphics have been
reviewed and are judged to be
correct, clear, and easy to
read.
Videotape has been reviewed
and is judged to be high
quality.
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QC team responsibilities (Continued)
QUALITY CONTROL RESPONSIBILITIES OF IT DEVELOPMENT TEAM MEMBERS

A
Position Title
7
Quality
specialist
Quality Control
Responsibility
instructional integrity and
conformance with design
documents.
C
Significance of Review and
Approval Sign-Off
and is judged to be
instructionally effective and
documents. Operational
lessons are user-friendly and
consistent.
Table 9 Quality Control Responsibilities of Team Members
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Support Functions and Organizations

Introduction
Organization
Civil Engineering
Resource
Management
Information
Management
Contracting
Maintenance
Organization
Communication
and Computers
The development of an instructional program often requires the

support of other organizations. Table 10 lists the major functional
groups and organizations with which the project team may need
to interface. It is important that the IT development team utilize
experts from these areas as appropriate. The use of these
resources is also coordinated through the IT Team.
Related Functions
Constructs training and support facilities such as classrooms
and test pads
Modifies existing facilities (e.g., adding new electrical outlets
and air conditioning, building multimedia labs).
Provides human resources (e.g., instructors, instructional
system designers, maintenance personnel, and database
developers).
Manages training and support equipment.
Provides funding for day-to-day operations.
Edits instructional material such as student workbooks and
student study guides.
Produces instructional material such as student handbooks
and plans of instruction.
Develops contracts for courseware development,
maintenance, and other services.
Processes local purchase forms to procure equipment and
supplies.
Processes outsourcing and privatization efforts.
Performs quality assurance inspections on instructional,
support, and test equipment.
Performs scheduled and unscheduled maintenance on
instructional, support, and test equipment.
Fabricates trainers and training aids.
Manages local communication network and infrastructure.
Develops and implements plans for local network expansion,
integration, and interoperability.
Table 10 Functions of IT Support Organizations
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Establishing The IT Development Team

Introduction
The master schedule has been developed. The skill set

requirements have been defined. The roles of all project team
members have been clearly delineated. Senior management and
the customer understand and concur with the project plan. It is
now time to assemble the development team, share information
on the project, obtain support tools, and define staff training
requirements. In brief, the development team must get ready to
implement the project plan. This section includes guidance for
establishing and preparing the project team.
Implement staff
training
requirements
The key to determining team members training requirements is

to examine the background of each team member. If members
do not have experience with the specific technology and/or tools
being used on the project, they are likely to need some training.
For example, before beginning the design phase for IVT development, instructors, instructional designers, and instructional
developers should attend the video teletraining/teleseminar
course.
The project manager should develop a list of recommended staff
training and review it with each team member the best source
of information in this case is the individual team member. The
cost of staff training must be factored into the overall project
budget.
Conduct the
kick-off meeting
The project manager should have met with each member of the
development team to clarify roles and responsibilities and define
training requirements. The purpose of the kick-off meeting is to
assemble the team and begin the process of integrating the team
resources.
In order to perform effectively, the members of the IT
development team must:
Include and instructor skilled in the given technology.
Know the subject (SME participation is critical).
Know what is expected of the team as a group as well as the
nature and scope of each individuals responsibilities.
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Know what products are required, and when they are to be

delivered.
Know how products will look and function within the user
organization or DL environment.
The development team members will need copies of documents
that explain how they are supposed to do their jobs. They should
also receive documents that are required to develop the training
program. These documents include the following:
MOU with customer
Project planning documents
Development process outline
Quality control procedures
Support tools and documentation (e.g., hardware/software
and user's manuals)
The kick-off meeting is the time to review the project planning
with the staff, clarify roles, responsibilities, timelines, and
expectations, and ensure that the team composition is
appropriate for the effort.
Note: It takes time to build an effective team. The project
manager might consider using a trained facilitator to orchestrate
the kick-off meeting. The facilitator could help the team define its
goals, ground rules, and essential team processes.
Meet the customer
Inviting the customer to meet the development team helps both

the customer and the development team members. The
customer has an opportunity to discuss his/her view of the project
and to express any concerns about pressures or constraints. The
development team members get to see the person they are
working for and to hear firsthand what the customer thinks. This
meeting may be the appropriate forum for the following actions:
Introduce the staff and summarize the skills of each member
in terms of what s/he brings to the team.
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(Continued)
Clarify customer
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The development team will explain the process and the

services they provide. If there are any questions about roles
and responsibilities, now is the time to answer them and to
work out any problems.
Conduct a question and answer session. Discussing and
documenting the issues up front will avoid
misunderstandings later that could seriously affect
production, milestones, and the delivery schedule.
Make sure all members of the team understand the
customers requirements.
The customer has certain responsibilities, which are often
included in a written MOU and reviewed at the kick-off meeting.
The customer should agree to the following roles and
responsibilities during the planning phase:
Pre-Startup
Designate one point of contact for the project (customer
representative).
Commit to spending a considerable amount of time working
on the project, especially in the early phases.
Provide the development team access to the target audience.
Provide timely and complete access to all course documents,
systems, and other information requested by the team.
Dedicate the appropriate number of SMEs for the life of the
project substituting SMEs will significantly delay delivery.
Project Implementation
View as many instructional media products as possible to
determine what design or structure works for the course
content. Make preferences known at the beginning of the
project.
Set aside time to thoroughly review all deliverables
(storyboards, flowcharts, graphics, scripts, etc.)
Give specific, constructive feedback and include examples.
Be flexible! Circumstances change frequently and rapidly.
Avoid scope creep (expanding the scope of the project).
Alert the project manager to any new developments or course
changes (planned or actual) that may impact the project.
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Ensure proper coordination with higher headquarters and

functional managers.
Follow-up
Take action to input new course information and changes into
the Air Force Catalog of Formal Schools (AFCAT), the Air
Force Training Management System and broadcast
schedules as needed.
Ensure course materials are fielded for student use.
Market new DL courses and programs to the DL community.
Conduct operational evaluations and give feedback to the
team.
Refining IT
development team
composition
Once all of the tasks are analyzed to define staffing requirements,

it is good practice to back up and look at the staffing plan as a
whole. An IT development team must meet these general
requirements:
Must have a variety of experiences in Instructional
Systems Development (ISD).
Must include members who have expertise in the selected
instructional technologies to be developed.
Should be scaled to the size and scope of the project and
include enough people (manpower) to meet critical
deadlines.
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Section D
Distance Learning Project Management
Introduction
The management of a Distance Learning (DL) project requires all

of the diligence described in the previous sections on project
management. However, there are special considerations
associated with DL, and the project manager must ensure that all
of these factors are reflected in project planning documentation.
This section describes those peculiar aspects of DL that must be
considered when planning the project and allocating resources. It
also addresses the metrics associated with assessing the
effectiveness of the DL program and special issues associated
with the conversion of conventional training programs to DL
format.
Whats different
DL simply means that the student and instructor are separated.

Virtually any media can be employed for DL correspondence
courses can use paper or computer-based training, an instructor
using IVT can employ videographs, videos, or audiotapes for
reinforcement, etc. The development of a DL training program
must be based on the selection of the media appropriate to the
instructional objectives and training environment. Chapters 5
through 9 details the special considerations associated with the
selection and use of the various instructional technologies.
When planning to implement a DL program, the development
team must be sensitized to the DL environment; learning
strategies appropriate to that environment must be incorporated
into the program. For example, the students must be allowed to
become comfortable with the delivery medium. The instructors
must learn to make the most of the instructional technologies it
takes practice to talk to the camera and teach with little, if any,
immediate student feedback.
A solid understanding of the DL learning environment is a critical
component of the DL project managers tool kit.
Understanding the DL Environment
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In developing or adapting distance instruction, the instructional

objectives often remain basically unchanged, although content
presentation requires new instructional strategies and additional
preparation time. The planning phase of DL project management
must be used to identify and define all obvious and hidden costs
and resource requirements. The project manager should be
versed in instructional technology options and their use in the DL
environment.
DL Planning and Organization
Strategy/Guidance
Begin the course planning
process by studying
distance education
research findings.
Before developing
something new, check
and review existing
materials for content and
presentation ideas.
Analyze and understand

the strengths and
weaknesses of the
possible delivery systems
available (e.g., audio,
video, data, and print) not
only in terms of how they
are delivered (e.g.,
satellite, microwave, fiber
optic cable, etc.), but also
in terms of learner needs
and course requirements
before selecting a mix of
Implementation/Impact
Appropriate research facilitates the identification of
resource requirements and lessons learned that might be
applied to the project being planned.
There may be modules already developed that could be
incorporated in part or in their entirety into the new IT
program thus reducing development requirements. New
presentation concepts can increase the effectiveness of
training and add to the inventory of presentation options.
Adequate research time should be built into the schedule
to assess existing military and commercial courseware
inventories.
By fully understanding the options and examining them in
light of requirements, the development team can make
better recommendations about appropriate presentation
and delivery options. The project manager should ensure
that research materials are readily available to the
development team.
Research can be conducted in the field as well as at the
development site; an on-site visit to a DL site targeted to
receive the DL program may be extremely valuable to the
development team.
DL planning and organization (Continued)
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DL Planning and Organization (Continued)

Strategy/Guidance
Hands-on training with
the technology of delivery
is critical for the
development team, the
teacher, and the
students.
Make sure each receiving
site is properly equipped
with compatible,
functional equipment.
Define the services

offered at the receiving
sites.
Plan to start off slowly

with a manageable
number of sites and
students. The logistical
difficulties of distant
teaching increase with
each additional site.
Factor in time for the development team to practice with
the delivery technology so that they gain an appreciation of
the teaching and learning environments. Ensure the team
has access to both the transmission and receiving
equipment systems.
As part of the analysis process, the team will identify
constraints. The ability of target sites to receive the
instruction is a critical factor; system capabilities of the
target sites must be thoroughly documented. If target sites
have different capabilities, the customer will decide
whether to develop the training program to the lowest
technical capability or to develop different DL programs for
those sites with limited capabilities. Such factors are
considered in the cost/benefit and Return On Investment
(ROI) analyses.
The extent to which the DL course must provide
administrative information, IT familiarization, facilitators,
and other support features is defined by the support
structures provided by the receiving sites. Support service
requirements should be defined by the development team
and then matched to the capabilities of the receiving sites.
The results of this analysis must be factored into the
recommendations made to the customer regarding the
design of the training program.
While this is a customer decision, the development team
can assist by running practice and pilot courses where the
training program is tested thoroughly for content,
presentation, and instructional effectiveness. Such an
approach must be factored into the project plan and
requisite resources must be budgeted.
Table 11 Distance Learning Planning and Organization
AFH 36-2235
Meeting students
needs
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64
In order to enhance the effectiveness of a DL program, it is

important to understand the challenges students face in the DL
environment. Mechanisms for interactivity can be built into the
training program to facilitate student receptiveness to learning
this will result in increased training effectiveness. The program
manager must be sensitive to the need to budget time for
ensuring that student considerations are adequately incorporated
into the training program.
To function effectively, students must become comfortable with
the nature of teaching and learning at a distance. The selected
delivery system should be the one that will best motivate and
meet the needs of the students, in terms of both content and
preferred learning styles.
When planning the DL training program, a process must be
established to help students resolve the technical problems that
will arise. The process should reflect a focus on joint problem
solving, not placing blame for the occasional technical difficulty.
Time and resources must be allocated for developing these
student-interface processes.
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Meeting
instructors needs
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Some media require live instructors. Factoring the needs of the

instructors into the IT program also has implications for the
planning, design, development, and implementation of DL
instruction. For the most part, effective distance teaching
requires the enhancement of existing skills rather than developing
new abilities. However, there are some considerations that will
help make the instructors more effective as described in Table
12.
Meeting Instructors Needs
Strategy/Guidance
Realistically assess the
amount of content that
can be effectively
delivered in the course.
Because of the logistics
involved, redesigning,
developing and
presenting content at a
distance is usually more
time consuming than for
the traditional classroom.
Diversify and pace course
activities and avoid long
lectures. Intersperse
content presentations
with discussions and
student-centered
exercises.
Structure the course into realistic chunks that can be
assimilated by students. Build in frequent feedback
mechanisms to maintain student involvement and assess
learner saturation (when too much content is provided to
students). Build summaries into the training to help
students digest what they have learned.
Incorporate the resources required to design and develop
feedback materials and mechanisms into the project plan.
Include these materials/mechanisms in the evaluation
process.
This is related to chunking the information into realistic

content blocks and making sure the student is still involved
in the training program from time to time. Employ a variety
of presentation styles, media, and interactive techniques to
maintain student attention and interest.
The design, development, and distribution of multi-media
solutions have cost and schedule impacts. Also consider
the additional development expertise that might be
required to support development of a highly varied
program of instruction. The alternative solutions should
include a variety of approaches to meeting the need for
instructional vitality.
Consider using a print
Print materials are usually cost-effective to develop
component to supplement (compared with other support media). There may,
non-print materials.
however, be additional logistical issues associated with
distributing print materials to DL receiving sites these
issues must be defined and accommodated in the planning
process.
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Meeting instructors needs (Continued)
Meeting Instructors Needs (Continued)

Strategy/Guidance
Provide DL techniques to
the instructor staff (e.g.,
use short, cohesive
statements and ask direct
questions, realizing that
technical linkages might
increase the time it takes
for students to respond).
Involve instructors in the
planning and
development processes
get their buy-in and
address their concerns.
Budget resources for the development and practice of
these techniques.
Include review and working group sessions in the project

plan. Budget the resources necessary to support the
preparation of materials for these sessions and ensure
time is incorporated into the schedule to permit
development team members to participate. Also factor in
the time and resources necessary to incorporate review
comments. Refer to sections 2.B and 2.C on customer,
instructor, and subject matter expert involvement in the
analysis, design, and development processes.
Table 12 Meeting Instructors Needs
AFH 36-2235
Improving
interaction and
feedback
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67
Using effective interaction and feedback strategies will enable the

instructor to identify and meet individual student needs and
provide a forum for suggesting course improvements. When
planning and budgeting for the evaluation program, the program
manager should be aware of the expanded role that feedback
plays in the DL environment it not only provides information to
the course developers but can also provide a means for the
student to remain connected to the learning situation.
Suggested techniques for facilitating student involvement in the
learning process are listed below. These techniques do not apply
to all situations. The appropriate feedback mechanisms for a
given instructional program will be defined during the analysis
and design phases.
Early Interactions
Use pre-class study questions and advance organizers to
encourage critical thinking and informed participation on the
part of all learners. Realize that it will take time to improve
poor communication patterns.
Early in the course, require students to contact the instructor
and interact among themselves via electronic mail, so they
become comfortable with the process. Maintaining and
sharing electronic journal entries can be very effective toward
this end.
Arrange telephone office hours using a toll-free number. Set
evening office hours if most of the students work during the
day or are distributed widely over several time zones.
Integrate a variety of delivery systems for interaction and
feedback, including one-on-one and conference calls, fax, Email, video, and computer conferencing.
During Learning
Contact each site (or student) every week if possible,
especially early in the course.
Use pre-stamped and addressed postcards, out-of-class
phone conferences, and e-mail for feedback regarding course
content, relevancy, pace, delivery problems, and instructional
concerns.
AFH 36-2235
Improving
interaction and
feedback
(Continued)
Volume 5
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68
Have students keep a journal of their thoughts and ideas

regarding the course content, as well as their individual
progress and other concerns. Have students submit journal
entries frequently.
Use an on-site facilitator to stimulate interaction when distant
students are hesitant to ask questions or participate. In
addition, the facilitator can act as your on-site "eyes and
ears".
Call on individual students to ensure that all participants have
ample opportunity to interact. At the same time, politely but
firmly discourage individual students or sites from
monopolizing class time.
Make detailed comments on written assignments, referring to
additional sources for supplementary information. Return
assignments without delay, using fax or electronic mail, if
practical.
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69
Management of DL Projects
Project
management
responsibilities
Planning
Based on a complete understanding of the IT project

management process (discussed in the previous section) and an
appreciation of the unique characteristics of the DL environment,
the DL project manager is ready to begin the most critical phase
of the project planning.
DL project management responsibilities are the joint responsibility
of the project manager and the course owner or customer. The
project manager must perform all of the planning activities
identified in the previous sections on project management as well
as the following activities.
Coordinate with related organizations to identify resources
and constraints.
Consult with AFIADLO representatives and higher up
headquarters management.
Consult AFIADLO Homepage for latest guidance on DL
standards and procedures.
Obtain organizational support for the DL project.
Coordinate with Air Force Career Field Managers
(AFCFM) and other stakeholders.
Coordinate with accrediting agencies or certifying agencies
to ensure that credit extends to DL applications.
Get buy-in from leadership and stakeholders at all levels.
Course directors or training managers.
Air Force Career Field Managers (AFCFM).
IT team and all DL project and support staff.
DL instructors and facilitators.
Site Point of Contacts (POCs).
Define end-user the resources and constraints of the end
users.
Conduct an in-depth resource analysis to identify
infrastructure issues.
Identify DL facilities, delivery systems networks, and technical
infrastructure requirements and constraints.
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Project
management
responsibilities
Planning
(Continued)
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70
Define special DL project team resource requirements.

Identify DL development platforms and facility
requirements.
Identify need for facilitators, library resources (TOs and
reference materials), administrative support etc.
Ensure design/development resources and equipment are
in place.
Define staff training requirements.
Assess project feasibility.
Conduct media feasibility and comparative cost analysis to
identify potential media and Return on Investment (ROI)
for course conversions.
Perform a DL environmental and infrastructure/resource
analysis.
Establish project timelines and milestones.
Determine if scope and schedule exceed in-house
capability.
Make a decision to contract or not to contract project
development.
Determine if there is adequate staffing support for the
project.
Determine if contract funds are available.
Develop project plan.
Include contract oversight procedures, identify
deliverables, and product quality standards.
Obtain formal approval for your IT project plan via
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), Staff Summary
Sheet (SSS), Memorandum of Agreement (MOA), etc.
Obtain project funding.
Project
management
responsibilities
Design
The Project Manager should ensure that required resources are

available, and that the development team knows what to do.
Establish the DL development team.
Obtain DL-trained project manpower or provide training for
your DL team.
Coordinate with site managers and base-level DL POCs.
Establish life-cycle management procedures including the
archiving of data.
Schedule facilities, equipment, and networks well in advance.
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Project
management
responsibilities
Production
Advertise and market the DL course (announcements, base

newspapers, DL guide, Air Force Catalog of Formal Schools).
Project
management
responsibilities
Post-production
Collect and report metrics data. (See information on metrics later

in this section).
Matrix of the DL
project
management
process
Table 12.1 (on the next two pages) is a summary of sample tasks
and activities associated with a DL project. The project plan must
reflect the cost, schedule, and other resource requirements
associated with each of those that apply.
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Matrix of the DL project management process
Requirement
Planning
Academic
Development
Develop concept
Contracting
Funding
Faculty selection
Admin. supplies
Equipment
Instructional
Design
ISD technician
selection
Contracting
Funding
Course
selection
PC stations
PC hardware
Graphic support
Admin. supplies
Database server
Production
Model
development
Contracting
Funding
Staff acquisition
Production
management
planning
Video classroom
renovation
New video
classroom
Broadcast site
survey
Equipment
installation
Transmission
Model
development
Contracting
Funding
Staff acquisition
Broadcast
management
planning
High speed data
line
Equipment
installation
Reception
Model
development
Contracting
Funding
Facilitator
selection
Site surveys
Site management
plan
Equipment
installation
Video classrooms
Cameras
VCRs
Duplication decks
PC stations
Printers
Development
servers
Broadcast room
Satellite
transformer
Audio bridge
Fax machines
Web servers
Classroom
Satellite receiver
Large screen TVs
Audio transmitter
PC stations
Printers
Fax machines
Matrix of the DL project management process (Continued)
AFH 36-2235
Requirement
Operations
Manpower
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Academic
Development
Needs analysis
Learning
objectives
definition
Course selection
Faculty training
Student selection
Testing/ feedback
Admin./Funding
Faculty/SME
Faculty
development staff
Video instructor
Library staff
Registrar
Plans staff
Admin. staff
Maintenance staff
Instructional
Design
Course design
Instructional
media selection
Graphic layout
Testing and
evaluation
Program manager
ISD technician
Graphic artists
CBI programmer
Contract manager
73
Production
Video taping
Audio taping
CBI development
Graphic arts
Live presentation
Printing
Transmission
Distance teaching
Satellite
transmission
LAN transmission
Telephone / Fax
Mail
Video/audio
engineer
Communication
Computer staff
CBI programmer
Depository staff
Print staff
Graphics staff
Duplication staff
Camera crews
Audio bridge
manager
Satellite manager
Schedulers
Postal staff
Fax support
Communication /
Computer staff
Table 12.1 Matrix of DL Project Management Process
Reception
DL
Facilitating
Equipment
operations
Room and
equipment
scheduling
Telephone / Fax
Mail
Education and
training officer
Site technicians
Site facilitators
Maintenance staff
Admin. staff
Public affairs staff
AFH 36-2235
Coordination
requirements for
DL projects
Volume 5
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74
Before initiating and fielding a DL project, be sure to

coordinate with all appropriate organizations and agencies.
Senior headquarters and MAJCOM must approve the project
and provide funding, manpower, and other support if needed.
The Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning
Distance Learning Office (AFIADL) will ensure there is no
negative impact on infrastructure. AFIADLO should know
project requirements as soon as possible to help size the
infrastructure and fund infrastructure expansion if necessary.
Notify field level personnel and DL site managers in plenty of
time so they can schedule facilities and staff, and be
prepared to facilitate the new course.
Notify the National Guard and Reserve Command so that
they can take advantage of expanded instructional
opportunities for their members.
Notify other services that may want to participate in a joint
project.
Notify the ATN Program Manager if the new course will be
delivered using ATN.
Coordinate with the AFIADL Extension Course Institute if the
new course will be distributed through that organization.
Coordinate with Testing Centers as appropriate to help with
proctored testing.
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Metrics for Distance Learning

Purpose of metrics
The purpose for establishing DL metrics is to ensure consistency

in collection, analysis, and reporting of data used to measure DL
effectiveness. Metrics are used to monitor trends and levels of
effectiveness and efficiency over time.
Metric indicators
and sample data
elements
The next paragraphs detail the following:
Instructional
effectiveness /
efficiency
Instructional effectiveness/efficiency includes measures of the

value of DL instruction to the organization.
Instructional effectiveness / efficiency

Technical / system usage and reliability
Administrative / operational effectiveness
Customer Satisfaction
Student performance. (Examples include test scores,

certifications, course completions, honor graduates, pass-fail
rates, or dropout/attrition rates).
Quality/relevancy of instruction. (Examples include customer
review, student critiques, formative evaluations of DL products
and process, operational surveys).
Time savings. (Examples include IT compression rates
compared to hours of resident instruction, fewer instructors,
and reduction in travel time).
Costs.
Total cost per course/program.
Cost per student.
Cost per instructional hour.
Estimated and actual Return On Investment (ROI).
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Technical / system
usage and
reliability
1 November 2002
76
This includes measures of the usage and reliability of all technical

systems and networks used for instructional delivery and the
degree to which students and DL centers have technical
difficulties.
System utilization rates.
Equipment failures.
Percent down time.
Point of failure/cause of failures.
Student requests for technical assistance (student critiques,
technical help desk).
Administrative /
operational
effectiveness
This includes measures of the effectiveness of support functions

and processes.
Learner/Site notification procedures.
Registration and learner administration.
Materials handling (Examples include production and
distribution of materials, complete shipping list, on-time
delivery, sufficient quantity).
Learner access to equipment.
Customer
Satisfaction
This identifies the level of satisfaction of various customers and

stakeholders. Data are usually collected from all primary
customers and learners and samples of other user groups as
required.
Primary customers (Individual or organization having decision
authority over a course of instruction usually training
managers/course directors who give feedback during
formative evaluation process).
Learners
Instructors
DL site POC/ESO/Job Site Training POC
Course sponsors/functional managers
MAJCOM/Learners supervisors
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Standard Distance Learning Course Conversion Process

Purpose
The purpose of the Standard Course Conversion Process is to

ensure each schoolhouse follows standard procedures based on
the principles of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) and best
practices when converting resident courses to DL. A project
manager who employs the Instructional Technology Development
Process and the Project Management Process for DL defined in
this chapter will be following the basic process. The following
additional techniques and guidelines apply to the unique
considerations associated with converting training materials to a
DL presentation format.
Assumptions for
converting resident
courses to DL
There are several important assumptions to bear in mind when

considering conversion of a resident course to DL:
It is assumed that a course and an approved curriculum
already exist in resident format. ISD has been applied
previously. Course documentation is available for review.
Not all courses are good candidates for DL. A curriculum
analysis and media feasibility analysis must be performed.
The main reason to convert a course to DL is to make quality
education and training opportunities available to learners in
the most cost-effective manner.
A comparative cost analysis using standard procedures and
formulas will indicate the expected ROI for course
conversions. This will indicate whether or not a conversion
project is cost-effective in the long term.
It is possible to use DL to shorten the length of a resident
school by using DL for portions of the course. Instruction
may be delivered in a DL format as a prerequisite or as
follow-on to a resident course.
DL project management is essentially the same as that used
for IT development and should be coordinated and monitored
by the appropriate instructional systems design professional
acting as the project manager
All of the warnings and techniques associated with DL project
development must be considered during the conversion
process. These were identified earlier in this section. The
course must be converted to the DL environment, not just
reformatted for application of other media.
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Volume 5
Assumptions for
converting resident
courses to DL
(Continued)
1 November 2002
78
The curriculum will be redesigned and configured to take

advantage of IT. Think about the course in different ways
and organize objectives into modules if possible. As
curriculum is redesigned for life-long learning and in support
of ADL, this will be necessary.
Use a mix or combination of media, if necessary, to deliver a
course in DL.
To form modules, prioritize and cluster and sequence
objectives based on the types of learning, levels of learning
knowledge, skills, and attitudes and the required levels of
interactivity.
Validate instructional technology selection. Ensure selected
media can support required levels of learning and levels of
interactivity and that the technical and support infrastructure
is robust enough for your project.
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Chapter 3
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
Overview
Purpose
This chapter provides definitions and descriptions of instructional

technologies that can be applied in the delivery of Air Force
instruction. It identifies new technologies, as well as the more
traditional technologies available to instructional developers.
Information relevant to the design and application of these
technologies is included in subsequent chapters.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains six sections:
Instructional
technologies and
types
Section
Title
Page
Traditional Media
82
Computer-Mediated Communications
85
Interactive Multimedia Instruction
87
Interactive Video Teletraining
89
Internet-Based Instruction
93
Support Technology Media
97
Table 13 below lists the six general categories of instructional

technologies discussed in this chapter, and the specific types
within each category.
Instructional
Technology
Traditional Media
Computer Mediated
Communications
Interactive Multimedia
Instruction
Types
Print
Videotape
Print and Slide
Audioconferencing
Print, Audio, and Slide
Television and Cable
Audiotape
Models and Mock-ups
Audiographics
Computer Mediated Conferencing/Collaborative
Computing
Computer-Based Instruction / Computer-Based Training
Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction
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Interactive Video
Teletraining
Internet Based Instruction
Support Technology
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80
Electronic Performance Support System / Job

Performance Aids
Computer Simulation
Text Only
Multimedia
Virtual Conferencing/Collaborative Conferencing
Electronic Testing
Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL)
Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals
E-mail, Bulletin Boards, and Fax Conferencing
Voice Mail
Student Response Units, Audioconferencing Units (ACUs)
Table 13 Types of Instructional Technologies
AFH 36-2235
References
Volume 5
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81

MIL-HDBK-29612-1, Department of Defense Handbook, Guide
for Acquisition of Training Data Products and Services
MIL-HDBK-29612-4, Department of Defense Handbook, Glossary
of Training Terms
Distance Learning Curriculum Analysis and Media Selection, Air
University, Maxwell AFB, AL, 4 Feb 1994
AF Handbook 36-2235, Information for Designers of Instructional
Systems, Volume 4
http://www.au.af.mil/afdlomaxwell.af.mil/afiadl/
Air Force Publications and Forms: http://AFPUBS.HQ.AF.MIL/
American Distance Education Consortium: http://www.adec.edu/
Best Practices in Distance Learning:
http://snow.utoronto.ca/best/distance.html
Distance Education at a Glance:
http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/distglan.html
Distance Education Primer: http://www.teletrain.com/Primer.html
Educational Resources Information Center:
http://www.aspensys.com/eric/
US Distance Learning Association: http://www.usdla.org/
WWW Virtual Library Distance Education:
http://www.cisnet.com/~cattales/Dedication.html
Federal Government Distance Learning Association:
http://www.fgdla.org/index.htm
AFH 36-2235
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Section A
Traditional Media
Introduction
The next paragraphs explain the definition and description of the

following traditional media:
Print
Slides
Audiotape
Videotape
Audioconferencing
Television and cable
Models and mock-ups
Print
Definition: Print media consists of paper-based text and

graphics materials.
Description: Print materials include documents such as books,
manuals, syllabi, training guides, brochures, programmed text,
photographic prints, and photocopies. These documents usually
contain text, diagrams, pictures, or line drawings. These
materials may stand-alone or serve as ancillary material that
accompanies other instructional media.
Slides
Definition: Slides are static photographic images of text and/or

graphics that can be displayed by means of a slide projector or
integrated into a computer-based program.
Description: Slides are usually used in combination with other
media, such as self-study guides and/or audiotapes, or are used
to support instructor-led training. When integrated into a
computer-based program, photographic or graphic images can be
used to support training concepts.
Audiotape
Definition: Audiotape consists of sounds that are recorded on

electronically readable tape using a digital or analog mode.
Description: The most common type of audiotape used for
instruction is the audiocassette tape that can provide up to 120
minutes of audio recording. Workbooks or readings are usually
used to complement audio materials.
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Videotape
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Definition: Videotape is a magnetic tape that can record and

play back audio and video. It can also hold electrical signals
used in editing and in interactive video applications.
Description: The most common type of videotape used in the
classroom is the one-half inch, Video Home System (VHS)
videocassette tape. The standard T-120 VHS tape can provide
up to two 2 hours of recording in the standard play (SP) mode,
four 4 hours in the long play (LP) mode, or six 6 hours in the
extended play (EP) mode. Study guides are usually used to
support video-based training.
Audioconferencing
Definition: An audioconference is simply a meeting where

people are connected by audio, such as the telephone.
Audioconferencing is a structured audioconference used for
instruction with specific learning outcomes. When media
supports audioconferencing, it is called audiographics
conferencing.
Description: Interactive audioconferencing can be as simple as
an interview between the instructor and learner, or as complex as
a panel discussion with many sites and learners. Participants in
a typical conference call use a speakerphone connected through
an audiobridging system, which allows for multiple callers.
Depending upon the system used to make the connection, up to
240 sites can be connected simultaneously. Audio media in use
today include the radio and real audio over the Web.
Television and
cable
Definition: In the context of training, television is a device used

to present audio and visual instructional information to students at
remote sites. The use of cable television expands the number of
channels available for training instruction.
Description: Instructional television is used as a vehicle for
distance learning and in support of resident instruction. It may be
used as a synchronous medium used to present programmed
instruction at specific times. However, through the use of
videotape recorders, programmed instruction can be videotaped
and viewed in an asynchronous mode.
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Models and
mock-ups
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Definition: 3-D devices that replicate some component (or the

entirety) of the system being studied to increase realism and
provide students with an opportunity to study specific aspects of
the system and/or perform related operation/maintenance tasks.
Description: Models and mock-ups can range from a plastic
cross-section of the human skull, to support medical training
instruction to a cutaway of a diesel engine. Their complexity
depends on the nature and criticality of the training tasks
supported. They are often used when it is impractical to make an
entire system available for training instruction or when only a
portion of the system is the subject of training instruction.
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Section B
Computer-Mediated Communications
Introduction
The next paragraphs explain the definition and description of the

following computer-mediated communications:
Audiographics
Computer-mediated conferencing / collaborative computing
Audiographics
Definition: Audiographics is a term that has typically been used

to describe two-way computer data and two-way audio
communications using computer and telephone networks.
Description: Audiographics combines audioconferencing with
computer data presentation capabilities, supporting both voice
and data transmissions to participating sites. The computer is
used for distributing and sharing data such as text and graphics.
The instructor normally has the communications lines open for an
audio conference, while transmitting on-screen presentations to
all student monitors.
Computermediated
conferencing /
collaborative
computing
Definition: Computer-mediated conferencing (also referred to as

collaborative computing) is essentially a text-based computer
conferencing system with limited graphics capabilities depending
upon the amount of available bandwidth and the processing
power of each participant computer.
Description: Asynchronous computer-mediated conferencing
provides instructor-student and student-student discussions and
interaction using e-mail and bulletin board systems. The
computer provides the primary means for exchanging messages
and dialogue, and for accessing information.
Real-time, or synchronous, computer-mediated conferencing is
rapidly evolving due to multimedia teleconferencing standards.
These standards address Real-Time Data Conferencing (T.120),
ISDN Videoconferencing (CH. 320), Audiovisual communication
over LANs (H. 323) and High Quality Video and Audio over
telephone modem connections (H. 324). T.120 allows for sharing
of applications, data, and voice over single line
AFH 36-2235
Computermediated
conferencing /
collaborative
computing
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
86
connections. The broader the connections bandwidth, the

smoother and faster the data exchange. The T.120 standard
enables all parties to actively contribute annotations and other
changes to the materials presented. Developments in the area of
video compression are facilitating real-time video computermediated conferencing.
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Section C
Definition
Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI) is a term applied to a

group of predominantly interactive, electronically delivered
training instruction and training instruction-support products.
Description
Text, audio, video, and graphics are commonly used in IMI

products and other digital electronic products used in the delivery
of instruction. IMI can be presented as a stand-alone, self-paced
program, an instructor-led presentation, or a program to support
on-the-job training or personal performance enhancement.
Interactive
Courseware (ICW)
Definition: ICW is computer-controlled courseware that relies on

student input to determine the pace, sequence, and content of
training delivery. ICW is also referred to as Computer-Based
Instruction (CBI) and Computer-Based Training (CBT).
Description: ICW can link and present a combination of media
including, but not limited to, programmed instruction, videotapes,
slides, film, text, graphics, digital audio, animation, and full-motion
video to enhance the learning process.
Intelligent
Computer Assisted
Instruction (ICAI)
Definition: ICAI is a type of ICW that includes an intelligent tutor

that provides an interactive learning environment, diagnoses
student errors, and individualizes instruction based on student
responses.
Description: ICAI, sometimes referred to as Intelligent Tutoring
Systems (ITS), incorporates expert knowledge into an
instructional model designed to emulate the behavior of an
experienced teacher. ICAI systems can present challenging
scenarios, monitor and evaluate student actions, provide
feedback in response to student actions, respond to requests for
information, provide hints, and tailor the training program based
on a students demonstrated strengths and weaknesses. Some
development systems (XAIDA) are also considered under the
ICAI umbrella.
AFH 36-2235
Electronic
Performance
Support System
(EPSS) /Job
Performance Aid
(JPA)
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88
Definition: An EPSS or JPA is an integrated, on-demand,

processor-based performance aid that enables the user to gain
rapid on-line access to large amounts of information about a
specific task area. EPSSs are frequently employed to provide
on-line assistance to individuals so they can perform their job
tasks with minimal support and intervention by others. An on-line
help system for a word processing system is an example of an
EPSS.
Description: EPSSs can be used to support training instruction
or actual task performance. On-the-job, they provide immediate
access to integrated information and expert consultation. A
maintenance technician, for example, might use an EPSS/JPA to
help troubleshoot a system problem, either as part of or after
completing formal training instruction. As life-long learning gains
acceptance, EPSS will play an increasingly important role.
EPSSs are also known as Interactive Performance Systems
(IPS), Performance Support Systems (PSS), Performance
Support Tools (PST), and On-line Help Systems.
Computer
simulation
Definition: Computer simulation is an artificially generated

representation of reality that provides an interactive educational
or training experience. It is typically based on the actual job
environment. It allows the learner to practice procedures and
solve problems in life-like situations. War-gaming simulation to
teach combat decision-making is an example of this instructional
approach.
Description: Simulations are effective when teaching hazardous
tasks and decision-making skills or when costs of hands-ontraining are prohibited. Computer simulations allow learners to
try alternative solutions to a problem without worrying about
physical consequences. Computer simulations vary widely in
sophistication; they can be presented as games, as on-line
replications of real job situations, or as full-motion, videoenhanced trainers (e.g., flight simulators).
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Section D
Overview
IVT consists of:

Interactive Television (ITV) (one-way video; 2-way audio)
Video Teleconferencing (VTC) (2-way video; 2-way audio)
Two types of IVT video imagery can be delivered to students at
the local sites:
Pre-produced moving images with audio (e.g., film and
videotape)
Real-time moving images combined with audio conferencing
Interactive Video
Teletraining (IVT)
Definition: IVT provides for one- or two-way video, and two-way

audio telecommunications between the instructor and students
over broadcast television networks (satellite and/or terrestrial)
and telephone networks. It comprises both Interactive Television
and Video teleconferencing.
Interactive
Television (ITV)
Definition: IVT technology that employs one-way video with twoway audio communications is called Interactive Television or ITV.
ITV is known commercially as Business Television.
Description: ITV provides one-way, site-to-site or site-tomultiple site transmission of audio and video instruction from a
studio or broadcast classroom. This is done via an uplink to ITV
classrooms at downlink receive sites equipped with television
monitors and student response units. The audioconferencing
units provide audio feedback via telephone networks.
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90
Figure 4 Interactive Television
DOWNLINK
(RECEIVE
SITES)
NETWORK
OPERATIONS
CENTER
ITV CLASSROOM
UPLINK
(TRANSMIT)
We h old th ese tru th s to be se lf-ev id en t;

th at all men are cre ated equ a l; th at th ey
are en d ow ed by th eir Creato r w ith
certain u n alien a ble righ ts; th at amon g
th ese are life, libert y, an d th e p u rsu it of
h ap p in ess. ..--from th e Declaration of
In d ep en d en ce by Th om as Jeffers on
We hold these truths to be selfthat all m en are created equal; that

are endow ed by their Creator
certain unalienable rights; that
these are life, liberty, and the
happiness...--from
the
i f
Independence by Thom as
AUDIO
RETURN
Video
Teleconferencing
(VTC)
ACCESS
STUDIO/
BROADCAST
CLASSROOM
Definition: IVT technology that employs two-way video and

audio communications and is called Video Teleconferencing or
VTC. VTC is also referred to as video teletraining (VTT) and
videoconferencing.
Description: VTC provides two-way site-to-site or site-tomultiple site video and audio instruction, simultaneously
transmitted over the satellite television network from the
studio/VTC classrooms. Typically, a VTC classroom is equipped
with two monitors that can selectively display the individual
speaking, other sites, or supporting graphics, etc., as desired.
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91
Interactive Video Teletraining Networks

Introduction
Network
Air Technology
Network (ATN)
ANG Warrior
Network
Satellite Education
Network (SEN)
T-Net
Table 14 identifies the current status of IVT networks.

Throughout the DoD, several satellite network systems can be
used to support IVT instruction. Following are descriptions of the
existing DoD IVT networks.
Description
ATN is a satellite-based delivery system that supports one-way
video and two-way audio communications.
There are four active duty uplink facilities and 72 downlink
facilities at Air Force bases throughout the United States. A
fifth studio is planned for Randolph Air Force Base.
When it becomes cost-effective, bases in the Pacific will be
connected to ATN.
The Air National Guard (ANG) uses the Warrior Network satellite
delivery ITV system to provide part of the required Enlisted
Professional Military Education (EPME) course of instruction.
The Warrior Network:
Has 3 broadcast studios and 208 downlink sites throughout
the United States.
Uses the same satellite system as SEN and ATN, and is
completely compatible.
The US Army SEN network matches the US Air Force ITV
network and uses the same satellite.
SEN uses four broadcast sites at Fort Lee, VA, and has 79
downlink sites.
SEN is completely interoperable with the ATN network.
The US Army Training and Doctrine Commands (TRADOC) TNet is a terrestrial-based, near full-motion, two-way video and
two-way audio teleconferencing system.
T-Net is used to reach 118 Army sites, as well as 47 Air
Force Reserve (AFRC) downlink sites throughout the country.
T-Net operates from a different satellite system than the ATN.
ATN can connect to and transmit over T-Net using special
arrangements through SEN.
The Total Army Distance Learning Program includes a plan
to expand network capability to over 500 sites.
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Interactive Video Teletraining Networks (Continued)
Network
Government
Education and
Training Network
(GETN)
Description
To increase interactivity and sharing of program facilities, the
GETN was established as a single government-wide ITV network
used by approximately 20 government agencies. Created by the
AFIT, GETN incorporates the Air Force ATN, ANG Warrior
Network, and the Army SEN. GETN has a total of 950
interoperable downlink sites and 14 uplink sites throughout the
United States.
Table 14 IVT Networks
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Section E
Overview
Definition: Internet-Based Instruction (IBI) is instruction that

makes use of internet technologies and provides a platform for
the integration and distribution of multimedia instructional
components.
Description: IBI is the term used to encompass a full range of
instruction and data provided over the Internet/WWW from
simple text-based files and applications, to interactive multimedia
instruction and virtual conferencing. IBI consists of digital text,
audio, video, and graphics, and makes use of Internet
technologies such as:
Usenet and listserv
File Transfer Protocol
E-mail
Threaded discussion
Chat room
Bulletin board
TCP/IP browsers
Browser plug-ins
HTML
Virtual shared white boards
IBI provides a platform that allows for the integration and
distribution of multimedia instructional components.
Types of IBI
instruction
There are three general types of IBI:

Text. This is the basic type of IBI, which consists primarily of
text-based files and tutorial instruction (with limited graphics).
Most text instruction is asynchronous (not real-time) and ancillary
to other modes of instruction. Text-based IBI can be effective for
dissemination of information and research applications.
Multimedia. This type of IBI is similar to ICW in that it is generally
self-paced (allowing for student control and pacing), interactive,
and uses multimedia for presentation of the instructional material
on a PC. However, unlike stand-alone
AFH 36-2235
Types of IBI
instruction
(Continued)
Volume 5
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94
ICW, multimedia IBI uses the Internet/WWW to deliver the

instruction on-line and IBI incorporates the uses of graphical
browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Microsoft
Explorer. These browsers provide a friendly familiar user
interface when used with multimedia instructional materials.
Multimedia IBI. This type of IBI is similar to ICW in that it is
generally self-paced (allowing for student control and pacing),
interactive, and uses multimedia for presentation of the
instructional material on a PC. However, unlike stand-alone
ICW, multimedia IBI uses the Internet/WWW to deliver the
instruction on-line.
Virtual conferencing. Virtual conferencing, also referred to as
collaborative conferencing, is a term that applies to the
application and integration of all synchronous and asynchronous
chat modes for instructional purposes. It may be integrated with
other instructional and support IBI technologies into a multiple
media, virtual classroom environment.
Delivery of IBI
IBI is delivered via the Internet/WWW and can be accessed using

web browsers and bundled plug-ins controls. IBI also uses
transport protocols and provides hypertext links to WWW pages
and files. IBI uses the source language for WWW pages:
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) (a special formatting
language that tells the web browser how to display the delivered
content), which is the source language for WWW pages. HTML
is a special formatting language that tells the web browser how to
display the delivered content.
Transport
protocols
Below are some of the key standard protocols for IBI that allow
different computers to communicate with each other include:
TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a
network protocol designed for alphanumeric data
transmission.
UDP (Universal Data Packet) protocol sacrifices lost data in
favor of maintaining a continuous flow. UDP can dynamically
adjust data output to the clients minute-to-minute reception
bandwidth.
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Volume 5
Transport
protocols
(Continued)
WWW technologies
1 November 2002
95
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is the protocol used to access

and download files that are stored on a remote computer.
HTTP (Hypertext Transport Protocol) is a client/server-based
protocol used to create hypertext links in WWW documents; a
necessity for any document display on the Web.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the protocol used by
Internet mail programs that allows the client to talk to the
server and exchange messages.
Some of the key WWW technologies that are employed for IBI
include:
Digital video and audio files. Audio and video images are
converted to a digital file format or real-time streaming format that
can be stored, copied, transmitted, or broadcast over the
Internet/WWW. Digital video and audio can be played back on a
computer.
Coder/Decoder (Codec). An encoding process that compresses
data into a file that requires only 1/2 to 1/200 of the original
storage space. Compression minimizes the space a computer
needs to represent the data in a file, and allows files to be stored
and transmitted more efficiently.
Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML). VMRL has become
the standard format for distributing 3-dimensional images over
the Internet/WWW. It is a text-based language used by
developers to implement interactive 3D graphics/objects and
multimedia content. The international standard is VRML 2.0 is an
international standard.
Emerging
standards
XML. Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a much more

powerful language than HTML, but will be able to work with it.
For DoD and the Air Force, it will become important for entering
metadata into HTML-based documents. This will make it
possible to quickly find precisely what you are searching for and
will also be essential for automating the management of course
and student data.
AFH 36-2235
Emerging
standards
(Continued)
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96
DHTML. Dynamic HTML is not so much a language as it is a

combination of Java Script, Cascading Style Sheets, and
distributed object model (DOM). It will allow the manipulation of
text and objects on the Web page after it is displayed. Microsoft
and Netscape are not entirely compatible in how they support
DHTML. However, there are sites on the Internet that offer
guidance and tips on developing pages that will display correctly
in both of these browsers.
Java. Java is a programming language that allows the creation of
small, independent applications (applets) that can perform
operations on the server or on the client machine. With Java on
the client's machine, it is possible to create interactive web
pages, and to provide the user with applications to the user that
are not his/heron the client's machine. There are ongoing
security issues with Java, but these may eventually be overcome.
Java Script. Java Script is not the same as the Java language. It
does, but will allow you to perform operations to create interactive
web pages like you can with as with Java, as well as perform
operations but does not create applets. This assures security but
does without sacrificing power.
New
enhancements
There are many additions that are being developed to make

HTML-based documents much more flexible and powerful.
Please check the AFIADLO Homepage
(http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/) for update information and
guidance.
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Section F
Support Technology Media
Electronic testing
Definition: Electronic testing is a general term used to

encompass all methods for applying computers in the
assessment and reporting of human knowledge, skills, and
attitudes. It is also known as Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT).
Description: Computer-based electronic testing and polling can:
Adapt the sequence, content, or difficulty of test items
according to the responses of the person being tested.
Present test items in response to individual actions.
Branch to predetermined test items based on individual
answers to previous test items.
ComputerManaged
Instruction (CMI)
Definition: CMI is software for course administration and

management that provides information concerning performance
trends, records individual and group performance data, schedules
training, and provides support for other training management
functions. The instructor has the responsibility to diagnose, to
identify performance deficiencies, and to prescribe the next level
of instruction.
Description: The functions of CMI include:
A management information system to track student
performance over a period of time.
A system to provide information concerning student
performance trends.
A system to record individual and group performance data.
A system for generation recommendations for study path
(learning prescription).
A system to schedule training.
A system to provide support for other education and training
management functions (e.g., data collection to support inputs
to student training records).
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CMI Type:
Advanced
Distributed
Learning (ADL) and
instructional
management
system project
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ADL is a DoD initiative to promote widespread collaboration,

exploit Internet technologies, develop next generation learning
technologies and create reusable content, and lower costs, with
object-based tools. ADL will rely on an Instructional Management
System (IMS) to tag and manage the learning objects produced
as a result of ADL. One of the goals is to develop an automated
management system that will perform CMI functions by keying on
the IMS indexing.
IMS is a non-proprietary, Internet-based Instructional
Management System that provides the means to customize and
manage the instructional process and to integrate content from
multiple publishers in distributed or virtual learning environments.
The IMS Project is developing and promoting open specifications
for facilitating on-line activities such as locating and using
educational content, tracking learner progress, reporting learner
performance, and exchanging student records between
administrative systems. These specifications will increase the
range of distributed learning opportunities and they will promote
the creativity and productivity of both teachers and learners in this
new environment.
Check the AFIADLO Homepage for information
( http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl )
Electronic help
desk
Definition: Typically, an Electronic Help Desk is an on-line

repository of pertinent information, both technical and general,
that users can access.
Description: Help desks may incorporate a knowledge base, as
well as synchronous and asynchronous communication with
technical experts to answer questions and provide support.
Electronic
technical manuals
Definition: Interactive Electronic Technical Manual (IETM), as

defined in DoD IETM specifications, is as a package of
information required for the diagnosis and maintenance of a
weapons system, optimally arranged and formatted for interactive
screen presentation to the end-user.
AFH 36-2235
Electronic
technical manuals
(Continued)
Volume 5
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Description: IETMs are in digital form (electronic media) and are

designed for interactive display to the maintenance technician or
system operator end user by means of a computer-controlled
electronic screen display system. An IETM is more than an online technical manual; it has the following three characteristics:
The information is designed and formatted for screen
presentation to enhance comprehension.
The elements of technical data making up the technical
manual are interrelated.
The computer-controlled technical manual display device
functions interactively (as a result of user requests and
information input) to provide procedural guidance,
navigational directions, and supplemental information.
E-mail
Definition: An electronic delivery system used to send digital

messages over the Internet/Intranet to contact and collaborate
with other individuals.
Description: Computers are used to send E-mail (text-based)
messages to selected electronic mailboxes. Users can attach
documents, files, or links to web pages to the message, providing
another method of distributing instructional materials.
Bulletin boards
Definition: An on-line electronic repository used to provide

information and announcements to students. The information is
accessed by means of asynchronous communications.
Description: On-line bulletin board systems are generally used
for course administration, communications, and interaction to:
Post messages, new ideas, questions, opinions, or requests
to the group.
Read what others have written and respond to the author.
Upload and download files.
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Fax conferencing
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Definition: Electronic data transfers between individuals over

telephone networks using facsimile equipment or over the
Internet using fax modems.
Description: The fax can be used to support instruction by
providing a method to exchange printed materials such as text,
charts, graphics, etc. For example, it can be used with IVT and
other conferencing technologies as a way to distribute handouts
to remote sites or as a way for students to pose questions and
comments to the instructor.
Voice mail
Definition: Asynchronous means of voice communication using

the telephone, computer, and/or voice mail device to store and
play back voice messages.
Description: Voice mail systems enable callers to leave voice
messages which are later retrieved by recipients. Typically, voice
mail systems are accessed by telephone. However, some on-line
systems enable individuals to send and retrieve voice messages
by computer; these systems require the users to have special
software, microphones, and other peripheral equipment.
Passwords are usually built into the systems to prevent
unauthorized users from retrieving messages.
Student Response
Unit (SRU),
Audioconferencing
Unit (ACU)
Definition: SRUs are devices that provide a means for the

student to provide verbal feedback or response data to the
instructor. An Audioconferencing Unit (ACU) is a stand-alone
microphone; an SRU is a keypad unit that provides response
data to the instructor.
Description: SRUs may consist of a personal microphone
and/or key pad, located at each students desk, that is connected
via a telephone or computer network to the instructors station or
location. SRUs are normally used in conjunction with other
instructional delivery systems such as ITV.
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Chapter 4
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES ANALYSIS
AND SELECTION CRITERIA
Overview
Purpose
This chapter presents a standard set of criteria that can be

applied to any instructional medium to evaluate the relative
effectiveness of the medium. It then applies the criteria to each
instructional medium presented to determine the advantages and
disadvantages resulting from its use. The chapter concludes with
a presentation of a process for selecting instructional media when
migrating existing resident instruction to an instructional
technology or distance learning format.
Where to read
about it

Section
References
Title
Page
Media Feasibility Assessment
103
Application of the Criteria to the Media
107
Curriculum Analysis and Media

Feasibility
149
Infrastructure and Resource

Feasibility Analysis
160
Comparative Cost Analysis
163
Media Selection
172

Guide for Acquisition of Training Data Products and Services
AFH 36-2235
References
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
102

Distance Learning Curriculum Analysis and Media Selection,
Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL, 4 Feb 1994
http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/
http://www.au.af.mil/afdlo
Air Force Publications and Forms:
http://AFPUBS.HQ.AF.MIL/
American Distance Education Consortium:
http://www.adec.edu/
Best Practices in Distance Learning:
http://snow.utoronto.ca/best/distance.html
Distance Education at a Glance:
http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/distglan.html
Distance Education Primer:
http://www.teletrain.com/Primer.html
Educational Resources Information Center:
http://www.aspensys.com/eric/
US Distance Learning Association: http://www.usdla.org/
http://www.cisnet.com/~cattales/Dedication.html
Federal Government Distance Learning Association:
http://www.fgdla.org/index.htm
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Section A
Media Feasibility Assessment
Feasibility criteria
The instructional design characteristics identified in the following

table can be applied to each type of instructional technology to
gauge the appropriateness of the various media. These
characteristics can be applied to the use of technology to support
resident courses as well as distance learning initiatives. The
following criteria are used in this section to compare and contrast
the media alternatives.
Characteristic
Development
Effort
Convenience of
Instruction
Student
Motivation
Equipment and/or
Support
Requirements
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Description
The time, effort, and/or resources required to
plan, design, develop, implement, and
evaluate the instruction.
The extent to which the participant is allowed
to control or determine the time, place, pace,
or duration of instruction, and/or accessibility
of the instruction
The ability of the instructional system/media
to motivate and/or involve the student when
used as the primary vehicle for instruction.
The degree to which special equipment or
other support systems are required for
delivery of the instruction.
The degree to which instructor involvement is
required during delivery of the instruction to
employ the medium effectively.
The potential level of engaged
response/interaction between the student
and the medium provided or supported by
the medium.
The type and nature of student feedback
supported by the instructional medium.
The complexity of revising or updating the
medium to accommodate changes in course
content.
Comfort of the instructor and the student with
the medium; degree to which time must be
spent familiarizing users with the technology.
AFH 36-2235
Feasibility criteria
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Characteristic
Versatility
104
Description
The ability of the medium to support
instruction and/or supplement other
technologies.
Table 15 Instructional Design Characteristics

Potential
applications
Each medium is examined in terms of its potential applications

when it is most appropriate to use the given medium to support
instruction. In those cases where there are conditions under
which the given media would not be effective, the conditions are
noted.
Cost/benefit
considerations
Cost/benefit analysis is being used with increasing frequency to

help define whether a proposed approach to instruction is worth
the projected costs. Later in this chapter, the user will find
detailed discussion on cost models and processes. In this
section, the relative costs and benefits of each medium are
discussed. In addition, the estimated compression rate and
development ratios are identified. The areas covered are
compression rate and development hours.
Compression rate
Presented as a percentage, the compression rate is the figure

used to estimate the number of hours of instruction required to
conduct an existing resident course if converted to the given
technology.
For example The estimated compression rate for courses
converted to ICW is 35%. That is, the course duration for a
resident course would be reduced by 35% if converted to ICW. If
you are converting a 40-hour resident course to ICW, you would
use the following formula to compute instructional hours:
40 hrs. resident instruction x 35% compression rate =
14 hours reduction
40 hrs. 14 hrs. = 26 hrs. ICW
Thus, you can expect to accomplish a 40-hour traditional course
in 26 hours of instruction if the course is converted to ICW format.
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Development
hours
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Presented as three ratios indicating the number of man- hours

per hour of instruction for an IT program of low/moderate/high
complexity.
For example The factors for ICW are estimated at 50/265/700
man-hours of development per hour of compressed instruction.
Therefore, if a 26-hour course of low complexity is being
developed, you would use the following formula to calculate
development hours:
26 hours compressed instruction x
50 hours development per hour of instruction =
1,300 man-hours of development time
If it is a complex course, it may take an estimated 18,200 hours
for development.
Cost/benefit
considerations
A word of caution
The compression rates and development hours are estimates

onlythey are based on Air Force and industry experience. The
development times are based on the time it takes education and
training personnelthe IT development teamto complete the
ISD process and field new instruction. It does not take into
account the task analysis process that is conducted by a career
field nor does it take into account the ongoing operational
evaluation or life cycle management of a course of instruction.
The development times do not account for man-hours provided at
remote sites in support of DL programs.
The low-end estimates assume a best case scenario with a
simple topic and experienced personnel with good knowledge of
content and tools. The high-end estimates imply that the topic is
abstract or complex and developers have limited knowledge of
the content and lack experience with development tools. The
middle number represents the most likely estimate based on Air
Force experience.
The more technically sophisticated the medium, the greater the
need for highly skilled instructional designers and technologists.
So it is not only the complexity of the course material that must
be accommodated, but also the availability of a skilled
development team.
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Cost/benefit
considerations
(Continued)
Volume 5
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The use of templates and other tools can reduce development

time. The need to coordinate and share scarce resources can
increase development time. It is the responsibility of the IT team
to define, document, and factor in all of the quantitative and
qualitative costs and benefits associated with a given instructional
alternative so that each alternative can be fairly evaluated and
the optimum solution selected on the basis of solid, welldocumented analysis.
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Section B
Application of the Criteria to the Media
Purpose
This section applies the criteria to each of the instructional

technologies. The table presents the criteria, describes the
mediums major strengths and weaknesses against those criteria,
and provides an overall assessment of the effectiveness of the
medium. Some potential applications of the medium and the
cost/benefit considerations for each medium follow the table.
AFH 36-2235
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Criteria Applied to Print Medium

Introduction
The following table applies the criteria to the use of print as the
primary instructional medium.
Criteria
Application to Print
The effort required varies depending on the
scope and content of the print materials.
Professional authoring of complete instructional
print documents, manuals, or textbooks requires
Developmental
significant time and effort to research, design,
Effort
develop, edit, and publish effective instruction.
Available desktop publishing software has made
it much easier to develop professional-looking
print materials in-house.
Students can study at their own pace and review
Convenience of
Instruction
information as required.
Requires higher level of student motivation for
effective learning to take place. Student
Student Motivation learning is dependent on reading ability. Lack of
reading skills significantly impacts effectiveness
of instruction.
Equipment/Support Requires no special equipment or support.
Requirements
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Effectiveness
-/+
+
-
Minimum supervision, participation, or

communication required.
Passive in nature low level of student
interactivity.
Low level of feedback and reinforcement.
While easier to revise than most other media,

revisions will require some time, resources, and
effort to accomplish. Revised materials must
also be reproduced and distributed to all
applicable sites.
Print is the most familiar of media. Instructors
and students are comfortable using it.
Handouts, outlines, booklets, brochures, ready
reference guides can supplement other
technologies/media.
Table 16 Criteria Applied to Print Medium
+
+
AFH 36-2235
Potential
applications
Volume 5
1 November 2002
109
Consider using print when:

The task to be taught follows a set procedure and steps are
easy to follow.
Written materials are required for later reference.
Self-study is an option.
Ease of use is crucial.
Equipment limitations exist.
Close supervision and interaction are either not required or
not available.
When dollars are limited.
Print cost/benefit
considerations
Considerations: Print materials are relatively inexpensive to

produce compared with other media such as satellite/computerbased instruction. Cost considerations include:
Number of requirements (student/trainee throughput).
Student location and distribution requirements.
Complexity of the required instruction and format (color
graphics, drawings, diagrams, photographs, etc., will
generally consume more time and resources).
Projected content changes and revision requirements.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning printbased course (e.g., a correspondence course) will reduce the
instructional time required to cover the same material in a
resident course by 25%.
Estimated development time: Use the following development
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction) (includes editing):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
15 hours
100 hours
250 hours
AFH 36-2235
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110
Criteria Applied to Videotapes

Introduction
Criteria
Developmental
Effort
Convenience of
Instruction
Student Motivation
Equipment/
Support
Requirements
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Videotape-based training presents information to the student

through visual and auditory sensory channels. The more varied
the means of delivery, the more effective the communication.
Instructional video builds on the old clich that a picture is worth
a thousand words. The following table applies the criteria to the
use of videotape as the primary instructional medium.
Application to Videotape
Professional quality, effective video instruction
requires complex planning and a significant
amount of time and effort to produce.
Students can study and review information at
their own pace.
Requires a higher level of student motivation for
effective learning to take place.
Videotapes are highly transportable and can
reach many students. A videocassette recorder
is required and is readily accessible.
Little instructor supervision, participation, or
communication.
interactivity.
Effectiveness
-
Course content needs to be stable since

revisions normally require complete
reproduction/ redevelopment of the taped
instruction. Tapes must also be duplicated and
distributed to all sites.
Videotape technology is familiar to instructors
and students, and they are comfortable using it.
Videotapes can provide effective instructional
support for other types of instruction. Also,
videotapes can be retained for future reference.
Table 17 Criteria Applied to Videotape
+
+
+
-
+
+
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
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111
Potential
applications
Consider using instructional videotapes when:
Videotape
cost/benefit
considerations
Video production can be expensive, time consuming, and

technically demanding depending on how it will be produced (i.e.,
an in-house effort or professionally produced).
Audio/visual presentations are important for clarity.

Visual realism is necessary to accomplish learning objectives.
Self-paced instruction or independent study is an option.
Content is stable (no changes for at least a year).
Interaction with or observation of performance by, an
instructor is not required.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning videotapebased course will reduce the instructional time required to cover the
same material in a resident course by 30%.
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction) (includes production):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
50 hours
175 hours
500 hours
AFH 36-2235
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112
Criteria Applied to Audiotapes

Introduction
Audiotapes are used much like print, but instead of reading the
content, the student listens to it using a tape player. Audiotapes
can be used effectively for student learning, especially when
combined with other instructional media. The following table
applies the criteria to the use of audiotapes as the primary
instructional medium.
Criteria
Application to Audiotapes
Requires less time and effort than most other
Developmental
Effort
instructional methods. Similar to print.
Students can study and review information at
Convenience of
Instruction
their own pace.
Requires a higher level of student selfmotivation for effective learning to take place.
Student Motivation Student learning is dependent on listening
ability. Lack of auditory skills significantly
impacts the effectiveness of the instruction.
Audiotapes are highly transportable and can
Equipment/Support reach many students. A cassette tape player is
Requirements
the only equipment required, and is widely
available.
Little instructor supervision, participation, or
Instructor
Requirements
communication.
Level of
Interactivity
interactivity.
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Course content needs to be stable. Revisions

require re-taping, duplicating tapes, and
distribution to all sites.
Audiotape technology is familiar to instructors
Audiotapes can provide effective instructional
support for other types of instruction. Also,
audiotapes can be retained for future reference.
Table 18 Criteria Applied to Audiotapes
Effectiveness
+
+
-
+
+
+
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
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113
Potential
applications
Consider using instructional audiotapes when:
Audiotape
cost/benefit
considerations
Audiotape development requires careful scripting; talent must

often be hired for the final narration.
Visual and textual representations are not required, but

verbal. Communication and explanation will contribute to
content clarity.
Transmission of verbal cues and sounds are required.
Self-study is an option.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning audiotapebased course will reduce the instructional time required to cover the
same material in a resident course by 25%.
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction) (includes production):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
20 hours
80 hours
200 hours
AFH 36-2235
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114
Criteria Applied to Audioconferencing

Introduction
Criteria
Audioconferencing can be accomplished with off-the-shelf

speakerphones. In order to connect numerous locations,
however, additional equipment may be required.
Audioconferencing can be an effective means of providing
students access to experts. The following table applies the
criteria to the use of audioconferencing as the primary
Application to Audioconferencing
Requires advanced planning to provide
handouts with agenda/discussion topics,
Developmental
Effort
prerequisite assignments, etc. The easiest
conference to set up on short notice.
Nearly everyone has access to a telephone and
participants can connect from almost any
Convenience of
Instruction
location. However, requires all to meet/connect
at a specific time.
Provides real-time communications,
Student Motivation
collaboration, and interaction.
Other than a telephone, or speakerphone for
larger groups, no special equipment is required.
Equipment/Support
Most, if not all, telephone systems provide multiRequirements
site audio bridging. Existing SRUs can also be
used for audioconferencing.
In addition to instructing, the instructor must also
Instructor
facilitate, moderate, and manage student
Requirements
discussions and interactions.
Allows everyone to participate and interact.
Although large numbers can participate, it is
Level of
Interactivity
generally more effective if the numbers are
limited to ensure interaction.
Provides immediate verbal feedback. However,
Feedback
it can be a barrier for learners who process
Capability
information visually.
The real-time nature of the instruction allows for
Ease of Revision
instantaneous changes and revisions as
required.
Telephone technology is familiar to instructors
Ease of Use
No equipment training required.
Effectiveness
+
+/-
+
+
+/+
+
AFH 36-2235
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Criteria Applied to Audioconferencing (Continued)
Criteria
Versatility
Application to Audioconferencing
Can be used in conjunction with, and provide
effective instructional support for, other types of
instruction. Conferences can be taped and
retained for future reference or review.
Effectiveness
+
Table 19 Criteria Applied to Audioconferencing

Potential
applications
Consider using instructional audioconferencing when:

Student feedback and remediation are required.
Site visits with subject matter experts cannot be arranged.
Short courses/Tutorial type lessons are used.
Live or synchronous communication is needed.
Interviews/group discussion is required.
Used in conjunction with other media.
Student-instructor and student-student interaction is required.
Audioconferencing is not appropriate for training tasks that
require development and/or application of psychomotor skills.
Audioconferencing
cost/benefit
considerations
There are many compelling reasons to use interactive

audioconferencing. They include the following:
Item
Cost
Accessibility
Interactivity
Convenience
Spontaneity
Well-established
Easy to use
Recordable
Versatility
Scalability
Reason
One of the least expensive technologies.
Nearly everyone has access to a telephone.
Allows everyone to participate.
Can connect to a conference from any
location.
Provides instantaneous communications and
feedback.
Has been used effectively for years.
No equipment training required!
Can be taped for future reference.
Can be used with other instructional
technologies.
Can talk to one site or many sites.
Table 20 Audioconferencing Cost / Benefit Considerations
AFH 36-2235
Limitations
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116
There are relatively few drawbacks to using interactive

audioconferencing. Most can be addressed in the design
process. Limitations include the following:
Is synchronous. Forces learners to meet at a specific date
and time
No visual feedback. Can be a barrier for learners that
process information visually; also requires more
concentration
Can be impersonal. Can make some participants feel
isolated since they cant see non non-verbal cues or body
language
Requires advance planning. Must be planned in advance
to provide any handouts; thus, difficult to establish a
conference on short notice
Limited number of students. While it can be connected to
hundreds, is more effective if size is limited to ensure there is
interaction
Potential equipment costs. Potential additional costs to
consider include devices that may be required for larger
groups, such as speakerphones, microphones, or response
units, and an audio bridge to interconnect multiple phone
lines and control noise.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning
audioconference-based course will reduce the instructional time
required to cover the same material in a resident course by 25%.
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction) (includes
production):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
10 hours
40 hours
80 hours
AFH 36-2235
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117
Criteria Applied to Audiographics

Introduction
Criteria
Audiographic conferencing combines computers and audio

communications. Usually, this involves the use of PCs (to
support computer-to-computer conferencing) and telephones so
that students can interact with the computer presentation while
consulting by telephone with the instructor, other students, and/or
experts. The following table applies the criteria to the use of
audiographics as the primary instructional medium.
Application to Audiographics
Requires advanced planning to provide
handouts with agenda, instructional material,
Developmental
Effort
prerequisite assignments, etc. Moderately
difficult to set up conference on short notice.
Requires all participants to meet/connect at a
Convenience of
Instruction
specific time.
Provides real-time communications,
Student Motivation
collaboration, and interaction.
Requires a telephone, or speakerphone for
Equipment/Support larger groups, and reliable access to a
Requirements
computer, network system, and/or fax machine
as applicable.
Can be difficult to manage, particularly with
Instructor
Requirements
larger groups.
Although large numbers can be accommodated,
Level of
it is generally more effective if the numbers are
Interactivity
limited to ensure active participation and
interaction by all.
Provides immediate verbal feedback. Some
Feedback
visual feedback can also be provided if on-line
Capability
application sharing is incorporated.
The real-time nature of the instruction allows for
Ease of Revision
some immediate changes and revisions if
required.
Telephone technology is familiar to instructors
and students. However, some degree of
Ease of Use
instructor computer literacy and training will be
required.
Effectiveness
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
-
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
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118
Criteria Applied to Audiographics (Continued)
Criteria
Versatility
Application to Audiographics
instruction.
Effectiveness
+
Table 21 Criteria Applied to Audiographics

Potential
applications
Applications of audiographics include:
Audiographics
cost/benefit
considerations
Relatively inexpensive and, depending on existing computer

networking, may not involve significant infrastructure investments.
Courses that require large amounts of electronic graphic data

transfer (e.g., engineering and technical data).
For document sharing, and joint development or collaboration
on projects/tasks.

audiographic-based course will reduce the instructional time
Estimated development time: If used as the primary means of
instruction, support materials (syllabus, handbooks, guides, etc.)
would be required. Refer to analysis of medium selected for
distribution of such materials (print, audioconferencing, etc).
Computer graphics and data must be prepared. Use the
following development estimates (per hour of compressed
instruction):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
25 hours
50 hours
75 hours
AFH 36-2235
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119
Criteria Applied to Computer-Mediated Conferencing

Introduction
The following table applies the criteria to the use of computermediated conferencing as the primary instructional medium.
Computer-mediated conferencing incorporates asynchronous
communications conducted by means of computers it includes
conferencing software, electronic bulletin boards, and/or e-mail.
Computer-mediated conferencing also includes synchronous
communications conducted by means of computers. Pop-up mail
is a simple example of real-time (synchronous) computer
conferencing.
It is important to recognize that while computer-mediated
conferencing used to mean communication by written word,
technological advances and the use of collaborative technologies
have blurred the dividing line between computer-mediated
conferencing and other forms of electronic video and audio
conferencing, such as virtual conferencing.
Application to
Computer-Mediated Conferencing
Requires some advanced planning and time to
develop and post discussion topics and
Developmental
Effort
reference information. Relatively easy to set up
an electronic discussion on short notice.
Allows participants to communicate and interact
Convenience of
Instruction
independent of time and distance.
Promotes collaboration, interaction, and selflearning. Can be used effectively as a primary
Student Motivation media for instruction. Unless required and
enforced, students may not participate or
respond.
Equipment/Support Requires reliable and consistent access to a
Requirements
properly configured network computer.
Can be difficult to monitor and facilitate
electronic discussions and send/reply to e-mail
Instructor
Requirements
messages with large groups; difficult to monitor
student participation and progress.
Criteria
Effectiveness
+
+
+/-
AFH 36-2235
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120
Criteria applied to computer-mediated conferencing (Continued)
Criteria
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Application to
Although large numbers can be accommodated,
it is generally more effective if the total number
of participants is limited to encourage active
participation and interaction by all.
Can provide timely dissemination of information
and feedback to participants. Users may
experience difficulty following discussion threads
and receiving feedback due to the potentially
large volume of messages.
The flexible nature of electronic discussions
allows for some immediate changes and
revisions to ongoing discussions or information
as required.
Some degree of computer literacy and training
will be required for participants to ensure
effective use.
instruction.
Effectiveness
+
+/-
Table 22 Criteria Applied to Computer-Mediated Conferencing

Potential
applications
Computer-mediated conferencing traces its history to more than

20 years ago when it was first created for instruction. Since then,
its use has blossomed to hundreds of institutions using it for
continuing education, graduate courses and supplemental
programs. Computer-mediated conferencing is most effective in
the following situations:
Short courses.
Courses designed to promote higher order learning such as
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Group discussion is required seminars and talks.
Courses requiring cooperative learning or group learning.
Courses requiring written products.
Ideal for course where learners are encouraged to share their
own personal experiences.
AFH 36-2235
Potential
applications
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
121
Useful for handicapped learners.

Used in conjunction with other media.
In support of correspondence or other distance learning
courses where students must submit materials; also
facilitates effective feedback to students.
As part of an overall course of study, computer-mediated
conferencing may be used to establish a bulletin board which
could be accessed by students and others, whether
geographically separated or not. Correspondence with experts,
posting of web sites for research, and sharing of development
projects are facilitated through computer-mediated conferencing.
Computermediated
conferencing
cost/benefit
considerations
Some of the many compelling reasons to use computer-mediated

conferencing include:
Item
Cost
Accessibility
Expanded faculty
Interactivity
Convenience
Asynchronous
communication
Synchronous
communication
Versatility
Currency
Scalability
Learner-centered
Reason
One of the least expensive technologies.
More and more learners are gaining access
to the Web.
Great for guest lecturers since it is easy to
connect them.
Because everyone must participate to learn,
this is perhaps the most interactive form of
distance learning.
Not necessarily tied to a specific location or
time.
24-hour a day accessibility enables selfpacing. Provides time for reflection,
research, composing.
Can design live interaction using structured
chat rooms.
Can be used with other instructional
technologies.
Easy to update course materials.
Can talk to one site or many with the
potential for global connectivity.
Focuses on the needs of the learner.
AFH 36-2235
Computermediated
conferencing
cost/benefit
considerations
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Item
Audit trail
Promotes
teamwork
122
Reason
Provides documentation or transcript of
interaction; can track who is contributing.
Fosters more learner-to-learner interaction
through discussion, guided projects, and
individual conversations.
Table 23 Computer-Mediated Conferencing

Cost / Benefit Considerations
Constraints in
using computermediated
conferencing
The drawbacks to using computer-mediated conferencing include

the following:
Requires Web access. Requires proprietary software or
Web access. Requires learners and instructors to use Web
browsers for Internet-based Instruction (IBI).
Equipment training. Assumes learners and instructors are
conversant in using the equipment and technology to access
the Web.
Can be impersonal. Can make some participants feel
isolated since they cannot see non non-verbal cues or body
language; in addition, medium is difficult to express emotions.
Assumes a mature learner. Requires a more disciplined,
responsible learner as well as one that has good time
management skills.
Limited number of students. While it can be connected to
hundreds, is more effective if class size is limited to fewer
than 30 learners.
Geared to verbal learners. Learners not able to clearly
express themselves using the written media may be at a
disadvantage.
Susceptible to technical problems. Medium is vulnerable
to technical failures, software/hardware compatibility
problems.
Time consuming. Responding to high volume of traffic is
time consuming and may inhibit in-depth discussion.
Cultural resistance. Faculty and learners may resist this
alternative instructional approach or may not view it as real
training/education.
AFH 36-2235
Constraints in
using computermediated
conferencing
(Continued)
Volume 5
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123
Multithreads. More than one conversation may take place

simultaneously making it difficult to keep them separate.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning CMCbased course will reduce the instructional time required to cover
the same material in a resident course by 35%.
Estimated development time: Usually employed as a support
medium. If used as the primary means of instruction, support
materials (syllabus, handbooks, guides, etc.) would be required.
Use the following development estimates (per hour of
compressed instruction):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
50 hours
125 hours
250 hours
AFH 36-2235
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124
Criteria Applied to Interactive Multimedia Instruction (ICW)

Overview
The Interactive Multimedia Instructional technologies addressed

in this section are: Interactive Courseware (ICW); Intelligent
Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI); Electronic Performance
Support System (EPSS); Job Performance Aid (JPA); and
Computer Simulation.
The following table applies the criteria to the use of interactive
courseware (ICW) as the primary instructional medium. ICW is
usually employed as a self-paced, asynchronous form of
instruction. An ICW-based course may be distributed
electronically, by disk, or (as technology is improving) may be
downloaded from the Internet.
Criteria
Developmental
Effort
Convenience of
Instruction
Student Motivation
Equipment/
Support
Requirements
Application to ICW
Requires significant advanced planning and
lead-time. Requires experienced instructional
designers and developers, full storyboarding and
scripting, and considerable resources and
support.
Usually independent of time and distance. Most
ICW is developed for individual use rather than
group or cooperative learning environments.
Students can proceed at their own pace.
A high level of learning normally takes place
because of the stimulation of multiple senses
and the high degree of interaction. There is
usually reduced learning time as compared to
traditional delivery of the same material.
However, students need to be highly motivated
to ensure effective comprehension and timely
completion of the instruction.
Requires reliable and consistent access to a
properly configured computer, and availability of
technical support. Courseware must contain
student help functions if an instructor/proctor is
not present or available to answer questions.
Presentation software is sometimes required.
Effectiveness
-
AFH 36-2235
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125
Criteria applied to interactive multimedia instruction (ICW)
Criteria
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Application to ICW
ICW applications generally reduce instructor
requirements. Help functions can also be
incorporated into the software to assist students.
High level of student interaction with the medium
and instructional content is possible. In a DL
environment, the lack of instructor/student
interaction can be mitigated through the use of
CMC and other communications support media.
Provides immediate and effective feedback to
the student that can increase student motivation.
Revisions to computer-based instruction require
significant time, effort, and resources.
Some degree of computer literacy and
proficiency training will be required for students
to ensure their effective use of the instructional
media.
delivery methods such as instructor-led, grouppaced instruction. ICW is easily stored makes
it ideal for student review and remediation;
provides for consistent learning experience.
Effectiveness
+
+
+
-
Table 24 Criteria Applied to ICW

Potential
applications
Consider ICW when:

Realism and/or simulation are required.
Course content is relatively stable (no more than 25% change
per year).
Course content contains some affective and psychomotor
skills.
Self-paced instruction is an option.
Safety is a factor ICW simulations offer a non-threatening,
safe practice environment.
Large numbers of widely dispersed students must be trained.
AFH 36-2235
ICW cost/benefit
considerations
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126
Computer-based instruction, whether it is an electronic

performance support system, a three-dimensional simulation, or a
linear presentation requires experienced instructional designers
and developers.
ICW development can be relatively costly if the computer
hardware, instructional networks, and support are not already in
place. However, the potential decrease in training time is 35%.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning ICWbased course will reduce the instructional time required to cover
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction):
Criteria applied
to ICAI
Criteria
Developmental
Effort
Convenience of
Instruction
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
50 hours
265 hours
700 hours
Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI) is ICW with a

brain. The courseware is programmed to respond to student
actions and tailors the course of instruction accordingly. Because
of the analysis required to anticipate student responses and the
additional programming required to make the ICW intelligent
course content must be stable and courseware developers must
be highly skilled. The following table applies the criteria to the
use of ICAI as the primary instructional medium.
Application to ICAI
Requires a considerable amount of time and
effort to develop an expert model/system.
Experienced instructional designers, developers,
and programmers with unique skills/expertise
are required, and they are not normally available
in-house.
Usually independent of time and distance. Most
ICAI is developed for individual use rather than
group or cooperative learning environments.
Students can proceed at their own pace. Highend equipment is sometimes required.
Effectiveness
--
AFH 36-2235
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127
Criteria applied to ICAI (Continued)
Criteria
Application to ICAI
A high level of learning normally takes place
because of the stimulation of multiple senses
and interactivity. There is usually reduced
Student Motivation learning time as compared to traditional delivery
of the same material. Because course content
is tailored on the basis of student response, ICAI
is usually more effective than traditional ICW.
Requires reliable and consistent access to
Equipment/Support training equipment or properly configured
Requirements
computer as applicable, and availability of
technical support.
Reduces instructor requirements. An expert
system recognizes mistakes commonly made by
students, and can detect and diagnose errors,
Instructor
Requirements
and present information to correct
misconceptions that would normally require an
instructor.
Very high level of student interaction with the
Level of
Interactivity
medium.
Provides immediate and effective feedback and
Feedback
instruction to the student that can increase
Capability
student motivation.
As with the development of ICAI systems,
corrections and revisions to the instruction take
Ease of Revision
even more time and expertise than revisions to
ICW programs.
proficiency training may be required for students
Ease of Use
to ensure their effective use of the instructional
media.
delivery methods such as instructor-led, groupVersatility
paced instruction. ICAI is easily stored makes
it ideal for student review and remediation;
provides for consistent content and varied
learning experiences.
Table 25 Criteria Applied to ICAI
Effectiveness
++
++
++
--
++
AFH 36-2235
Potential
applications
Volume 5
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128
ICAI provides an excellent medium for instruction and

performance measurement of:
Problem solving cognitive skills (the highest level of
knowledge).
Diagnostic and troubleshooting skills (Judgment and
Decision-Making Knowledge and Skills).
It is also excellent for remediation as feedback is immediate and,
depending on the sophistication of the system, the system will
automatically take the student through various approaches to a
given concept until student responses indicate that the student
has mastered it.
ICAI cost / benefit

considerations
ICAI systems have the potential to instruct, diagnose, evaluate,

and individualize instruction and remediation. However,
development is generally labor intensive and requires unique
skills/expertise.
Because of the expense involved in development of expert
systems, they are usually reserved for teaching high-risk
knowledge and decision-making skills. Such training may be an
appropriate and cost-effective way to prepare military personnel
for major military exercises, for example. ICAI is also used to
develop skills that cannot be practiced during field or laboratory
exercises (e.g., handling of nuclear material). In this case, the
cost/benefit analysis would have to examine what the cost will be
if the target population does not get this type of training.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning ICAIbased course will reduce the instructional time required to cover
Estimated development time: It could take 2-4 years to
develop, test, and refine an expert instructional system. Use the
following development estimates as minimums (per hour of
compressed instruction):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
250+ hours
600+ hours
1,000+ hours
AFH 36-2235
Criteria applied to
EPSSs/JPAs
Criteria
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Electronic Performance Support Systems/Job Performance Aids

(EPSSs/JPAs) are frequently employed to provide on-line
assistance to individuals so they can perform their job tasks with
minimal support and intervention by others; they are designed to
support performance of specific job skills. They may be
incorporated into formal training programs to help students learn
how to use them effectively on the job, but are most often
developed to support on-the-job skill development. EPSSs/JPAs
are typically single-purpose tools used during actual operations to
help technicians perform in a more effective, efficient, timely, or
cost-effective manner. The following table applies the criteria to
the use of EPSSs/JPAs as the primary instructional medium.
Application to EPSSs/JPAs
Developmental
Requires significant advanced planning and
Effort
lead-time. Very difficult to develop an
EPSS/JPA with an integrated expert system.
Requires experienced instructional designers
and developers with unique skills/expertise,
normally not available in-house.
Convenience of
Enables the user to gain rapid access to large
Instruction
amounts of information/instruction on demand
from the work site.
Student Motivation Increases user productivity and job/task
performance. Reduces training
time/requirements. Motivation is maintained
because information is delivered on demand and
is directly related to job performance.
Equipment/Support Requires EPSS/JPA delivery equipment/system
Requirements
availability at each work site/station for user
access.
Instructor
Reduces instructor/expert support requirements.
Requirements
Allows users to perform tasks with a minimum
amount of external intervention or training
normally requiring an instructor.
Level of
High level of user interaction with the support
Interactivity
system content and intelligent tutoring system is
possible.
Feedback
Provides immediate feedback to the user.
Capability
Effectiveness
-
+
+
+
+
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Criteria applied to EPSSs/JPAs (Continued)
Criteria
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Application to EPSSs/JPAs
As with other similar computer-based
applications, it takes some time, effort, and
resources to develop and implement revisions to
an EPSS/JPA.
Some degree of computer literacy and/or
equipment training will be required for users to
ensure effective use of the EPSS/JPA.
EPSSs/JPAs are retained and available in an
electronic format at the work site for reference
on demand when required. Requires much less
physical storage than paper-based
aids/manuals.
Effectiveness
-
Table 26 Criteria Applied to EPSSs/JPAs

Potential
applications
Consider using Electronic Performance Support Systems/Job

Performance Aids when:
Providing on-the-job training for development of low-risk skill
sets. Trainees can access the information whenever
required.
Providing reinforcement after formal training; use of the
EPSSs/JPAs can be addressed during the formal training so
that optimum use can be made of the EPSSs/JPAs when the
user returns to the workplace.
There is a need to reduce formal training time; effective
support tools at the job site can reduce the requirement for
formal training.
EPSS/JPA
cost/benefit
considerations
EPSS/JPA costs and effectiveness vary depending on the

complexity of the support system. Task performance time can be
reduced by as much as 50%.
A very basic and less costly EPSS/JPA may only provide a
database and an on-line help system.
A complex EPSS/JPA can include a hypermedia database,
interactive courseware, an expert system, and a dynamic
AFH 36-2235
EPSS/JPA
cost/benefit
considerations
(Continued)
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maintenance system which, like ICAI, could require significant

development time, expertise, and cost.
Estimated development time: Varies according to complexity of
the system.
AFH 36-2235
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Criteria Applied to Computer Simulation

Overview
Computer simulation techniques allow the learner to practice

procedures and solve problems in a life-like, safe learning
environment. While these techniques can be employed using
print or other non-electronic media, this examination of the
technology assumes the use of computers as part of the
simulation process. The following table applies the criteria to the
use of computer simulation as the primary instructional medium.
Criteria
Application to Simulation
Effectiveness
Developmental
Requires significant advanced planning, lead-Effort
time, resources, and effort. Expertise is required
to reduce the desired learning objectives to
algorithms that capture real-world events.
Software is complex and generally costly to
develop and test significant prototyping and
testing of the instructional simulation program
are required.
Convenience of
Simulation instruction may be developed for
Instruction
individual or group use. Group participation is
less flexible since participants must start/interact
at the same time. Because simulation training is
normally accomplished in real-time, the student
has less control of the sequence and pacing of
the presentation.
Student Motivation A high level of learning normally takes place
++
because of the realistic presentation and
interaction provided.
Equipment/Support Requires access to the simulation
Requirements
computer/equipment, and availability of technical
support. Development platforms required.
Instructor
Requires instructor monitoring, supervision,
Requirements
management, and/or participation.
Level of
Simulations provide a real-world learning
++
Interactivity
environment and allow active hands on
participation and performance of tasks in a safe
environment.
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Criteria Applied to Computer Simulation (Continued)
Criteria
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Application to Simulation
Participants and simulator provide immediate
and realistic feedback to the student that can
increase student motivation.
As with development, significant time,
programming skills and expertise are required
for changes and revisions.
proficiency training will be required for students
to ensure their effective use of the computer
simulation instructional media.
Can be used in conjunction with, or to replace,
training accomplished using actual equipment or
other media. Can be used following formal
training to permit transition between the
laboratory and the real world to permit
students to practice what they have learned in a
safe environment.
Effectiveness
+
-
++
Table 27 Criteria Applied to Computer Simulation

Potential
applications
Potential applications include:

Training procedural tasks and simulating hands-on
equipment operation.
Support of experimentation (what if...) without expenditure
of critical resources.
Practicing life-threatening skills in a non-threatening
environment.
Simulation methods can be employed to provide instruction,
assess/track performance, or provide remediation as
required.
AFH 36-2235
Simulation
cost/benefit
considerations
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134
Simulation provides very effective instruction and training in

complex skills that would otherwise require actual performance of
those skills in the operational environment. A significant cost
savings may be realized if simulation is used vice operational
equipment.
Cost varies significantly depending on the fidelity of the
simulation and the delivery equipment required (training device).
Since high (physical) fidelity simulation comes at a considerable
cost, it must be determined how closely the simulation needs to
duplicate the real performance tasks.
Development requires careful scripting; talent must often be hired
for the final narration.
simulation based course will reduce the instructional time
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
250 hours
600 hours
1,000+ hours
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Criteria Applied to Interactive Video Teletraining (IVT)

Overview
Criteria
Interactive Video Teletraining (IVT) comprises two technologies:

Interactive Television (ITV) and Video Teleconferencing (VTC).
The following table applies the criteria to the use of ITV as the
primary instructional medium. ITV provides one-way, site-to-site,
or site-to-multiple site, transmission of audio and video instruction
from a studio classroom to distance learning classrooms
equipped with television monitors and student response units.
Application to ITV
Developmental
Requires advanced production planning,
Effort
coordination, and development efforts. Requires
training for instructors.
Convenience of
Live lessons are scheduled only at specific times
Instruction
and because ITV broadcasts are accomplished
in real-time, the student has little control of the
timing, sequence, and pacing of the instruction.
Success is also contingent on a host of
technologies working without problems.
Transmission/reception problems can interfere
with flow of instruction. Has the advantage of
distance learning in that the student does not
have to travel to the training site whereat which
the training is being conducted.
Student Motivation Can provide a cost-effective means for
conducting live, full motion quality training
instruction to large number of students at widely
dispersed locations. Allows instructors to
communicate visually and be seen by students
at remote locations.
Equipment/Support Requires special satellite uplink/downlink and
Requirements
production equipment. Requires the availability
of studio facilities and student access to ITV
classrooms. Facilitator training and technical
support are required to ensure efficient and
effective operations.
Effectiveness
+/-
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Criteria Applied to Interactive Video Teletraining (IVT) (Continued)
Criteria
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Application to ITV
Requires active preproduction planning,
coordination, rehearsals, and formal instructor
training to ensure successful ITV instruction.
But overall instructor requirements may be
reduced if multiple iterations of the course are
planned.
Provides verbal communication and interaction
by the students; but there is little direct
interaction with the medium.
Allows for immediate verbal and visual feedback
to the student. However, instructors cannot
visually observe or receive visual feedback from
the students.
Live broadcasts allow for immediate changes to
the instruction.
Students and DL site facilitators will require
training in the use of equipment.
training instruction accomplished using other
media.
Table 28 Criteria Applied to ITV
Effectiveness
-/+
+
+/-
+
-/+
+
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Criteria Applied to Video Teleconferencing (VTC)

Overview
Video Teleconferencing (VTC) provides two-way, site-to-site, or

site-to-multiple site video and audio instruction, simultaneously
transmitted over satellite or terrestrial lines. The following table
applies the criteria to the use of VTC as the primary instructional
medium.
Criteria
Application to VTC
Developmental
Requires more advanced planning, preparation,
Effort
organization and coordination than ITV.
Convenience of
Live lessons are scheduled only at specific
Instruction
times, and because VTC broadcasts are
accomplished in real-time, the student has little
control of the timing, sequence and pacing of the
instruction. Success is also contingent on even
more technologies working without problems.
Transmission/reception problems can interfere
with flow of instruction. Has the advantage of
distance learning in that the student does not
have to travel to the training site whereat which
the instruction is being conducted.
Student Motivation Can provide a means for conducting live, fullmotion interactive video training. Allows twoway visual and audio communications between
the participants at the remote locations.
Provides wider access to instructors/ subject
matter experts.
Equipment/Support Requires special production equipment at all
Requirements
participating sites. Requires the availability and
access to VTC facilities and classrooms.
Facilitator training and technical support are
required at all sites to ensure efficient and
effective operations. VTC systems for education
and training are not widely available in the AF.
Effectiveness
+/-
Criteria Applied to Video Teleconferencing (VTC) (Continued)
AFH 36-2235
Criteria
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Application to VTC
Requires active preproduction planning,
coordination, rehearsals, and formal instructor
training to ensure successful VTC instruction.
But overall instructor requirements may be
reduced if multiple iterations of the course are
planned.
Provides for verbal and visual communications
and interaction among the participants. The
number of sites and students may need to be
limited to allow adequate interaction and direct
observation of the students by the instructor.
Allows for immediate verbal and visual feedback
at selected sites.
Live broadcasts allow for immediate changes to
the instruction.
Requires training for instructors, students, and
facilitators in the use of the VTC
communications equipment at all sites.
training instruction accomplished using other
media.
138
Effectiveness
-/+
+
+
+
Table 29 Criteria Applied to VTC

Potential
applications
Consider using IVT technologies when:

Many iterations of the same course are planned and
projected travel costs for attendees are substantial.
There is an emergency training requirement to train a large
number of geographically separated people in a short period
of time.
A subject matter expert will conduct special or one-time
training instruction and attendees are geographically
separated or subject matter expert cannot be physically
present.
ITV applications are suitable for large audiences when there
is no requirement for the instructor to observe student
performance.
VTC is suitable for applications involving a limited number of
sites or limited student enrollments.
AFH 36-2235
IVT cost/benefit
considerations
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139
Since VTC lessons increase satellite uplink/bandwidth

requirements, equipment, and support costs, the necessity of
two-way video communication for delivery of instruction and
accomplishment of learning objectives must be considered. Also,
scrambling of the IVT transmission will require additional
equipment, personnel, and increase costs.
The use of existing networks and facilities or the ability to lease
networks and facilities can drive the decision to use ITV instead
of VTC. Air Force users should leverage the existing ATN,
Warrior Network, and GEWTN infrastructure.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning IVTbased course will reduce the instructional time required to cover
the same material in a resident course by 20-30%.
estimates (per hour of compressed instruction) (excludes
rehearsals and broadcasts):
Low Complexity
Moderate Complexity
High Complexity
10 hours
90 hours
250 hours
AFH 36-2235
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Criteria Applied to Internet Based Instruction (IBI)

Overview
Criteria
Developmental
Effort
Convenience of
Instruction
Student
Motivation
Equipment/
Support
Requirements
Instructor
Requirements
Level of
Interactivity
Feedback
Capability
Internet Based Instruction (IBI) is instruction that makes use of

Internet technologies. The following table applies the criteria for
instruction that combines text, multimedia, and conferencing
techniques delivered over the Internet.
Application to IBI
Effectiveness
Requires careful planning, coordination, and
support to fully develop and integrate the IBI
technologies into an effective and efficient
instructional system.
Can be synchronous or asynchronous, self+
paced or group-paced. Allows participants to
communicate and interact independent of time
and distance.
When properly developed and employed, IBI can
++
facilitate a high level of learning. Capable of
combining self-paced instruction with group and
instructor interaction.
Requires reliable and consistent access to a
properly configured networked computer, and
availability of technical support. An on-line
student help desk is necessary if an instructor,
facilitator, or proctor is not always available to
answer questions.
In addition to instructing, the instructor must also
facilitate, moderate, and manage student
discussions and interactions. Life cycle instructor
requirements may be reduced by converting
course to text or multimedia format. Virtual
conferencing may increase instructor life cycle
requirements.
High level of student interaction with the
+
instructor, other students, and the instructional
content is possible.
Provides various feedback vehicles and methods;
+
feedback mechanisms must be built into
asynchronous training programs.
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Criteria Applied to Internet Based Instruction (IBI) (Continued)
Criteria
Ease of Revision
Ease of Use
Versatility
Application to IBI
The Internet is used for the distribution of training
materials; the format of that material dictates the
relative ease/difficulty of the revision process.
Users have immediate access to course updates.
proficiency training will be required for instructors
and students to ensure they can use the
instructional media effectively.
The various IBI technologies can be employed
separately as the primary instructional delivery
medium, or used in collaboration with each other
as an integrated instructional system.
Effectiveness
+/-
Table 30 Criteria Applied to IBI

Potential
applications
IBI is appropriate when:

Students are widely dispersed and real-time interaction is
required between students and instructors.
Rapidly changing electronic data must be transferred to
students.
IBI cost/benefit
considerations
The Internet is used for the distribution of training materials; the

format of that material dictates the development time and life cycle
costs of the training materials.
Compression rate: It is estimated that a distance learning IBIbased course will save the following estimated percentages of the
instructional time required to cover the same material in a resident
course.
25% if text-based
35% if multimedia-based
0% if virtual conferencing-based
Estimated development time: Refer to medium selected for
development of training materials. Ensure adequate testing and
quality review of materials is built into the schedule and that
materials to be transmitted over the Internet can be downloaded
and/or managed by the receiving systems.
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Support Technology
Introduction
By definition, support technologies are used to support, or

augment, instructional programs. They may be integrated into
the instructional program or be used in conjunction with other
technologies as separate components of the instructional
program. In this section, each support technology is examined in
terms of its strengths and weaknesses when employed to support
the other technologies used as the primary means of delivering
training.
Electronic testing
The strengths and weaknesses of electronic testing are

summarized as follows:
Electronic testing
strengths
Electronic testing strengths include:

Automates the testing process and eliminates the task of
manually tabulating, recording, and assessing the test
results.
Provides for random selection of test items and creation of
individualized tests.
When properly designed, developed, and employed,
electronic testing can instruct, as well as evaluate.
High level of student interaction with test content is possible.
Provides immediate feedback on student performance
provides immediate test results.
Provides for electronic storage and retrieval of test data
which facilitates timely updates/revisions and better version
control.
Reduces future time and effort required to administer and
manage the testing.
Can be employed as standalone support tool or integrated
into a computer-based instructional program.
Electronic testing
weaknesses
Electronic testing weaknesses include:

Requires some planning and coordination to effectively
design, develop, and integrate electronic testing capabilities
into an instructional program.
Requires reliable and secure access to a properly configured
computer.
AFH 36-2235
Electronic testing
weaknesses
(Continued)
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143
Security is an issue. Verification is required to ensure that

the individual taking the test is indeed the student. An
instructor, facilitator, or proctor is usually required to verify
student identification and monitor the testing.
Formal testing is normally a structured activity requiring
students to participate at a specific time and location.
Some degree of computer literacy and training will normally
be required for instructors and students to ensure they can
effectively use of the instructional media for testing purposes.
CMI
The strengths and weaknesses of computer-managed instruction

(CMI) are summarized as follows:
CMI strengths
CMI strengths include:

Reduces instructor time required for development and
management of class data.
Can provide timely feedback on student status and
performance (progress reports are easily produced).
Reduces time and effort required for student administration
and management.
Generally transparent to the student.
Usually embedded in ICW; no special development or
delivery equipment required.
Revision capability usually built into CMI software; updates
accomplished with relative ease.
Greatly facilitates data collection and management relative to
the instructional program (numbers of students trained,
location of trainees, attrition rates, etc.)
CMI weaknesses
CMI weaknesses include:

Requires some planning and coordination to design, develop,
and integrate CMI capabilities effectively into an instructional
program.
Requires development software (though usually embedded in
authoring systems) and skilled developers.
Some degree of computer literacy and training will normally
be required for instructors and students to access CMI data.
When used with other than ICW, separate equipment may be
required.
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Electronic help
desk
The strengths and weaknesses of the Electronic Help Desk are

Electronic help
desk strengths
Electronic help desk strengths include:
144
Provides quick response to student inquiries, increasing

sense of interaction.
If purely electronic, there is minimal cost once established.
Easy way to provide reference materials to students
prevents having to e-mail materials to individuals; enables
students to answer their own questions.
Electronic help
desk weaknesses
Electronic help desk weaknesses include:

Mechanisms must be established to address all user
contacts, either through direct response or through referrals.
Help desks must be staffed with knowledgeable people; there
may be a requirement for extended hours to support students
of distance learning programs who are in different time zones
or who may be studying during non-business hours.
If student responses are not addressed in a timely manner,
student interest could be negatively affected.
Maintaining the help desk and ensuring help desk staff have
complete and accurate information requires planning and
coordination.
The student-to-help desk support personnel ratio must be
calculated realistically. Like instructors who are expected to
respond to hundreds of e-mails while teaching a regular
course load, help desk personnel can be inundated with
requests the end result is poor quality service.
For purely electronic help desks, an effective search engine
may be required to facilitate student research on a help topic.
Electronic
publications
The strengths and weaknesses of electronic publications,

including interactive electronic technical manuals (IETMs), are
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145
Electronic
publications
strengths
Electronic publications strengths include:
Electronic
publications
weaknesses
Electronic publications weaknesses include:
Electronic support
The strengths and weaknesses of e-mail, electronic bulletin

boards (EBB), and fax conferencing are summarized as follows:
Enables the user to gain rapid access to large amounts of

information on demand during training or at the work site.
When properly designed, developed, and employed, IETMs
provide search capabilities that can instruct as well as
provide information.
Hypertext can be incorporated to facilitate linking to related
sections internal to the IETM, or, if employed on Internetcapable system, to related websites on the Internet.
Reduces instructor/expert support requirements. Allows
users to access necessary information and perform tasks
with a minimum amount of external intervention or training.
High level of user interaction and branching with the IETM
support system content is possible.
Generally, user-friendly. Some training will normally be
required for instructors and students to ensure they can
effectively access and use the available information.
Can be employed separately (portable), or integrated into the
instructional system (can become an effective Job
Performance Aid).
The time, resources, and effort required to develop an IETM

vary depending on the complexity and content of the
application. Careful planning, coordination, and support will
be required to fully integrate IETM into an instructional
system.
Requires IETM delivery device/computer availability at each
work site/station for user access.
Revisions are usually costly; best used for stable designs. It
is feasible to accomplish minor database/technical
information updates in a relatively short period of time if
required.
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E-mail strengths
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146
E-mail strengths include:

Facilitates individualized student-instructor communications
in a distance learning environment.
Can be used to communicate with students before they
attend a resident course of instruction (to lessen course time
spent on administrative matters).
User-friendly; requires minimal user training.
E-mail weaknesses
E-mail weaknesses include:

Can require a significant amount of instructor time if total
student population is large. Instructor support may be
required to handle communications in a timely manner.
E-mail is vulnerable to failure.
EBB strengths
EBB strengths include:

Facilitates announcements to all participants (e.g.,
assignments; conferencing times/locations; responses to
frequently asked questions).
Not time-dependent; users can access information at any
time.
After initial set-up, requires little preparation.
Minimal computer literacy required to access and employ
EBB.
EBB weaknesses
EBB weaknesses include:

Requires technical support for set-up and administration of
EBB (e.g., adding new users).
EBBs can be filled with junk mail; limits on posting access
rights may be required.
Security is an issue unless encrypted, virtually anything
placed on the internet can be accessed by others.
AFH 36-2235
Fax conferencing
strengths
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147
Fax conferencing strengths include:

Facilitates transfer of technical data; useful when supporting
audio and/or video conferencing.
Equipment requirements are minimal.
User-friendly requires minimal user training.
Fax conferencing
weaknesses
Fax conferencing weaknesses include:

Faxing to multiple sites can interrupt flow of interactive
conferences.
Quality of faxed copy is highly variable.
Requires access to fax machine.
Voice mail
The strengths and weaknesses of voice mail are summarized as

follows:
Voice mail
strengths
Voice mail strengths include:

Minimal set-up and maintenance.
Provides inexpensive vehicle for asynchronous
communications between instructors and students in support
of DL or resident instruction.
Capable of screening and routing incoming student calls.
Voice mail
weaknesses
Voice mail weaknesses include:

Voice mail capacity may be limited; student frustration could
be a problem if prevented from leaving messages due to
capacity limits.
Like e-mail, voice mail can require a significant amount of
management on the part of the instructor or administrative
personnel if student population is large.
While voice messages can be archived, there is usually a
capacity limit there is no communication trail to document
commitments/expectations or other decisions reached.
Computer-based voice mail requires special equipment and
software not yet widely used.
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Student response
units
The strengths and weaknesses of student response units (SRUs)

are summarized as follows:
Student response
unit strengths
Student response unit strengths include:

Provides for confidential student responses so that instructor
can assess student understanding without embarrassing
students.
Facilitates reinforcement of learning.
Provides for data collection so that instructional staff can
analyze student responses and identify areas of instruction
needing improvement.
Can be used effectively to support brainstorming, team
building, and consensus building activities.
Student response
unit weaknesses
Student response unit weaknesses include:

Requires some preparation to structure the learning
experience to make the most of SRU capabilities.
Requires special equipment and instructor familiarity with the
capabilities of SRUs.
May be expensive to implement.
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Section C
Curriculum Analysis and Media Feasibility
Overview
This section describes the steps for conducting a curriculum and

media feasibility analysis the analytical process of identifying
and prioritizing media based on their capability to accomplish
instructional goals. The process incorporates several phases:
Review of learning objectives and levels of learning.
Identification of instructional modules that appropriately group
objectives into manageable chunks of instruction.
Assessment of the importance of instructional design
characteristics and strategies.
Comparative analysis of the capability of various media to
satisfactorily fulfill the instructional design characteristics.
The media feasibility analysis is designed for use by the IT
project manager/instructional designer with ultimate responsibility
for conducting a front-end analysis (FEA). It must be completed
in conjunction with the course manager or primary customer
capable of providing course and student data.
The purpose of this analysis, when combined with an initial
resource and infrastructure analysis and a comparative cost
analysis, is to identify viable, cost-effective technology options.
Background
The media feasibility process begins only after the needs

analysis, task analysis, and objectives and tests have been
accomplished. A needs assessment is completed by the
training/course manager, or in some cases by a career field
functional manager, to identify appropriate solutions to defined
problems. If the needs assessment identified a training problem
or an educational deficiency, then a task analysis (educational
elements refer to this as an instructional requirements analysis) is
performed to define the content of what should be taught. This
leads to defining specifically what a learner will do with the
content by clearly writing learning objectives and tests. At this
point, a media feasibility analysis should be performed.
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The Task Analysis identifies the types of learning, i.e., the

Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSA), that are required for a
new IT-based lesson. KSAs are the human performance factors
that are required to perform a job task:
Knowledge is what an individual needs to know before
performing a procedure under normal conditions. This is the
ability to recognize and state facts, rules, procedures,
discriminations, and problem solutions that are related to the
performance of normal procedures. Knowledge must be
retained in long-term memory (cognitively internalized) prior to
performance of job tasks (educational elements refer to this
as cognitive activities).
Skills are what an individual physically needs to be able to do
in performing a procedure under normal conditions. These
are the physical abilities or actions that are associated with
the performance of normal procedures (educational elements
refer to this as behavioral activities).
Attitudes are the Judgment and Decision-Making (JDM)
Knowledge and Skills that an individual needs to apply in
response to abnormal or emergency condition cues
encountered during the performance of normal procedures.
Attitudes encompass Situational Awareness Knowledge and
Resource Management Skills (countermeasures) for abnormal
and emergency conditions (educational elements refer to this
as affective activities).
The Learning Analysis defines the Levels of Learning for each
KSA identified during the Task Analysis process.
The KSA levels of learning represent a hierarchy of learning
behaviors from simple to complex.
With each level of learning, there are associated action verbs
that describe the learning behavior.
The associated action verb and the performance standard for
each KSA learning behavior are determined, and the KSA
learning objectives with learning conditions, behavior, and
performance standards are documented.
An outline of instruction is developed for each learning
objective, and the learning objectives are sequenced into
modules of instruction.
AFH 36-2235
Curriculum and
learning objective
analysis steps
Volume 5
1 November 2002
151
The five steps involved with Curriculum and Learning Objective

Analysis are:
Step 1: Identify a particular piece of instruction that you will
analyze. This piece of instruction may range from a section of a
course, to an entire course, to a group of related courses.
Step 2: Collect all related instructional documents and the
outline of instruction. Review the objectives to ensure they are
clearly written and describe a specific learning outcome.
Step 3: Identify each objective by KSA type based on the
behavioral action verb (MIL-PRF-29612 and supporting
handbooks; AFH 36-2235, Vol. 10).
Step 4: Determine the level of learning and the level of
interactivity for each KSA learning objective (MIL-PRF-29612 and
supporting handbooks; AFH 36-2235, Vol. 10).
Step 5: Review the instructional methodologies used to teach
each learning objective in the current course (AFH 36-2235, Vol.
10).
Identification of
instructional
modules steps
Step 1: Organize the objectives into manageable modules or

chunks of instruction. Resequence the objectives if necessary.
The following criteria may help you define a module:
Group by types of objectives knowledge, skill, or attitude.
Group optional or supplemental content not required by all
students.
Group content that is self-contained and could be exported
independent of the rest of the course.
Group segments of instruction that are managed or taught by
different departments or whose personnel do not have full
knowledge of the requirements of the other blocks of
instruction.
Group rapidly changing content that will require frequent
updates.
AFH 36-2235
Identification of
instructional
modules steps
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
152
Step 2: Identify specific attributes of each module that might

affect conversion to an instructional technology format. For
example:
Course materials are subject to frequent changes.
Guest speakers from outside the command are used.
External guest speakers are used.
Extensive student research is required.
Small student-to-instructor ratios are required.
Extensive student interaction with instructional materials is
required.
A long period of time is required to learn the objective.
Real-time, one-on-one instructor observation of the student is
required to ensure mastery of a skill objective.
Copyright restrictions.
Course materials are classified secret or higher.
Media feasibility
steps
After defining the modules and determining the learning

objectives that are to be migrated to an instructional technology
format, perform the following media feasibility steps for each
module:
Step 1: Determine the Importance Factor for each of the
following instructional design characteristics that are required to
meet the learning objectives associated with a module. Ask:
how important is it that the medium selected be able to
accommodate each characteristic. Rate each characteristic on a
scale of 0 (least important) to 5 (most important):
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Media feasibility
steps (Continued)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
1 November 2002
153
Instructional Design Characteristics

Allow real-time interaction between students
and instructor.
Allow real-time interaction and collaboration
among students (group interaction).
Provide instructional feedback from
programmed or system (non-human) sources.
Allow self-pacing of instruction.
Allow learner control of scope and sequence of
instruction.
Support individualized instruction (ability to
adapt to learners needs).
Support privacy of student inquiry and
response.
Fit various student schedules.
Allow short-notice changes to the curriculum.
Support inclusion of job task realism and
emulated or simulated job task scenarios.
Support inclusion of high quality, color, still
graphics.
Support animated 2D or 3D graphics.
Support full-motion video.
Provide high-fidelity audio.
Support higher levels of knowledge learning
(cognitive skills).
Support higher levels of skill learning
(psychomotor skills).
Support higher levels of attitude learning
(Judgment and Decision-Making KSA and
affective learning).
Be retained as a reference tool for later
applications.
Support student accessibility.
Support sporadic, uneven student loads.
Provide just-in-time access of stable for a task
or procedure.
Importance
Factor
AFH 36-2235
Media feasibility
steps (Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002

22. Provide just-in-time access to volatile content
for a task or procedure.
23. Allow observation of performance.
154
Importance
Factor
Table 31 Instructional Design Characteristics Rating Table

Step 2: Determine each mediums ability to meet each
Instructional Design Characteristic. In the following table, Media
Feasibility Matrix, each instructional design characteristic is
matrixed with types of media. Each medium has been assigned
a Rating Score from 0 (cannot meet the characteristic) to 3
(meets the characteristic effectively). The matrix spans two
pages and incorporates all media presented.
Multiply the Importance Factor that was determined for each
Instructional Design Characteristic by the Rating Score and
record the Total Score for each type of instructional medium.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
155
Media Feasibility Matrix

P: Print
AT: Audio
Tape
VT: Videotape
AC: Audio
Conferencing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Allow real-time interaction between students and

instructor.
Allow real-time interaction with other students (group
interaction).
Provide instructional feedback from programmed or
system (non-human) sources.
Allow self-pacing of instruction.
Allow learner control of scope and sequence of
instruction.
Support individualized instruction (ability to adapt to
learners needs).
Support privacy of student inquiry and response.
Fit various student schedules.
Allow short-notice changes to the curriculum.
Support inclusion of job task realism and emulated
or simulated job task scenarios.
Support inclusion of high quality, color, still graphics.
Support animated 2D or 3D graphics.
Support full motion video.
Provide high-fidelity audio.
Support higher levels of knowledge learning
(cognitive skills).
Support higher levels of skill learning (psychomotor
skills).
Support higher levels of attitude learning (Judgment
and Decision-Making KSA and affective learning).
Be retained as a reference tool for later applications.
Support student accessibility.
Support sporadic, uneven student enrollments.
Provide just-in-time access to stable content for a
task or procedure.
Provide just-in-time access to volatile content for a
task or procedure.
Allow observation of performance.
AG: Audio
Graphics
CMC:
ComputerMediated
Conferencing
AT
VT
AC
CMC
A
G
3
3
1
2
1
2
1
1
0
2
1
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
3
1
2
0
1
3
1
0
1
2
2
0
3
3
1
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
2
3
3
3
3
2
0
0
0
3
2
3
1
2
3
2
1
0
0
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
3
1
0
AFH 36-2235
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1 November 2002
156
Media Feasibility Matrix

Instructional Design
Characteristics
1.
Allow real-time interaction

between students and
instructor.
2. Allow real-time interaction
with other students (group
interaction).
3. Provide instructional
feedback from programmed
or system (non-human)
sources.
4. Allow self-pacing of
instruction.
5. Allow learner control of
scope and sequence of
instruction.
6. Support ability to adapt to
learners individual learning
needs
7. Support privacy of student
inquiry and response.
8. Fit various student
schedules.
9. Allow short-notice changes
to the curriculum.
10. Support inclusion of job task
realism and emulated or
simulated job task scenarios.
11. Support inclusion of high
quality, color, still graphics.
12. Support animated 2D or 3D
graphics.
13. Support full motion video.
14. Provide high-fidelity audio.
15. Support higher levels of
knowledge learning
(cognitive skills).
ICW
JPA,
EPSS
CS
ITV
VTC
IBI
TG
IBI
MM
IBI
VC
IBI
DVC
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
0
0
1
2
2
2
0
2
3
2
2
2
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Media Feasibility Matrix (Continued)

Instructional Design
ICW
Characteristics
16. Support higher levels of skill

learning (psychomotor skills).
17. Support higher levels of
attitude learning (Judgment
and Decision-Making KSA
and affective learning)
18. Be retained as a reference
tool for later applications.
19. Support student accessibility.
20. Support sporadic, uneven
enrollments.
21. Provide just-in-time access
to stable content for a task or
procedure.
22. Provide just-in-time access
to volatile content for a task
or procedure.
23. Allow observation of student
performance.
157
JPA,
EPSS
CS
ITV
VTC
IBI
TG
IBI
MM
IBI
VC
IBI
DVC
2
3
2
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
1
1
0
1
ICW: Interactive
Courseware
JPA/EPSS: Job
Performance Aid/
Electronic Performance
Support System
CS: Computer Simulation
ITV: Interactive Television
VTC: Video
Teleconference
IBI T/G: Text and Graphics
IBI MM: Multimedia
IBI VC: Virtual Conference
IBI DVC: Desktop Video

Conference
Media feasibility
steps (Continued)
Step 3: Calculate the totals for each medium. The Total Score
that was computed for each medium indicates the mediums
appropriateness for the migration of resident instruction to an
instructional technology or distance learning format.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Media feasibility
steps (Continued)
1 November 2002
158
Step 4. Identify potential media. The media receiving the

highest Total Scores are potential tools for conversion of resident
instruction. This selection process is not a final decision for
migration of learning objectives to instructional technology, or for
selection of a particular type of media.
Review the data, and take a hard look at the characteristics
that were rated as a 4 or 5 Importance Factor. Ensure
that the characteristics merit a high Importance Factor.
Consider only those distances learning media with the
highest Total Scores that are capable of satisfying your
critical Importance Factor characteristics and learning
objectives.
Media feasibility
software
Commercial software is available to conduct an automated media

feasibility analysis that utilizes the model described above. It
includes a comparative cost analysis module that will allow you to
estimate and compare the costs of various technologies to the
cost of traditional classroom instruction. It will generate
estimated and actual resource utilization charts, return on
investment, and the breakeven point.
To obtain information on how to obtain this software, contact the
AFIADLO or check the AFIADLO Web site
http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/.
Other instructional
technology
selection models
The Government developed the Automated Instructional Media

Selection (AIMS) Model to allocate selected media to specific
training objectives for the Air Force Primary Aircrew Training
System (AFPATS) Ground Based Training System (GBTS).
AIMS was developed in 1992 from a synthesis of current
instructional delivery technology selection models.
AIMS derived instructional characteristics and attributes
associated with specific learning objectives, and matrixed the
instructional characteristics against a pool of available media
to define the instructional media which could best deliver the
required instructional characteristics of each learning
objective.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Other instructional
technology
selection models
(Continued)
1 November 2002
159
The concepts of the AIMS Model have been incorporated in

the instructional delivery technology selection process
described in:
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
160
Section D
Infrastructure and Resource Feasibility Analysis
Introduction
There are several very important questions that must be

answered before the decision is made to actually convert existing
courses, or course modules, to distance learning instruction, or
before the decision is made to insert technology into the resident
program. You must also look at infrastructure and resource
requirements.
This feasibility analysis is not intended to be a complete
instructional technology resource analysis. Additional detailed
information will be required for Front End Analysis (FEA). It will,
however, give decision-makers an estimate of the relative
magnitude of a project and whether or not conversion to
instructional technology or distance learning is do-able with
existing resources. If existing resources are not available, initiate
steps to fund and acquire them.
Infrastructure and
resource issues
Consider the following:

How critical is the conversion project to mission readiness?
Includes a review of the intended goals of the project and an
understanding of whether the project is being undertaken
because it is mission critical, (resources must be allocated) or
to save money (resources will be allocated only if return on
investment is favorable), for example.
What resources are required to deliver the instruction in its
current format and what are the current costs?
Consider all categories of resources to include instructor and
student personnel costs, and other direct and indirect costs.
The next section on cost analysis lists the primary resource
categories.
Is the technical infrastructure in place to support the
implementation of the project?
AFH 36-2235
Infrastructure and
resource issues
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
161
Determine if instructional systems are available for the

development and delivery of IT courseware. Will students
have adequate access to the system? If it is feasible to use
more than one media for a project, select the one that has a
robust infrastructure already in place; or be prepared to fund
and perhaps build, the required architecture.
Is the organizational, administrative, and technical support
structure adequate to ensure successful implementation of the
project?
This is usually not a big problem if the project involves
technology insertion in the resident program but may be very
problematic in the DL environment. Includes everything from
a consideration of student registration procedures to DL site
personnel who will help facilitate the project in the field. (See
section D, Chapter 2).
Is manpower available and trained to perform all ISD functions
and to successfully field the project?
Includes instructors and facilitators, administration support
personnel, students at anticipated remote site, and the IT core
team and development team.
Is commercial off the shelf (COTS) courseware available?
Always look for existing solutions to avoid duplication of effort.
Is Defense Technical Information Service (DITIS) or Defense
Audio Visual Information Service (DAVIS) available?
These databases have an abundant amount of existing
courseware.
Is funding available for in-house or contracted efforts?
Determine what the budget constraints are first.
AFH 36-2235
Infrastructure and
resource issues
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
162
What is the estimated length of time required to get resources

and funding in place?
Compare this and the estimated development time for a given
technology to the required operational date or estimated time
of completion.
Next step
If, based on the answers to the above questions, you determine

that conversions to certain instructional technologies is practical
(you may have excluded some technologies due to lack of
infrastructure), you should conduct a cost analysis to compare
the cost of current instruction to other appropriate IT options and
to estimate the overall cost of the project.
AFH 36-2235
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163
Section E
Comparative Cost Analysis
Overview
Before making a final selection of instructional media, it is

important to determine if the potential benefits accrued by
distance learning or technology insertion outweigh the potential
costs, or whether the instruction will be cost-effective and provide
an acceptable Return On Investment (ROI).
The purpose of a cost analysis is to provide the necessary
information to facilitate and improve the evaluation and decisionmaking processes. Therefore, it is important that an accurate
and comprehensive analysis of cost/benefit data be
accomplished. This section provides:
An overview of the concepts involved in cost analysis.
The typical cost and benefit factors considered in the
analysis.
A general approach for selecting or developing an
appropriate cost model.
There are automated cost analysis tools available that can be
used to assist decision-makers. Refer to the AFIADLO Web site
(http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/ http://www.au.af.mil/afdlo) for
the most current cost analysis information and references.
Basic cost analysis

approaches
The focus of the cost analysis and the basic approach taken will
depend on what you intend to assess. If you are assessing
whether training is working, or if training solves a problem, then
you must assess the outcomes. If you are assessing how to
reduce training costs, or the most efficient way to conduct
training, then you must assess elements other than outcomes.
The two general types of cost analyses are:
Cost/benefit analysis. Cost/benefit analysis is used when
decision-makers need to understand the full impact of an
alternative, not only the financial costs of the alternative, but
also qualitative costs and benefits. This approach to
decision-making is used when the objective is to select that
instructional alternative which presents the best value and
this may result in the selection of other than the lowest cost
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Basic cost analysis

approaches
(Continued)
1 November 2002
164
alternative. When comparing alternative approaches to

training, a cost/benefit analysis is often performed for each
alternative and then the results are compared.
Cost-effectiveness analysis. This analysis is used when
cost is the major decision factor. Compares the costs of two
or more instructional alternatives to determine whether the
selected medium can reduce costs, or is the most efficient
method of instruction. For instance, does a move to
interactive media training save time and money?
Cost modeling
definition
Effective cost analysis relies on the implementation of carefully

constructed financial models of training. A model defines:
The variables involved in calculating the cost of training.
The relationship of those variables to one another.
The assumptions being made.
Variables might include labor, materials, equipment, facilities, and
travel expenses.
A model places the variables in an equation to represent training
costs. For example:
TC = L + M + E + F + T
Where (TC) training costs are the sum of the (L) labor, (M)
materials, (E) equipment, (F) facilities, and (T) travel.
A model dictates what data is to be collected. That is, it
determines what costs are to be measured.
Cost factors
A valid cost analysis must be complete. All costs involved in all

aspects of design, development, evaluation, and implementation
of the training must be included. Both the one-time start-up
costs and recurring operational costs need to be considered in
the analysis. Thus, the first step in conducting any type of cost
analysis is to identify all the costs that must be defined (figuring
AFH 36-2235
Cost factors
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
165
out the actual costs for each cost category comes next). When
determining the cost categories, remember that these costs will
have to be defined for each alternative being analyzed. The
typical cost factors include:
Hardware and Software Costs: computer systems,
production equipment, training equipment, programming and
application software, etc.
Network/Telecommunications Costs: telecommunications
costs/fees as applicable to include access/user costs for
satellite and terrestrial networks.
Instructional Material Costs: purchase, production, and
distribution costs for courseware and other instructional
materials.
Personnel Costs: manpower costs for instructors, facilitators,
instructional developers, programmers, technicians,
maintainers, administrators, participants time spent in
training, etc., as applicable.
Maintenance Costs: repair, upgrade, and replacement of
equipment, and the revision and maintenance of courseware.
Travel and Per Diem Costs: travel to/from the schoolhouse
or training site.
Other Support Costs: administrative, contract, overhead,
facilities, etc.
Training Attendance Costs: participants time spent in
training; lost productivity or cost of replacing the individual
while in training.
Instructor Costs: Instructors time spent in training, lost
productivity or cost of replacing the individual while in training.
Other Instructional Development Costs: Non-personnel
resources used during the design and development of the
training materials.
AFH 36-2235
Cost factors
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
166
Course Metrics: Expected course life; course length;

number of students in each class; number of times the
course is to be presented; number of instructors per class
Others: Opportunity costs (lost sales); production and
materials cost; development and evaluation time.
Benefits
Measuring the direct benefits or results of the instruction is a

more complex task since some benefits may be difficult to
quantify. The objective is to attach a cost or quantitative value to
each benefit and each benefit must be derived from the
instructional alternative being examined. That is, there may be
other factors that contribute to a given benefit; the analyst must
isolate and measure only the effects of training. Typical benefits
to consider include:
Reduced training time: Reductions may be realized in
facility, personnel, and TDY costs, as well as less
nonproductive/lost time while student is in training.
Reduced material costs: Potential cost savings for revision,
distribution, and maintenance of instructional
materials/courseware in electronic format versus printed or
hard copy materials.
Improved on-the-job safety: Translates into fewer accidents
and increased productivity.
Improved job performance: Less time to
perform/accomplish tasks, increased
productivity/efficiency/quality of work, or improved
management/command/supervision/decision-making ability,
amount of positive versus negative feedback from clients,
changes in employee morale and motivation.
Reduced manpower requirements: Potential manpower
savings as a result of increased efficiency or productivity, less
supervision required, etc.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Benefits
(Continued)
1 November 2002
167
Reduced equipment requirement: Simulation training may

reduce the need, impact, or expense of allocating actual
equipment to train hands-on skills.
Higher equipment operational availability: Fewer
operator/maintainer errors, safety incidents/accidents, etc.,
may result in lower maintenance requirements and
equipment/system downtime.
Cost/benefit
models
There are many different types of cost/benefit models available,

from basic models, to very specific models tailored for a particular
type of training situation. The choice of the model is dictated by
the purpose of the assessment. Three of the most common
types of general cost models are:
Resource requirements model (additive model)
Life cycle model
ROI model
Resource
requirements
model
Phase
In general, the resource requirements model identifies the

associated costs over a specified time period. This type of model
(see example below) can be used to sum up the costs of a
particular instructional system during the various phases of
development for comparison with the costs of using other
instructional media. One matrix is developed for each medium or
approach being considered. The matrices are compared and
provide data to support selection of one alternative.
HW/SW
Costs
Network
Costs
Material
Costs
Personnel
Costs
Maintenance
Costs
Analysis
Design
Development
Implementation
Evaluation
Totals
Table 32 Instructional Design Characteristics
Travel
Costs
Other
Costs
AFH 36-2235
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168
Life cycle model
The life cycle cost model identifies the cost of the instructional
system over its useful life. This type of model looks at the initial
start-up costs for implementation and the recurring costs of a
particular instructional system based on the projected life cycle.
The initial start-up costs for technology-based instructional
systems are generally high as compared to the traditional
classroom lecture costs. However, when these initial costs are
amortized (start-up cost spread over the number of life cycle
years) and combined with the lower recurring costs, the actual
operating cost over the life cycle period is usually much less,
particularly when calculated as cost per student. That is, as the
number of students trained increases, the cost of training each
student decreases. The following diagram demonstrates this
principle.
Life cycle cost of

instructional
programs
In the following diagram, A represents a small technology-based

instructional program while B represents the same program
developed as a traditional lecture-based resident instructional
program. In this case, we are looking at the cost per student. At
about 380 students, the cost per student is the same for each
alternative. After that point, the cost of alternative A is less per
student. Cost savings are realized by introducing technology if
more than 380 students are to be trained.
AFH 36-2235
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169
Life cycle cost of instructional programs (Continued)
Figure 5 Example of Life Cycle Cost of Instructional Programs
Cost Per Student Analysis

$12,000
$10,000
Cost per Student
$8,000
$6,000
B
$4,000
$2,000
$100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Number of Students Trained
Return Of
Investment (ROI)
model
The ROI model addresses the effectiveness of the instructional

system in terms of a ratio of benefits versus costs. The ROI
model could be applied for various instructional systems to
determine the media with the highest ROI. For example if:
ROI = (value of benefits cost of instruction) / cost of
instruction
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
Return Of
Investment (ROI)
model (Continued)
1 November 2002
170
When comparing one system with a determined value of benefits

of $2,000 and a cost of $500, and another system with a value of
$1,500 and a cost of $1,000, the corresponding ROIs would be
as follows:
(1)
ROI: (2000 500) / 500 = 3
(2)
ROI: (3000 1500) / 1500 = 1
In this example, system (1) is more cost-effective.

Conducting the
cost analysis
The general steps associated with conducting a cost analysis are

depicted below. Although it shows a linear series of steps, the
actual analysis process may very well end up to be an iterative,
ongoing process many of the steps are performed concurrently
and feed into one another as the application of processes and
estimation techniques are refined. Teamwork is essential to
effective cost analysis the more expertise there is when
estimating costs and benefits, the better the chances of
establishing realistic cost comparisons.
Step 1. Determine the type of analysis to be conducted what

kind of results expected? (Refer to AFIADLO website
(http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/) for cost analysis guidance.)
Cost/Benefit compare and contrast costs and benefits of
proposed alternative approaches to training.
Cost-effectiveness cost comparison of alternative
systems/media.
Step 2. Identify cost factors and benefits or results that will be

measured.
Determine what it is that you want to measure what factors do
you want to compare? Consider the availability of the information
for each system/medium considered and document assumptions
made.
AFH 36-2235
Conducting the
cost analysis
(Continued)
Volume 5
1 November 2002
171
Step 3. Select/develop appropriate model that will provide the

desired results.
Resource requirements model
Life cycle model
ROI model
Other model(s)
Step 4. Collect data and ensure data is valid.

This can be the most time consuming part of the cost analysis
process. If you are comparing the cost of instructor-led resident
instruction to the cost of technology-based instruction, make sure
you understand what is included in the cost figures maintained for
resident instruction. Know what is meant by cost per student day,
or cost per graduate, etc. For example, are the cost of facilities
and manpower included in these cost figures? Be sure you
compare the same cost factors and DOCUMENT ALL
ASSUMPTIONS.
Step 5. Apply data to the model.

Step 6. Determine and assess the results.
AFH 36-2235
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172
Section F
Media Selection
Overview
After a Media Feasibility Analysis, Infrastructure/Resource

Feasibility Analysis and Cost Analysis have been accomplished,
perform a reality check on the media selected, and make a final
media selection/recommendation.
Issues
Cost and learning effective media selection requires a formal

decision process. Refer to Chapter 2 for information on the project
management process.
The personnel required to accomplish a Media Feasibility Analysis
are not the same as the personnel required to accomplish a Cost
Analysis. Refer to Chapter 2 for information on team composition
and coordination with other organizations.
Final media selection occurs only after a Media Feasibility
Analysis, Infrastructure/Resource Feasibility Analysis and a
Cost Analysis have been accomplished.
The final decision to convert a course or a module of
instruction to an IT format is made by the course or training
manager (or primary customer) based upon the results of the
analyses and the recommendation of the instructional
designer or project manager.
Next steps
The Project Manager/Instructional Designer documents and reports

findings to the primary customer. If the decision is made to
proceed with in-house development, the Instructional Technology
development team is assigned and a Memorandum of Agreement
(MOA) or a project plan is negotiated with the customer according
to the process described in Chapter 2. At this point, the IT
development team will update DITIS/DAVIS database if appropriate
to the selected medium, and initiate the project folder along with
man-hour data collection and life-cycle management.
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Front-end analysis
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173
Developing courseware requires a front-end analysis tailored to the

chosen instructional technology. Chapters 5-9 describe some of
the analysis issues pertinent to each media. A highly effective tool
for conducting a front-end analysis for computer-based media is
AL-TP-1991-0048, entitled Characterization of Air Force Training
and Computer-Based Training Systems, from Armstrong
Laboratory, Brooks AFB, TX.
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Chapter 5
ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR TRADITIONAL MEDIA
Overview
Introduction
This chapter describes ISD considerations for the analysis,

design, development, implementation, and evaluation of
traditional media.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains four sections:
Section
References
Title
Page
Print Materials
176
Videotape
187
Audiotape
198
Audioconferencing
209

ECI Guide for Authors, 1997, Fourteenth Edition, web site:
http://www.au.af.mil/au/oas/eci/eciproto.htm
Government Printing Office (GPO) Style Guide
AFH 36-2235
References
(Continued)
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1 November 2002
175

http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/ http://www.au.af.mil/afdlo
AFH 37-137, The Tongue and Quill
AFI 37-160, Air Force Publications and Forms Management
Programs Guide for Proponents of Air Force Publications,
Volume 5
AFM 37-126, Preparing Official Publications
AU Style Guide, web site:
http://www.au.af.mil/au/oas/aupress/style/
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Section A
Print Materials
Analysis Considerations
Why use print
materials?
Most current instruction is still accomplished primarily or in

conjunction with printed documents and materials. Print
materials will always have an important role in the delivery of
instruction.
Print materials serve as a basis for student learning by providing
information, facts, examples, and explanations. Examples of
print items include placards, flip charts, illustrated booklets, and
photographs. Print is also highly transportable and suitable for
self-instruction by students at any location. Technologies are
emerging that facilitate the production of materials by course
developers.
When to use print

materials
Print materials can be used to deliver:

An entire course of instruction that is based on cognitive
(knowledge) learning objectives (i.e., correspondence
courses).
Combined with other instructional technologies as collateral
material for any type of course.
Since print materials are passive in nature and can only provide
knowledge-based instruction, they would not be appropriate as
the primary media for accomplishing learning objectives that
require performance skills or a high level of interactivity and
communication with others. Print instruction is most effective
when it is integrated with other types of media and instruction.
General applications of print materials include:
Study Guides
Textbooks
Manuals, Workbooks, and outlines
Instructor/student guides
Documents
Illustrated booklets/handouts
AFH 36-2235
When to use print

materials
(Continued)
Print resource
requirements and
constraints
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Case studies
Scripts
Assignments and schedules
Tests, quizzes, and critiques
Pictures, drawings, and graphics
It is important to identify and assess the print resource
requirements and constraints. This will help to determine the
feasibility of using print instruction, and whether or not the print
materials should be produced in-house.
Equipment. Minimum required equipment would include a

PC (with a word processing/desktop publishing application),
high quality laser printer, and a collating copy machine.
Optional: Color-capable printer and copier.
Facilities. As a minimum, an office would be required with
the minimum equipment to produce the instruction.
Funding. Is there a budget? This factor will determine if
outsourcing is an option.
Personnel. Minimum recommended personnel would
include a Subject Matter Expert (SME), writer, editor, and
publisher. These would not necessarily be different
individuals. In some situations, they may be one and the
same person.
Time. Is there a time limit? Since the potential requirement
exists for the development and production of complete
textbooks, manuals, etc., which can be complex and time
consuming, time is a significant factor. Large in-house print
production efforts usually take longer than anticipated.
In-house
development or
outsource?
With the current availability of powerful, user-friendly desktop

publishing software, the capability to produce professionallooking print materials is now available to any user. However, to
produce professional-quality print materials, special designing,
writing, editing and publishing skills are still required. Therefore,
if quality is an issue and funding is available, consider using
professional publishing personnel.
For most applications, well-written print materials developed inhouse will effectively meet instructional requirements. The only
AFH 36-2235
In-house
development or
outsource?
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outside assistance that may be required is the reproduction of

copies for distribution. However, for the larger and more complex
instructional textbooks and manuals, a significant amount of time
and effort will be required to complete the task. This may
necessitate outsourcing some or all of the effort if unit personnel
will not have the time to produce the materials in-house.
At times, a mix of in-house developed materials and external
resources (i.e., stock photography) can be used to produce high
quality materials.
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Design Considerations
Determine the
objectives
Determine the specific knowledge and attitude objectives that

must be achieved. Decide what it is you want to do and
accomplish with the print materials.
Determine what
approach to use
Determine whether the print materials will be developed as the

primary instructional media, or used as collateral instruction for
other media.
Based on how the print instruction will be used, determine what
type of print materials should be employed to meet the specific
learning objectives (e.g., textbook, workbook, and student
guide)?
Design strategy
Determine the design strategy. Because print instruction is

mostly self-directed and self-paced, the print materials should be
designed to motivate, stimulate, and hold the attention and
interest of the student.
Determine what type of test and evaluation methods should be
used to measure the students comprehension of the instruction
provided. AF HDBK 36-2235, Volume 12, Test and
Measurement Handbook, provides general guidance.
General design
guidelines
Before designing the print materials, you should be aware of the

students reading skills and knowledge level of the subject
material. Consider the following guidelines when designing print
materials:
The print instruction should facilitate creative thinking,
encourage self-instruction, maximize interaction, and provide
a means for self-assessment.
The print instruction should be performance-oriented it
should tell the students what they need to know and what to
do.
The print instruction should use the full presentation
capabilities of print materials (pictures, diagrams, graphics,
color and text).
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General design
guidelines
(Continued)
What to do
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180
The print instruction should be provided in manageable

chunks.
The print instruction should correlate with other media
instruction provided.
For effective design, use:
Writing:
Plain conversational English.
The active voice and personal pronouns.
Short sentences.
A logical sequence for paragraphs and sentences (e.g.,
general then specific, right ways then wrong ways,
advantages then disadvantages).
Questions that focus on student understanding to help them
identify important material and make the desired inferences.
Humor constructively to improve student retention and
interest.
Visuals:
Examples and illustrations to link the familiar with the
unfamiliar.
Pictures to show spatial relationships and object form.
The same format throughout be consistent.
Eye-pleasing layout with lots of white space.
What not to do
Design considerations should avoid:

Irrelevant information and verbosity.
Compound sentences.
Complex and difficult words.
Double negatives.
Jargon.
Gender terms.
Develop an outline
Determine how the content will be organized and structured

based on the objectives and purpose of the instruction. Then
develop an outline of the material to be covered before you start
working on any of the content.
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Once you have developed an outline, you should probably get the
necessary coordination, evaluation, and approval of the outline
and design strategy before proceeding.
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Development Considerations
Where to go for
guidance
The following Internet sites can be accessed to obtain information

on AF and AETC publications, handbooks, instructions, etc., that
provide guidance related to the development of documentation.
http://afpubs.hq.af.mil
http://www.aetc.af.mil/m/
You will also need to consult any applicable MAJCOM,
Numbered Air Force, and local unit publications for guidance.
If the print materials will be used as the primary instructional
media for a correspondence type course, you should contact
AFIADLECI for initial guidance and reference information.
Gathering
information
The amount of time and effort that will be required to research the
subject and gather the required information will most likely
depend on the type(s) of print materials being developed
(textbook, workbook, study guide, lesson outline, etc.). This is
the key function in development process; so make sure sufficient
time is planned and allocated to do this.
If you are not the SME, then you will be working with a SME
during the development of the instruction. The SME is usually
the primary source of information. However, solicit inputs and
information from other sources such as the training manager,
technical experts, the other services, and DoD agencies as
applicable. Also, review any existing courseware and
technical/training materials.
Develop a draft
If you are writing the instruction yourself and you are not
somewhat proficient in using a PC or word processing
application, then you are already in trouble! Plan ahead and
obtain any necessary support or training.
While developing the draft, keep focused on the specific learning
objectives and make sure the content is relevant and useful.
Develop test questions and evaluation tools that will effectively
AFH 36-2235
Develop a draft
(Continued)
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measure the students knowledge of the required material,

provide feedback, and meet the specific learning objectives.
When the initial draft is complete, you may want to consider
conducting an internal review prior to the formal review and
coordination process. For an internal review, get as many eyes
as possible to look at the material. If feasible, include
disinterested third party people who do not have a stake in the
product.
Final review,
editing, and
approval
Conduct a summative evaluation and make any necessary

changes or edits to the material. If the preceding analysis,
design, and development processes were accomplished properly,
then very few changes will probably be required at this stage in
the game. Finally, go and get approval.
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Implementation Considerations
Print copy
reproduction
Determine if unit reproduction support or contract services are

already available to accomplish this task. If they are not, you will
need to determine if the capability exists to reproduce the print
materials in-house, and whether it would be cost-effective to do
so. A high quality laser printer will normally be required to
produce a camera-ready master copy of the printed materials for
reproduction. Also, a high speed collating copy machine should
be used if the multiple copies will be made in-house to minimize
the time and effort required.
If color copies are required, access to a color printer and copier
will be required unless commercial support is used.
Electronic copy
reproduction
Most units have established procedures, standards, and/or

methods for the format and electronic reproduction of courseware
materials. You will need to check with the unit administration or
training personnel for information.
Many print shops are now capable of generating print materials
from electronic files. Consult with your print shop before
formatting and laying out the materials. The print shop may
designate required formats for text, graphics, and other items.
They may also recommend the best way to organize the
document into a master file and sub files.
Distribution
Once again, most units have established procedures and

methods for the distribution of formal courseware materials,
including electronic versions. Assuming that you will not be
responsible for the actual distribution of the materials, you should
still make sure, as a minimum, that the distribution list is current.
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Evaluation Considerations
Evaluation of print
instruction
As with other instructional technologies, the evaluation process

for print instruction consists of a formative, summative, and
operational evaluation. If the print materials were developed as
supporting instruction for other instructional media, then these
materials should be evaluated as part of the primary
lesson/course evaluation.
The distance learning evaluation metrics are described in
Chapter 2. The general guidelines for evaluations are contained
in MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting handbooks.
This section addresses the special considerations for conducting
evaluations of print materials when developed as the primary
Formative
evaluation
The formative evaluation begins in the analysis phase and

continues through the development phase of the ISD process.
During the initial phases of development, the primary focus would
be on the technical accuracy of the learning objectives, content,
and test items.
Once draft versions of the materials are developed, individual and
small group tryouts of the instruction can be accomplished.
General areas to evaluate include:
Instructional material organization, structure, and format.
Content accuracy, relevancy, currency, effectiveness,
completeness, spelling, and grammar.
Use, clarity, and effectiveness of pictures, graphics,
diagrams, test questions, etc.
Student comprehension and accomplishment of the learning
objectives.
Results of these evaluations are used to revise and finalize the
print materials.
Summative
evaluation
The operational tryouts for the summative evaluation of the print

instruction should be conducted at various sites.
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Operational
evaluation
Volume 5
1 November 2002
The operational evaluation is an ongoing process that is

accomplished after the formative and summative evaluations.
This evaluation is based on internal and external feedback data
such as:
Instructor/facilitator comments (internal)
Student critiques (internal)
Test results (internal)
Inspection and evaluation reports (external)
To ensure the quality of the instruction is maintained, conduct
these evaluations on a regular basis. There is always room for
improvement.
186
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Section B
Videotape
When to use
videotape
In general, videotape would be appropriate for any instruction that

requires visual communication with the student (visual cues,
motion, actions, etc.). Videotape presentations can enhance, and
help clarify, the instruction provided. It is an effective medium to
use to reach large, widely distributed audiences.
Videotapes can be used:
To support or reinforce other instruction by providing visual
demonstrations of tasks, and showing actual equipment,
locations, people, etc.
To deliver instruction from instructors, technical experts, etc.,
that is not always available for live presentations at the
various sites.
When consistency/standardization of the instruction is
required at all sites.
If videotapes are used alone as the primary instructional media,
there is no guarantee that any learning will take place. For
videotapes to be effective, other collateral instructional materials
and activities should be used to reinforce the videotape
instruction.
Videotape resource
requirements and
constraints
It is important to identify and assess the videotape resource

feasibility of using videotape instruction, and whether or not the
video production capability exists in-house.
Equipment. Minimum required equipment would include

video camera(s), video cassette/tape recorder, TV monitor,
tripod, lighting equipment, microphones, and headphones.
Facilities. Can the taping be accomplished on site, or will a
production studio be required? If a production studio will be
used, is there one available in-house (e.g., IVT studio), or will
a studio need to be rented?
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Videotape resource
requirements and
constraints
(Continued)
1 November 2002
188
Funding. Is there a budget? This factor alone may

determine if outsourcing is even an option.
Personnel. This is a variable factor that may need to be
limited based on available resources. Assuming that
professional personnel are used, the production team may
include a production manager, producer, director, editor,
casting director, cast, camera crew, lighting/sound
technicians, stagehands, makeup person, and various other
assistants as desired.
Time. Is there a time limit? Since video production can be
complex and time consuming, time is a significant factor. Inhouse video productions almost always take longer than
anticipated or planned.
In-house
development or
outsource?
The production of professional quality videotapes requires years

of experience. If quality is an issue and funding is available,
consider using only professional production personnel. On the
other hand, considering that the most important factor from an
instructional standpoint is the content, a well-written script and a
home video camera may fit the bill. Obviously, the answer will
probably lie somewhere between these two. In any event, some
or all of the effort may need to be outsourced if the required
production resources are not available in-house.
Is videotape
cost-effective?
A good cost-effectiveness analysis will provide the answer.

However, assuming that the videotape will in fact meet the
required learning objectives, the initial cost, student throughput,
and content stability will probably be the key factors in this
determination. Therefore, make sure this data is accurate and
valid.
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Preproduction
The design phase, or preproduction phase, encompasses all of

the planning, design, and development that occurs prior to the
actual filming.
Determine the
objectives
Determining the specific objectives or purpose of the videotape is

critical since all of the following efforts will be based on meeting
those objectives. Decide what it is you want to do and
accomplish with the videotape instruction. It may be necessary to
limit the scope or purpose in order to effectively cover the
required subject/topic in the time allotted.
Determine what
approach to use
Solicit ideas and inputs from others to help decide what approach
to take. There are many different approaches or presentation
formats that can be used to deliver the instruction such as:
Lecture
Demonstration
Dramatization
Interview or group discussion
Game or talk show
Question and answer
Event walk-through
General design
guidelines
When designing the instruction, keep focused on the objectives of

the videotape. Following are some general design guidelines:
Plan to keep the program or program segment as short as
possible. Long videotaped programs will lose effectiveness
since it is difficult to maintain the students attention and
interest. Ten minutes or less would be optimum.
AFH 36-2235
General design
guidelines
(Continued)
Develop a script
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190
As with briefings and other presentations, limit your program

or program segment to three major points if possible.
Plan and design collateral activities that will require student
actions or performance of tasks (i.e., hands-on activities).
Employ the full presentation capabilities of video by using
audio, real-time events, still/moving pictures, slow/fast
motion, animation, color, and text.
Determine what supporting materials will be required (e.g.,
outlines, readings, quizzes), and how they will be used
(before, during, or after).
Plan some type of follow-on activities to reinforce the
instruction provided such as group discussions, assignments,
quizzes, etc.
The script provides the outline and guide for producing the video.
Make sure it communicates exactly what you want said and done.
The script should:
Focus on the objectives.
Communicate and reinforce the major points.
Deliver the instruction in a coherent and logical sequence.
Be written in plain and simple conversational English.
Remember the object here is to ensure the students
understand what is said not to impress them with your
command of the English language!
Bottom line: Writing a good script takes time and practice.
Develop
storyboards
The storyboards are used to convey visual ideas and concepts.

For videotape instruction, they need to show the sequence of the
visual shots with the corresponding dialogue.
The general guidelines provided in Chapter 8 for developing IVT
storyboards can also be applied to videotapes.
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Determine who and

where to film
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191
Two other planning decisions will need to made:
Who to shoot. That is, are you going to use real people or
professional actors?
Actors know the drill, but you will pay for their expertise.
In most cases, real people will do if they are carefully
selected (i.e., ensure that they are not only good speakers,
but credible speakers).
Where to shoot (if not already determined). Will the filming be
done on location or in a production studio?
On location provides realism, including all the real noise,
lighting problems, distractions, etc., that will need to be dealt
with for the shoot.
Studio settings are more controlled which will reduce the time
required to complete the shoot. However, this will probably
be more costly if a studio has to be rented.
Get approval
Make sure you know what the approval process/protocol is, and
get the necessary approval before proceeding. The storyboards
can be used in the review and approval process to get the goahead before committing the resources and starting the actual
production.
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Production
The development phase, or production phase, involves the last

minute preparations for the shoot, and the actual shoot itself. If a
professional production team is used, many of the following
preparation and filming considerations will not be concerns or
issues. They are provided as information for inexperienced
personnel and in-house productions.
Audio preparations
Make sure that appropriate microphones will be used:

Determine what type (unidirectional, bi-directional, or omnidirectional) and kind of microphones (floor/table stand,
hanging, camera, lavaliere, handheld, wireless, etc.) are
available for use.
Select which type(s) and kind(s) of microphones will be used.
If possible, test the microphone(s) on location to check audio
levels and background noise.
Video preparations
Determine how many cameras will be required and/or used:

In most situations, only one camera (VHS, VHS-C, Beta, or
Hi-8) will be necessary. The taping can be planned to
continue uninterrupted during the production, with the editing
performed after the shoot.
More than one camera should be considered if an event that
will be taped cannot be recreated or repeated.
Final preparations
for the filming
The use of a production and equipment checklist will help to

ensure smooth execution of the shoot. Below are some of the
things you should do prior to the shoot:
Distribute the scripts.
Notify the cast members; notify the production crew.
Confirm studio arrangements (if applicable).
Visit and assess the on location shoot site (if applicable).
Ensure all production equipment is or will be on hand.
AFH 36-2235
Final preparations
for the filming
(Continued)
Conducting the
filming
Volume 5
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Ensure all set props, instructional materials, cue cards (if

applicable), etc., are or will be on hand.
Have contingency plans Murphys Law is alive and well!
Schedule and conduct script reading rehearsal(s) with the
cast.
Consider conducting a dry run for the more complex
productions prior to the actual shoot.
With good storyboards, a well-written script, proper preparation,
and a knowledgeable director, the actual production should
proceed as planned with minimal problems.
Video tips:
Be aware of copyright laws when compiling videotapes,
recording from public broadcasts, and providing multiple
copies for student access. Obtain permission from copyright
owners when producing videotapes that contain sound,
pictures, and segments from other productions.
Have all on-camera talent sign appropriate releases
To keep viewers oriented, use the far-shot, medium-shot,
close-up-shot sequence or zoom-in approach when
showing an object.
Avoid quick or moving camera shots. Each time the camera
focuses on a new object, the viewers should be given
sufficient time to be able to see and comprehend what it is
that you are showing them.
When setting up the individual shots or segments, make sure
adequate lighting is provided so that the viewers will be able to
recognize what is being shown. The basic lighting triangle set up
depicted below, is one lighting method that can be used.
AFH 36-2235
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Conducting the
filming (Continued)
1 November 2002
194
Figure 6 Lighting Triangle

LIGHT
LIGHT
LIGHT
CAMERA
Editing the tape
Basic editing involves reviewing all of the videotape, selecting

which shots will be used, and combining the selected segments
in the desired sequence. If the entire program was already taped
in the proper sequence, only minor editing should be required.
Otherwise, a minimum of two videotape recorders and monitors,
with a video controller linking the two recorders would be
recommended to do the editing in-house.
Editing video using a PC is an option, but this would require
additional video hardware (for digital/analog conversions),
software, and expertise, which will be more costly.
Voice Over and narration can be added along with music during
the editing phase. The use of photographs and other graphics
can greatly enhance the message of the video ( i.e., Ken Burns
use of photographs, narration and music in his Civil War series).
New blank videotape should be used to make a master tape from
the original. Add any desired narration and transitions between
the segments to complete the instructional tape.
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Tape reproduction
Each time a tape is copied, the image quality of the tape is

reduced. Since the master tape is a copy of the original
production tape, it is a second-generation tape. Any duplicate
master tape that is made as a precaution, would be a third
generation tape.
When the videotape copies are made for distribution (normally in
VHS format), you should consider using the second generation
versus third generation master tape as the duplicating master.
Although there is some risk involved, the quality of the
reproduced tapes will be greater.
In any case, you should review one of the final distribution copies
so you are aware of what the students will see.
Tape distribution
Ensure that the distribution copies of the videotape have the

version number or date printed on the label. This will help the
end users in making sure they have the most current version of
the tape when revisions are made.
You should also maintain an updated copy of the videotape
distribution list even though you may not be responsible for the
actual distribution. This list can be used as a reference for future
distribution of revisions and instructional materials.
Emerging
technologies
Generally, the videotape in use today is analog video. Digital

video is becoming more readily available. Examples of digital
video include laser disks, and the new DVD systems. Digital
video maintains better clarity when reproduced than does analog
video. Digital video is also more readily distributed over
computer networks than is analog video.
Pattern recognition software is enabling the searching of video
presentations for specific tapes or segments.
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Evaluation of
videotape
instruction
As with other instructional technologies, the evaluation process

for videotape instruction consists of a formative, summative, and
operational evaluation. If the videotape was developed as
supporting instruction in conjunction with other instructional
media, the evaluations may be conducted as part of the
evaluation for the primary medium.
evaluations of videotape instruction.
Formative
evaluation

Since developmental versions (e.g., alpha and beta versions) of
videotape programs are not usually produced, as is the case with
computer-based programs, a validation of the video instruction
would not be possible prior to the actual production of the
videotape. However, a technical accuracy review of the
objectives, storyboards and script can be conducted.
Following production of the videotape, individual and small group
tryouts of the edited master tape can be accomplished. If
deficiencies or problems are identified and cannot be corrected
by additional editing, another shoot may be necessary.
Summative
evaluation
The operational tryouts for the summative evaluation of

instructional videotapes should be conducted at various sites.
If the videotape was designed for use as supporting material, it
may also be necessary to present the primary instructional
material for the evaluation. This would allow the video instruction
to be viewed within the proper context, which will provide more
meaningful and valid results.
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Operational
evaluation
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such as:
As with the summative evaluation, the videotape should be
viewed along with the primary instruction it was designed to
support. Also, it may be difficult to isolate and determine the
actual effectiveness of the videotape instruction from test results,
unless the material tested was only provided in the videotape.
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Section C
Audiotape
Why use
audiotape?
Audiotape can be used to reproduce real life instructional events

such as lectures, tutorials, seminars, and conference
presentations.
Audiotape can provide one-way aural communication between
the instructor and student. The spoken word is often a richer
information source than the printed word.
Audiotapes are also highly transportable and suitable for selfinstruction by students at any location.
When to use
audiotape
Audiotape can be:

Used to deliver short course of instruction that is based on
cognitive (knowledge) learning objectives or verbal skills (i.e.,
correspondence and language courses).
Combined with other instructional technologies as collateral
material for any type of course.
Other applications of audiotape include:
Recordings of real life events. For example, lectures,
presentations, guest speakers, and meetings.
Interviews. For example, experts and specialists for
elements of instruction.
Procedures or sequences. Verbal descriptions of procedures
or sequences that are part on a course of instruction.
Recordings. For example, music and information sources
with a strong aural content.
Since audiotapes are passive in nature, they would not be
appropriate as the primary media for accomplishing learning
objectives that require performance skills or a high level of
interactivity and communication with others. Audiotape
instruction is most effective when it is integrated with other types
of media and instruction.
AFH 36-2235
Audiotape
resource
requirements and
constraints
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It is important to identify and assess the audiotape resource

feasibility of using audiotape instruction, and whether or not the
audiotapes should be produced in-house. The most common
type of audiotape used for instruction is the cassette tape. This is
the only type of tape that will be addressed in this section.

cassette tape recorder and player, microphone, and speakers
or headphones for playback.
Facilities. A recording studio or soundproof room equipped
with a cassette tape recorder to produce the taped
instruction.
Funding. Is there a budget? This factor will determine if
outsourcing is an option.
Personnel. Minimum personnel would include a SME, writer,
narrator, and sound technician (if applicable). These would
not necessarily be different individuals. In some situations,
they may be one and the same person.
Time. Is there a time limit? Although good audiotapes will
still take some time to produce, they generally require less
time than the other traditional media, with the possible
exception of audioconferencing. Most of the time required is
in the development of the script.
In-house
development or
outsource?
Unless the taped instruction will be very short, you should

consider producing the tape in a sound studio with the proper
equipment (in-house, rented, or contract). Anything less than
professional quality sound can distract the student from
concentrating on what is being said. Even though the student
can replay the tape, the net effect of constant distractions is not
only less effective learning taking place, but lower student
motivation and interest.
Almost equally important, is the quality of the narration. Using
professional narrators, although more costly, will usually require
less recording and editing time (i.e., fewer retakes and less
cutting), and be more cost-effective. If a professional narrator is
not an option, it will be important to use someone who is
articulate and has a pleasant, neutral voice. Everyone has
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In-house
development or
outsource?
(Continued)
probably listened to voice recordings of non-professional actors

on radio or television commercials that sound unnatural (read
from a prompter) or are hard to listen to because of the persons
voice tone, pitch, accent, pronunciation of words, etc. Now
imagine trying to listen to an hour of that type of voice recording
enough said.
Are audiotapes
cost-effective?
In most cases where audio recordings can be used to accomplish

the objective, cassette tapes will generally be very cost-effective.
This assumes of course, a stable content environment. As
computer digital audio technology continues to advance and the
cost of CD recording continues to decrease, audio CDs are
becoming a viable alternative medium for instruction.
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Determine the
objectives
Determine the specific knowledge and attitude objectives that

must be achieved. Decide what it is you want to do and
accomplish with the print materials.
Determine what
approach to use
Determine whether the audiotape will be developed as the

primary instructional media, or used as collateral instruction for
other media.
Based on how the audiotape will be used, determine what
approach will be used There are several approaches or
presentation formats that can be used to deliver the instruction
such as lectures, interviews, or in conjunction with programmed
text.
General design
guidelines
When designing the instruction, keep focused on the objectives of

the audiotape. Following are some general design guidelines:
Plan to keep the program or program segment as short as
possible. Long audio programs will lose effectiveness since it
is difficult to maintain the students attention and interest.
As with briefings and other presentations, limit your lecture
program or program segment to three major points if
possible.
Plan and design collateral activities that will require student
actions or performance of tasks (i.e., hands-on activities or
exercises).
Use music and sound effects only to provide context,
reinforce or reintroduce a theme, or capture, guide and hold
attention.
Determine what supporting materials, if any, will be required
(e.g., outlines, quizzes, handouts with pictures, graphics, text,
etc.), and how they will be used (before, during, or after). As
a minimum, use supplemental materials for objects,
procedures, etc., that are difficult to describe in words.
AFH 36-2235
General design
guidelines
(Continued)
Develop a script
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Plan follow-on activities to reinforce the instruction provided

such as group discussions, assignments, quizzes, etc.
The script provides the outline and guide for producing the tape.
Make sure it communicates exactly what you want said and done.
The script should:
Focus on the objectives.
Communicate and reinforce the major points.
Deliver the instruction in a coherent and logical sequence.
Be written in plain conversational English.
Identify when music, sound effects, and pauses are to be
used.
When describing objects, procedures etc., without supporting
visual materials, select words and examples that paint pictures
and link the familiar with the unfamiliar.
Bottom line: Writing a good script takes time and practice.
Determine who
and where to
record
Two other planning decisions will need to made:
Who to record. That is, are you going to use real people or
professional narrators? If real people are used, make sure they
are good speakers.
Where to record (if not already determined). Will the recording
be done in a sound studio or at some other location?
If selecting a location other than a studio, make sure the site
is as sound-proof as possible (i.e., free from background
noises such as phones, paging systems, cars, aircraft,
people, heating/air conditioning units, etc.)
Studio settings are more controlled and will reduce the
possibility of having to re-record segments.
Get approval
The script or taped rehearsals can be used in the review and

approval process to get the go-ahead before committing studio
resources for the actual recording.
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Preparing for the
recording
If a professional sound recording studio and technician are used,

many of the following audio preparations and considerations will
not be concerns or issues. They are provided as information for
inexperienced personnel and in-house productions.
Audio preparations
Determine what type of recording equipment will be used:

Studio recording equipment.
Audiocassette recorder.
PC with audio recording hardware and software, and
adequate hard drive space (example: 650 MB required for 72
minutes of CD audio).
If using a PC, make sure there will be someone available who is
knowledgeable in capturing, recording, and editing the sound
recording on the PC.
Make sure that an appropriate microphone will be used:
Determine how many microphones will be required.
Determine what type (unidirectional, bi-directional, or
omnidirectional) and kind of microphone (table stand,
handheld, etc.) is available for use.
Select which type(s) and kind(s) of microphones will be used.
If possible, test the microphone(s) with the recording
equipment at the recording site to check audio levels and
background noise.
Final preparations
for the recording
The use of a production and equipment checklist will help to

ensure smooth execution of the recording session. Below are
some of the things you should do prior to the taping.
Distribute the scripts.
Notify the narrator(s).
Notify the studio and sound technicians (if applicable).
Visit and assess the recording site (if other than the studio).
Ensure all recording equipment is or will be on hand.
AFH 36-2235
Final preparations
for the recording
(Continued)
Conducting the
recording
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Ensure all music/sound effect tapes (if applicable) are or will

be on hand.
Have contingency plans Murphys Law is alive and well!
Schedule and conduct rehearsal(s) with the narrator(s).
With a well-written script, proper equipment, and prior
preparation, the actual recording should proceed with minimal
problems.
Recording tips:
Use as few microphones as possible. Each microphone used
adds noise to the system.
If there is only one microphone, and two or more narrators
with different voice levels, adjust their positions either closer
or farther from the microphone to maintain a proper sound
balance.
After each audio segment, keep the tape going for a short
period of time to provide blank tape segments that can be
used during editing if required to splice-in pauses with the
same background ambiance.
Use live sound effects and music if possible during the
recording rather than trying to add them later.
Be aware of copyright laws when recording. Obtain
permission from copyright owners when producing
audiotapes that contain music and sound segments from
other productions or sources.
Editing the tape
If the entire program was already taped in the proper sequence

with all the desired sound effects included, only minor editing
should be required. Anything more than minor editing should be
done by specialists since it will normally require special
equipment and expertise.
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Tape reproduction
Qualified personnel should also do audiotape reproduction with

the proper equipment. You should review one of the final
distribution copies so you are aware of what the students will
actually hear.
Tape distribution
Ensure that the distribution copies of the audiotape have the

version number or date printed on the label. This will help the
end users in making sure they have the most current version of
the tape when revisions are made.
You should also maintain an updated copy of the distribution list
even though you may not be responsible for the actual
distribution. This list can be used as a reference for future
distribution of revisions and instructional materials.
Emerging
technologies
Digital audio is enabling the distribution of audio (live and

recorded) over computer networks.
Pattern recognition software is enabling searching of audio
presentations for specific topics and segments.
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Evaluation of
audiotape
instruction
The evaluation process for audiotape instruction consists of a

formative, summative, and operational evaluation. If the
audiotape was developed as supporting instruction in conjunction
with other instructional media, the evaluations may be conducted
as part of the evaluation for the primary medium.
evaluations of audiotape instruction.
Formative
evaluation

Since developmental versions (e.g., alpha and beta versions) of
audiotape programs are not usually produced, as is the case with
computer-based programs, a validation of the audio instruction
would not be possible prior to the actual production of the
audiotape. However, a technical accuracy review of the
objectives and script can be conducted.
Following production of the audiotape, individual and small group
tryouts of the edited master tape can be accomplished. If
deficiencies or problems are identified and cannot be corrected
by additional editing, another audio recording session may be
necessary.
Summative
evaluation
The operational tryouts for the summative evaluation of

instructional audiotapes should be conducted at various sites.
If the audiotape is designed as supporting material, it may also be
necessary to present the primary instructional material for the
evaluation. This would allow the audio instruction to be reviewed
within the proper context, which will provide more meaningful and
valid results.
audiotape instruction.
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Operational
evaluation
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207

such as:
As with the summative evaluation, the audiotape should be
reviewed along with the primary instruction it was designed to
support. Also, it may be difficult to isolate and determine the
actual effectiveness of the audiotape instruction from test results,
unless the material tested was only provided in the audiotape.
General evaluation
criteria
The following are typical evaluation criteria for audiotape

instruction:
Voice quality:
Naturalness and
spontaneity
Articulation
Pitch
Volume settings:
Absence of peaks and
drops
Appropriate microphone
placement
Music:
Did it enhance or detract
from narration?
Was the amount and
length appropriate?
Ambient noise:
Absence of background
noise/distractions
Sound effects:
Did it enhance or detract
from narration?
Pacing:
Smoothness of flow
Speed of delivery
Editing:
Absence of noticeable
audio cuts or dubbing
Sequence/format:
Logical sequence and
format of instruction
Effectiveness:
Did the recording capture,
guide, and hold attention?
Were the objectives met?
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Section D
Audioconferencing
Why use audioconferencing?
Traditional audioconferencing using the telephone system and

audio bridging capabilities is a simple, flexible, interactive
instructional delivery system. Since the telephone is widely
available, the instructor can reach students at almost any
location. Military use of audioconferencing is particularly costeffective if DoD telephone networks are used.
When to use
audioconferencing
Audioconferencing can be used:

When real-time discussion, interaction, and feedback are
required.
To reduce the students sense of isolation and distance.
To provide instruction from experts at other locations.
Audioconferencing instruction is most effective when combined
with other types of media.
Audioconferencing
resource
requirements and
constraints
In order to determine the feasibility of using audioconferencing as

an instructional medium, you must identify and assess the
resource requirements and constraints. Although
audioconferencing can also be accomplished using computer
networks, this section only addresses audioconferencing using
the public telephone system.

telephone with audio bridging capability and a speakerphone
system for larger groups.
Facilities. No special facilities are required.
Funding. Additional funding would be required for long
distance calling fees if the DoD telephone network (DSN)
would not be used.
Personnel. Other than the participants, moderators may be
required.
Time. Comparatively, development times per hour of
audioconferencing instruction, will normally be less than other
media.
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Determine the
objectives
Determine the purpose of the audioconference and the specific

learning objectives that must be achieved. Decide what it is you
want to do and accomplish with the audioconference.
Determine what
approach to use
Audioconferencing can be conducted using only audio

communications between the participants, or combined with other
instructional media such as print materials (text, pictures,
graphics, etc.), videos, and fax machines. Based on how the
audioconferencing will be conducted, several instructional
approaches can be employed to include:
Lectures
Interviews
Guest speaker presentations
Student presentations
Group discussions or debates
Question and answer sessions
General design
guidelines
The challenge of designing an effective interactive

audioconferencing course is to balance the strengths of the
medium with its limitations. The greatest strength of interactive
audioconferencing is its capability for interactivity; its major
limitation is the absence of visual communication. To exploit its
strength, design sessions that are interactive as described below.
To minimize the limitations of visual cues, provide supplementary
print materials in advance and humanize the session by making
the learners feel welcome.
Simultaneous use of WWW/Intranets and other computer
networks can provide live video of participants and other images
and data.
AFH 36-2235
General design
guidelines
(Continued)
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General design guidelines for enhancing learning and learning

transfer:
Take a student-centered approach towards instruction.
Structure the lesson to provide students with the opportunity
to set their own goals and objectives.
Encourage the practical application of content, and relate
subject matter to learners needs and job tasks.
Instruction and learning at a distance takes more time.
During the design phase, be realistic about the amount of
content to be presented and the assignments to be given.
Specific design guidelines are as follow:
Design for the medium of audio.
Limit sessions to 2 hours.
Schedule a break after 50-60 minutes of instruction.
Limit key concepts to 3-5 per hour.
Limit number of participants to maximize interaction; rule of
thumb is 15-20 students.
Use preview, presentation, and review techniques to provide
structure.
Ask questions and integrate student activities to facilitate
interaction.
Plan interactive teaching activities every 10-15 min.
Role-playing exercises.
Participant presentations.
Celebrity guest.
Brainstorming.
Case study.
Q&A session.
Learner-to-learner discussions.
Add a variety of presentation methods.
Team-teach.
Interviews.
Guest speakers.
Learner-to-learner teaching.
Panels.
Debates.
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Development
techniques
When developing audioconference instruction, consider the

following general techniques:
Develop a lesson plan or script of the planned session.
Divide the content into 10-15 minute presentation segments.
Connect new information with previous information.
Plan/schedule breaks after 50-60 minutes of instruction.
Alternate lectures with student interaction activities such as
student presentations, role-playing exercises, brainstorming,
question/answer, etc.
Include activities in the course syllabus/agenda that
encourage independent study and student-to-student
interaction.
Develop outlines and handouts for use during the session.
Develop quizzes or exercises to assess student
comprehension of material.
Pre-conference
package
Develop a read-ahead package for the students that contains:

Welcome letter(s) with the instructors biography and picture.
Class roster with background information about each student.
Course syllabus, agenda, ground rules and protocols.
Readings, assignments, and bibliography.
Handouts with graphics, charts, pictures, etc., that can be
used during the session.
Points of contact and instructions on how to connect to the
conference call with phone numbers for technical assistance
if disconnected.
Critique forms.
Place read ahead materials on the Web (in addition to snail mail).
Conduct an orientation conference call prior to the first scheduled
session to help acquaint learners with the medium.
Review phone protocol.
Ask learners to introduce themselves.
Encourage participants to use a speakerphone or headset so
that their hands will be free to take notes or to do exercises.
AFH 36-2235
Pre-conference
package
(Continued)
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Learn any peculiarities to the audiobridging system before

course; practice with it. Call the technical assistance line and ask
what the common problems are.
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Conducting an
orientation
session
Conduct an orientation audioconference prior to the first

scheduled session to help acquaint students with the medium
and procedures. During this orientation:
Introduce yourself and advise the students on how they
should address you.
Ask the students to introduce themselves.
Discuss what to do and who to contact if they experience any
problems.
Review the protocol for asking questions and making
comments. Students should preface any comments with their
name and location.
Review any other audioconference ground rules or etiquette
as applicable.
Discuss the use of the audioconference equipment.
Encourage students to use a speakerphone or headset so
that their hands will be free to take notes or to do exercises
during the sessions.
Conducting an
audioconferencing
session
Use the following to get an audioconferencing session started:

Establish the conference call 10 minutes ahead of the
session start time.
As students join in, ask them questions to get them talking.
Remind students to mute their speakerphones as
appropriate.
At the scheduled time, take attendance using a simple roll
call.
Review the agenda and clearly state the purpose of the
session.
Acknowledge and welcome any latecomers.
Use the following techniques when conducting an
audioconferencing session:
Speak in a normal conversational tone, and slow enough to
be understood.
Vary the pace of the session to maintain interest and energy.
Engage students in discussions, debates, role-playing, etc.
Do not let one person monopolize the time.
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Conducting an
audioconferencing
session
(Continued)
1 November 2002
214
Ask questions and direct them at individual students when

possible.
Allow 10-15 seconds after asking a question before
continuing to give the students adequate time to respond.
Create a matrix and keep track of each students
participation.
Do a mid-way evaluation to ensure students requirements
are being met. You can also have students measure their
own progress through self-assessment items such as study
questions, checklists, and self-tests.
Allow time for questions and answers at the end. Encourage
students to also telephone, or E-mail you with questions and
comments.
Summarize session.
Remind students to submit their evaluations.
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Evaluation of
audioconferencing
instruction
The evaluation process for audioconferencing instruction consists

of a formative, summative, and operational evaluation. If the
audioconferencing instruction was developed to support other
primary instructional media, then the instruction should be
evaluated as part of the primary lesson/course evaluation.
evaluations of audioconferences when developed as the primary
Formative
evaluation

and test items.
An initial evaluation of the lesson plan/script should be
accomplished. Once a draft version of the audioconferencing
session is developed, plan and conduct individual and small
group tryouts of the instruction. General areas to evaluate
include:
Instructional session organization, structure, presentation,
and format.
Instructor knowledge, presentation and delivery techniques,
and effectiveness.
Instructional content clarity, accuracy, relevancy, currency,
effectiveness, and completeness.
Use, clarity, relevancy, and effectiveness of supporting
instructional materials (e.g., text, pictures, graphics,
diagrams, quizzes, etc.).
Effectiveness of interactive student activities.
Availability, use, reliability, and effectiveness of
audioconference system equipment.
Availability and effectiveness of technical support.
objectives.
AFH 36-2235
Summative
evaluation
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1 November 2002
The operational tryouts for the summative evaluation of the

audioconferencing instruction should be conducted with several
of the applicable sites participating at the same time.
audioconferencing instruction.
Operational
evaluation

such as:
improvement.
216
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Chapter 6
ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR
COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Overview
Introduction

design, development, implementation, and evaluation of
Computer-Mediated Communication. Computer-Mediated
Communication enables individuals, groups, and organizations to
maintain continuous communications and information exchanges.
Computer-Mediated Communication expands access to human
and information resources. Two of the Computer-Mediated
Communication applications that can greatly impact distance
learning are audiographics and computer-mediated conferencing.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains two sections:
Section
References
Title
Page
Audiographics
220
229

Distance Learning Curriculum, Analysis and Media Selection,
AFH 36-2235
References
(Continued)
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http://www.au.af.mil/afdlo/afdlo.htm
218
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Section A
Audiographics
Why use
audiographics?
Audiographics provides real-time communication and interaction.

Audiographic participants can audioconference using the
telephone system, as well as share instructional materials
simultaneously using computer networks. (Audiographics can
also be accomplished to some degree by combining the phone
system, fax machine, and hard copy delivery systems).
Audiographics is usually considered to involve simultaneous
transmission of audio and graphic information across a
telecommunications network.
When to use
audiographics
Audiographics can be used:

When real-time discussion and feedback are required.
When collaboration is required on documents, assignments,
projects, etc.
To provide instruction from experts at other remote sites.
To reduce the students sense of isolation and distance.
Audiographics
resource
requirements and
constraints
To determine the feasibility of using audiographics as an

instructional medium, you must identify and assess the resource
requirements and constraints. Audiographics is similar to
audioconferencing in that it uses the telephone system. Although
limited audiographic instruction can also be accomplished using
only computer networks, this type of audiographics is not
included in this section.
Equipment. Minimum required equipment for each

participant or group would include a networked computer,
telephone with audio bridging capability, and a speakerphone
system for larger groups.
Facilities. Facility requirements for participating sites would
include reliable network access to Internet/Intranet/Electronic
Bulletin Board System (BBS).
AFH 36-2235
Audiographics
resource
requirements and
constraints
(Continued)
Is audiographics
cost-effective?
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Funding. Funding may be required for PCs, software, and

network systems/access if they are not already in place at all
participating sites. Additional funding is also required for long
distance calling fees if the DoD telephone network (DSN)
would not be used.
Personnel. Other than the participants, a moderator /
facilitator may sometimes be required.
Time. As with audioconferencing, development time- perhour of audiographic instruction, will normally be less than
other media.
If existing DoD telephone networks and computers with
Internet/Intranet/BBS access are used, audiographics can be
very cost-effective as an instructional delivery system. If
networked computers are not available at all sites, then the costeffectiveness of the instruction would depend primarily on the
total effort and cost required installing the necessary systems.
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Determine the
objectives
Determine the purpose of the audiographic instruction and the

specific learning objectives that must be achieved. Decide what it
is you want to do and accomplish with this instructional medium.
Determine what
approach to use
Audiographics can be conducted using only audio

communications between the participants, or combined with
networked computers and other instructional media such as print
materials (text, pictures, graphics, etc.), videos, and fax
machines. Based on how the audiographics session will be
conducted, several instructional approaches can be employed to
include:
Lectures
Interviews
Guest speaker presentations
Student presentations
On-line group collaborative activities
Group discussions or debates
Question and answer sessions
General design
guidelines
The same general guidelines provided for audioconferencing,

also apply to audiographics since the primary instructional
component of both is two-way audio. The only significant
difference between the two is the supporting media technologies
that are used to deliver other instructional materials.
The design of audiographic instruction should draw upon the
greatest strength of audiographics - that is the capability for
students to see and share the same computer file or document
on their individual PCs. This facilitates a high level of interactivity
and collaboration among the students.
AFH 36-2235
General design
guidelines
(Continued)
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General design guidelines for audioconferencing sessions:

Limit the number of participants if possible, to a manageable
size to maximize interaction.
Limit sessions to 2 hours.
Limit key topics to 3-5 per hour.
Use preview, presentation, and review techniques to provide
structure.
Ask questions and integrate student activities to facilitate
interaction.
General design guidelines for enhancing learning and learning
transfer:
Take a student-centered approach towards instruction.
Provide students with the opportunity to set their own goals
and objectives.
Encourage the practical application of content, and relate
subject matter to student's needs and job tasks.
Instruction and learning at a distance takes more time. Be
realistic in the amount of content presented, and the
assignments given.
AFH 36-2235
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223
Development
techniques
When developing audiographic instruction, consider the following

general techniques:
Develop a lesson plan or script of the planned session.
Divide the content into 10-15 minute presentation segments.
Connect new information with previous information.
Plan/schedule breaks after 50 minutes of instruction.
Alternate lectures with interactive student interaction activities
such as student presentations, on-line group exercises, case
studies, question/answer, etc.
Include activities in the course syllabus/agenda that
encourage independent study and student-to-student
interaction.
Develop outlines and handouts for use during the session.
Develop quizzes or exercises to assess student
comprehension of material.
Audiographics
pre-session
package
Develop a read-ahead package for the students that contains:

Welcome letter(s) with the instructors biography and picture.
Class roster with background information about each student.
Course syllabus, agenda, ground rules, and protocols.
Readings, assignments, and bibliography.
Handouts, CD-ROMs, diskettes, graphics, charts, pictures,
etc., that can be used during the session.
Points of contact and instructions on how to connect to the
conference call and network server, with phone numbers for
technical assistance if disconnected.
Critique forms (if not provided on-line).
Plan to mail the packages early so the students will have them 12 weeks prior to the audiographics session.
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Conducting an
orientation
session
Conduct an audiographics orientation prior to the first scheduled

session to help acquaint students with the media and procedures.
During this orientation:
Introduce yourself and advise the students on how they
should address you.
Ask the students to introduce themselves.
Discuss what to do and who to contact if they experience any
problems.
Review the protocol for asking questions and making
comments. Students should preface any comments with their
name and location.
Review the procedures and protocol for collaborating on
shared applications.
Review any other ground rules or etiquette as applicable.
Discuss the use of the audioconferencing and computer
network systems. Encourage students to use a
speakerphone or headset so that their hands will be free to
take notes or work on the computer during the sessions.
For practice, have the students bring up a pre-selected
demo file from the Web/FTP site, CD-ROM, or diskette
provided in the pre-session package (if applicable).
Bring up a file for all to share as a demonstration, and allow
time for everyone to manipulate the data to practice using the
system.
Conducting an
audiographics
session
To get started with an audiographics session:

Establish the conference call 10 minutes ahead of the
session start time.
As students join in, confirm that they have established a
connection to the designated audiographics server.
Remind students to mute their speakerphones as
appropriate.
At the scheduled time, either take attendance using a simple
roll call or accomplish this electronically.
Review the agenda on-line if possible, and clearly state the
purpose of the session.
Acknowledge and welcome any latecomers.
AFH 36-2235
Conducting an
audiographics
session
(Continued)
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Use the following instructor techniques when conducting an

audiographics session:
Speak in a normal conversational tone, and slow enough to
be understood.
Vary the pace of the session to maintain interest and energy.
Engage students in discussions, on-line collaborative
activities, etc.
Do not let one person monopolize the audio or on-line time.
Ask questions and direct them at individual students when
possible.
Allow 10-15 seconds after asking a question before
continuing to give the students adequate time to respond.
Create a matrix and keep track of each students participation
Do a mid-way evaluation to ensure students requirements
are being met. You can also have students measure their
own progress through self-assessment items such as study
questions, checklists and self-tests.
Allow time for questions and answers at the end. Encourage
students to also telephone, or E-mail you and/or each other
with questions and comments.
If collaboration among students is a goal, devise activities or
projects that require use of the telephone and/or E-mail.
Summarize the session.
Remind students to submit their evaluations.
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Evaluation of
audiographics
instruction
The evaluation process for audiographics instruction consists of a

formative, summative, and operational evaluation. If the
audiographics instruction was developed to support other primary
instructional media, then the instruction should be evaluated as
part of the primary lesson/course evaluation.
in MIL-PRF-29612 and supporting handbooks.
evaluations of audiographics sessions when developed as the
primary instructional medium.
Formative
evaluation

and test items.
An initial evaluation of the lesson plan/script should be
accomplished. Once a draft version of the audiographics
session is developed, plan and conduct individual and small
group tryouts of the instruction can be accomplished. General
areas to evaluate include:
Instructional session organization, structure, presentation,
and format.
Instructor knowledge, presentation and delivery techniques,
and effectiveness.
Instructional content clarity, accuracy, relevancy, currency,
effectiveness, and completeness.
Use, clarity, relevancy, and effectiveness of supporting
instructional materials (e.g., text, pictures, graphics,
diagrams, quizzes, etc.).
Effectiveness of interactive student activities.
Availability, ease of use, reliability, and effectiveness of
audioconference system and equipment.
AFH 36-2235
Formative
evaluation
(Continued)
Summative
evaluation
Volume 5
1 November 2002
Availability, ease of use, reliability, and effectiveness of the

computer network system and equipment.
objectives.
The operational tryouts for the summative evaluation of the
audiographics instruction should be conducted with several of the
applicable sites participating at the same time.
instruction.
Operational
evaluation
227

such as:
improvement.
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Section B
Why use computermediated
conferencing?
Computer-mediated conferencing can range from simple E-mail

discussion between two people to list servers to sophisticated
groupware programs like FirstClass or Lotus Notes which allow
discussion among dozens of participants. Computer-mediated
conferencing involves two types of interaction: (1) interaction
between the learner and the material content; (2) interaction with
others about the course material. Computer-mediated
conferencing enables messages to be automatically sorted into
pre-selected categories or conferences which can be followed
as discussion threads. Computer-mediated conferencing
products often include functions allowing instructors to see who
has read a certain message. Computer-mediated conferencing
can be done live via chat rooms (computer-mediated
conferencing software often includes real-time chat via text
and/or audio), or it can be conducted as an asynchronous
learning experience via E-mail or the threaded discussions.
Computer-mediated conferencing helps to develop student
independence and a self-directed approach to the instruction.
New developments in the area of computer-mediated
conferencing include:
Groupware: includes E-mail and shared databases.
Synchronous communication: real-time communications
involving voice and video images.
Audio mail and Video mail: similar to E-mail but the
messages are audio messages and or video messages.
When to use
computer-mediated
conferencing
Computer-mediated conferencing is most appropriate for:

Student administration and the dissemination of course
information.
The distribution of instructional courseware and materials.
A means of correspondence between instructors and
students.
Threaded discussions and group instruction.
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When to use
computer-mediated
conferencing
(Continued)
Computermediated
conferencing
resource
requirements and
constraints
1 November 2002
229
Courses designed to promote higher order learning such as

analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
Courses where group discussion is required
Seminars and talks by subject matter experts
Courses requiring cooperative learning or group learning
Courses requiring written products
Courses where learners are encouraged to share their own
personal experiences
Students whose mobility is limited
Support in courses based on other delivery media.
To determine the feasibility of using computer-mediated
conferencing as an instructional or support medium, you must
identify and assess the resource requirements and constraints. If
a computer-mediated conferencing capability already exists, then
determine if it will meet requirements.
Equipment. Minimum required equipment for each

participant would include a properly configured computer with
access to Internet/Intranet or other telecommunications
system.
Facilities. No specific facility requirements other than
student access to a facility with the required equipment.
Funding. Funding may be required for PCs, software, and
network systems if they are not already in place at all
participating sites. Additional funding may also be required
for network access and services if not presently available.
Personnel. Technical support personnel would be required
to maintain the computer-mediated conferencing system (inhouse or contract). Also, assess user computer skills to
determine if that will be a constraint, and whether training will
be required. Instructor personnel may require the assistance
of others to respond to E-mails; the administrative burden of
individualized communications placed on instructor staff must
be factored into instructor requirements.
Time. If the computer/network system is not already in
place, a significant amount of lead-time will be required. If
the computer/network system exists, then time required for a
computer-mediated conferencing system should not be a
constraint.
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Is computermediated
conferencing costeffective?
1 November 2002
230
If computer-mediated conferencing computer/network system

capabilities already exist, then computer-mediated conferencing
should be very cost-effective. The availability of PCs with access
to the LAN/WAN will probably be the most significant factor in the
cost analysis.
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Determine the
objectives
Determine the purpose of the computer-mediated conference and

the specific learning objectives that must be achieved. Decide
what it is you want to do and accomplish with this instructional
medium.
Determine what
approach to use
There are five types of computer-mediated conferencing

interaction that will need to be considered in determining the
approach to be taken in the design and development of
computer-mediated conferencing:
Learner and instructor
Learner to learner
Instructor with content
Learner with content
Learner and other on-line resources
Frequently, E-mail and bulletin board applications would be used
together to provide instruction, information, and interaction.
Design
considerations
Computer-mediated conferencing requires adjustments in

communication, teaching, and learning strategies to make it feel
and function like a traditional classroom. Thats quite a challenge
given that most computer-mediated conferencing learners are not
likely ever to meet one another in person and the fact they will
only communicate through a personal computer. The challenge
for the designer is to transform the desktop computer into a
virtual classroom. Use the following to increase the effectiveness
of learning via computer-mediated conferencing.
Do a thorough needs analysis at the beginning to determine
learner needs; is computer-mediated conferencing
appropriate for application for the learner needs?
Identify appropriate learning objectives
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Design
considerations
(Continued)
Volume 5
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Design activities that promote interaction:

Brainstorming
Case study
Q&A session
Small group discussions
Learning partnership, dyads
Team presentations
Role playing
Guest speakers
Learner-to-learner teaching
Debates
Create a balance between independent, interactive and interdependent course activities
Use metaphors or analogies that learners can easily relate to
previous learning experiences. Words like campus,
schoolhouse, library, etc. can provide comfortable links to
learner new to computer-mediated conferencing; heres a list
of ideas:
Orientation
Goals
Assignments
Readings
Conference room
Chat room
Feedback
Cyber Caf
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General computermediated
conferencing
functions
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The design of computer-mediated conferencing applications

should support the following general functions:
To allow students:
Access course information and materials.
Exchange information and ideas with others.
Ask/answer questions.
Work on assignments alone or collaborate with others.
To allow instructors to:
Administer and manage course information and materials.
Distribute student assignments and provide feedback.
Communicate with the students.
Facilitate interaction and collaboration on instruction
provided.
E-mail design
features and
capabilities
The E-mail application would not be specifically designed and

developed. If an E-mail system is not already in place or
available on each PC to be used, then a COTS E-mail application
may need to be selected for use by some of the individuals. In
most cases, this selection would be based on personal
preferences unless one is provided or dictated. The most popular
E-mail applications available today, all have similar features and
capabilities. Any of these client applications would most likely be
acceptable for use.
AFH 36-2235
General bulletin
board design
guidelines
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Bulletin boards should be designed to provide information and

encourage student interaction. They should:
Allow instructors to post course information such as
schedules, assignments, reference information and sources,
etc.
Allow instructors to provide files containing courseware and
other instructional materials that can be downloaded by the
students.
Provide access control on appropriate root directories,
system files, etc.
Establish discussion groups that allow students to read what
others have written, and respond to the author publicly or
privately.
Allow students to post new ideas, opinions, or requests to the
discussion group.
Allow students to sort discussion group messages by date,
author, subject, or topic.
Provide a knowledge base with general information,
frequently asked questions (FAQ), etc., that can be searched
using keywords or phrases.
Provide links to other important sites and reference sources.
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E-mail
development
In preparing for sending out E-mail, consider accomplishing the

following:
Create forwarding accounts (mailing lists) for individual
classes or groups.
Create E-mail form letters or templates that can be re-used
for normal, recurring correspondence and course
administration.
Bulletin board
development
Determine first what computer will be used as the server, and

whether it has the capacity to support the planned computermediated conferencing applications and functions. Once youve
identified the server, develop the content that will be posted or
accessed on the bulletin board, to include:
General course information such as objectives, requirements,
schedule, etc.
Student assignments, required readings, tests, reference
materials, etc.
Class rosters with student names, background information, Email addresses, etc.
Discussion groups and topics that will be used for the course.
Technical support information, points of contact, links, etc.
Resource list with sources of information and links to
electronic libraries and other appropriate sites.
Electronic evaluation and feedback forms.
General
development
guidelines
Consider the following when working with general development

guidelines:
Need to state up-front that a students grade is directly
related to his/her participation.
Must personalize or humanize this high tech instructional
approach.
Make personal contact with the learner via letter or phone call
before the course begins.
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General
development
guidelines
(Continued)
Volume 5
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236
Create an orientation program:

Agenda.
Course syllabus.
Readings.
Handouts; incorporate graphics, charts, pictures, etc., that
can be used during the session.
Assignments.
Class roster with background information about each
participant.
Bibliography.
Instructor biography with a picture.
Instructions on how to get connected.
Ground rules.
Phone number for technical assistance.
Evaluation form.
Mail out so learners will have the packet 1-2 weeks in
advance of the first session.
Provide a tutorial on how to use the software prior to the first
class.
Post a How to Take an On-Line Course on a Web site.
Encourage learners to develop their own learning strategy:
Establish a study pattern.
Aggressively seek clarification and feedback.
Become comfortable with the technology.
Manage information overload.
Decide on when and how often to contribute.
Other user
information
Develop handouts or other appropriate materials that provide

computer-mediated conferencing procedures and protocol, as
well as information on how to use the applications. Include this
type of information in the FAQ section or a separate section of
the bulletin board.
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237
E-mail and bulletin
board
considerations
Consider the following actions when implementing the computermediated conferencing applications:
Assign user names and passwords to the students if not
already done.
Review all resource lists and links provided in the bulletin
board and update them as required.
Send out a welcome test message to all students that
requires a reply.
Initiate and conduct a group discussion as an orientation for
students, and ensure all students participate.
Give students assignments that will require the use of E-mail
and the bulletin board.
Monitor all discussion groups, intervening only if necessary.
Provide timely feedback and responses to student questions,
test results, etc.
Implementation
Consider the following to help ensure effective computermediated instruction or programs:
How to Begin
Begin course with introductions to help create a friendly
learning environment.
Consider establishing a buddy system where learners are
partnered with other learners.
Ask learners for their personal goals or objectives for the
class.
On-line Ground Rules
Explain on-line netiquette.
Keywords. Use keywords in E-mail subject line for easy
reference.
One-message, one-topic rule. Discuss only one idea in
each message supported by examples.
Short messages. No one wants to read a 500-word Email, so shorter is better. Try 2-3 short messages rather
than 1 long one.
AFH 36-2235
Implementation
(Continued)
Volume 5
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238
Typos. For discussion E-mails, do not worry about typos

or grammar errors. Forgive others typos by focusing on
what they are saying, and not format.
Tone. Watch the tone of your E-mails by writing in a
conversational style, as if you were there in person. Use
emoticons to express your emotions.
Your Role as Guide
Remember role of instructor has changed to one whose
primary role is to guide and support the learning process.
Promote peer learning by encouraging participation and
asking as many questions as you answer.
Allow time for learners to learn.
Reinforce positive behavior; correct inappropriate behavior.
Insist on retaining original messages when responding to
someone via E-mail.
Do not lecture and avoid an authoritarian style.
Effective Strategies
Model appropriate interaction and facilitation techniques to
the learners.
Announce theme of each thread and the agenda for it.
Keep the discussion on track by weaving together various
discussion threads and course components.
Set reasonable time limits for responses realizing that not all
learners have daily access to the Web.
Be timely in responses.
Present opposite views.
Seek learner feedback.
Ask direct questions.
Conduct polls.
Tie discussion to participants comments made earlier.
Compliment participants.
How to Wrap-up and Follow-up
Conclude threads clearly, so there is no doubt you are
moving on.
Use technical support.
Remind participants to submit their evaluations.
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Evaluation of
computer-mediated
conferencing
The evaluation process for E-mail and bulletin board applications

would normally be accomplished as part of the evaluation of the
primary instructional media. The distance learning evaluation
metrics are described in Chapter 2. The general guidelines for
evaluations are contained in MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting
handbooks.
evaluations of computer-mediated conferencing when developed
as a collateral instructional media.
Computermediated
conferencing
evaluation
considerations
As part of the evaluation and quality improvement process, online electronic student critique forms and automatic E-mail
comment links provided on the bulletin board can be used to
provide timely feedback to instructor. Following are general
areas to consider in the evaluation of computer-mediated
conferencing:
Technical:
Availability and reliability of computer-mediated conferencing
computers.
Network access and reliability.
Computer-mediated conferencing server access and
reliability.
E-mail:
E-mail client application (functionality, reliability, etc.)
Instructor use and application.
Student use and application.
Usefulness and instructional effectiveness.
Bulletin Board/Discussion Software:
Design, structure, and format.
Instructor use and application.
Student use and application.
User friendliness and readability.
Clarity, relevancy, currency, and effectiveness of content.
Resource/site links.
Usefulness and instructional effectiveness.
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Chapter 7
ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERACTIVE
MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION
Overview
Introduction
The specific ISD analysis, design, development, implementation,

and evaluation processes for Interactive Multimedia Instruction
(IMI) are described in MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting
handbooks.
This chapter addresses special ISD considerations for the
application of IMI technologies in delivering instruction. Although
the design and application of each IMI product may be somewhat
different, the common factor throughout all of these IMI
technologies is the integration of multiple media elements (text,
audio, video, graphics, etc.) into a single application. The ISD
considerations provided in this chapter apply to IMI as an entire
group of multimedia applications with specific differences
mentioned in each stage.
What is IMI?
As indicated in Chapters 3 and 4, IMI consists of various

computer-based training and training support technologies that
can be used individually, or in combination with each other.
These include the following:
Computer-Based Instruction/Computer-Based Training
Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction
Electronic Support Systems/Job Performance Aids
Computer Simulation
General
applications of IMI
technologies
IMI technologies can be inserted in local resident programs, as

well as applied in the distance learning environment. Although
the only real distinguishing factor between the two applications of
IMI is the physical separation of the instructor or courseware from
the students, there are differences in the way certain types of
distance learning IMI are accessed, delivered, and accomplished
by the students.
AFH 36-2235
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General
applications of IMI
technologies
(Continued)
1 November 2002
241
IMI insertion in resident programs. The typical or traditional

resident IMI course consists of instructor-led and self-paced
instruction accomplished primarily in a stand-alone mode.
Normally, the IMI program files are either downloaded and
installed on the users workstation, or accessed from a disk
drive (e.g., floppy, CD-ROM, DVD) or LAN server.
IMI applied in non-resident programs. Distance learning IMI
can either be delivered in the same stand-alone manner as
described for resident programs, or accessed from a distant
server over the Internet/Intranet and accomplished on-line.
IMI delivery
constraints
Use of the on-line access method for IMI has been limited to wide
bandwidth LANs/WANs with sufficient transmission capacity to
deliver true multimedia instruction without presentation delays or
disruptions. Because of present bandwidth and transmission
constraints, most distance learning IMI courses cannot be
effectively accomplished on-line over the commercial
Internet/WWW. These constraints have led to the design and
development of hybrid IMI courses that only require some of the
courseware program or support files to be transmitted over the
network system.
Hybrid IMI
distance learning
applications
In general, a hybrid IMI course is one that uses more than one
medium or technology to access and deliver the instruction. That
is, the courseware files may not all be packaged together and
reside in one location or medium.
Described below are two of the general types of on-line hybrid
courses:
One type of hybrid is a course where the main program files
reside and run on a distant server. The larger support data
files (e.g., graphic and video files) are accessed directly from
a separate high capacity storage device such as the users
hard drive, CD-ROM, DVD, etc. This minimizes the
bandwidth requirements and constraints of transmitting the
entire course content over the Internet/Intranet.
AFH 36-2235
Hybrid IMI
distance learning
applications
(Continued)
Volume 5
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Another type of hybrid is a course where most, if not all of the

program and support files are either downloaded onto the
users hard drive or accessed from a CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
The course is accomplished on-line, and the Internet/Intranet
connection is used to link to a distant server that provides
automatic file updates for the course as it is accomplished.
These course content updates are transparent to the user.
IMI versus IBI
For the purposes of this handbook, a distinction is made between

distance learning IMI and Internet Based Instruction (IBI).
Presently, the differences in the design, development, and
implementation of true IMI versus IBI (i.e., Web-based HTML
courseware) are significant enough to warrant discussing the two
separately. ISD considerations for IBI are provided in Chapter 9.
Focus of this
chapter
The primary focus of this chapter is on the ISD process for IMI
applied in a distance learning environment. Although the general
ISD process for stand-alone IMI in resident and non-resident
courses are essentially the same, there are some design and
development differences that need to be considered for distance
learning IMI.
Refer to MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting handbooks for
specific ISD information on IMI.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains five sections.
Section
Title
Page
245
247
250
251
252
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References
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AFIADL Home Page web site:
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Section A
Why use IMI?
As stated in MIL-HDBK-29612-3, Interactive Multimedia

Instruction may be a suitable instructional media delivery system
for many training objectives. Thanks to the rapid development of
computer technology, it is now possible to create, at a reasonable
price, new ways of designing and developing educational and
training materials. Today, computers can be used to deliver
interactive, competency-based, individualized, multimedia
instruction. Interactive Multimedia Instruction can tailor instruction
to the individual students needs, be deployable, reach a greater
audience, and provide just-in-time instruction.
When to use IMI
IMI can be used:

When there are a large number of students distributed
throughout multiple locations and a backlog of students
exists.
When accomplishment of the learning objectives requires
continuous practice, or problem-solving and decision-making
knowledge and skills.
When the students vary in experience, learning style, and skill
level.
When students need to learn in a non-threatening
environment
To allow students to practice a skill on an expensive piece of
equipment and potentially hazardous or high-risk activities
that cannot be accomplished using actual equipment.
IMI requirements
and constraints
It is important to identify and assess the IMI resource

feasibility of developing IMI for distance learning.
Equipment. The hardware requirements and considerations

would be as specified in MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting
handbooks. In addition, a network system with
Internet/Intranet access will be required if the IMI will be
delivered and/or accomplished on-line.
Facilities. No special facilities are required.
AFH 36-2235
IMI requirements
and constraints
(Continued)
Volume 5
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Funding. Is there a budget? This may affect the complexity

and amount of IMI selected, and whether some or all of the
development effort can be outsourced.
Personnel. The recommended project management and IMI
team personnel are identified in Chapter 2. Identifying the
minimum personnel required will be necessary to determine
in-house support capability. Again, expertise may vary
depending on the complexity of the application such as in
intelligent tutoring agents, and simulation.
Time. Is there a time limit? Depending on the type (e.g.,
ICAI) and amount (hours) of IMI to be developed, significant
lead-time may be required and could be a constraint.
In-house
development or
outsource?
There are many factors to consider in making this decision.

However, the most significant factors are most likely to be the
capability and availability of in-house resources to support the
design, development, and maintenance of the required
courseware. Courses incorporating instructional technologies
such as expert systems, complex animations, professional
recordings, and simulations are usually good candidate courses
for outsourcing due to the unique skills and expertise required.
Additional considerations in determination of whether the
development of the course should be outsourced are
technological upgrades, content updates, and maintenance.
Is IMI
cost-effective?
A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis would need to be

conducted to determine this. The development of IMI for distance
learning will in many cases be cost-effective, particularly for large
established programs that have high student throughput and
stable course content. More importantly, the risk associated with
not using simulated environments is much greater than the
investment in the technology.
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Section B
Determine the
objectives
As with any instructional course, it is important to determine the

specific learning objectives to be accomplished, and what it is you
want to do and accomplish with the IMI. The learning objectives
will drive the selection of the type and design of the distance
learning instruction.
Determine what
approach to use
This will be a key decision in the design process for distance

learning IMI since the mix of multimedia is dependent on what can
be delivered in a timely and cost-efficient manner as well as the
teaching methodology. The key considerations in the selection of
a delivery approach for IMI courses include:
Number of students and the frequency of the course offering.
Geographical dispersion of students and training sites.
Content stability and frequency of required revisions.
Courseware configuration control and management.
Network system capabilities and connectivity.
Client computer configuration and capabilities.
As discussed earlier, there are two delivery approaches that can
be taken when considering interactive courseware, EPSS, Job
Performance Aids, and simulation:
Stand-alone IMI that is delivered off-line either through the
IMI program files being either downloaded and installed on
the users workstation (which required greater storage
capacity), or accessed from a disk drive (e.g., floppy, CDROM, DVD) or LAN server.
IMI that is delivered on-line over the Internet/Intranet. This
would require a wide bandwidth network, unless a hybrid
course is developed. Although the hybrid approach may not
necessarily be a desirable or practical option for delivery of
most distance learning courses, there are some situations
where the benefits of a hybrid course may be realized. For
example:
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Determine what
approach to use
(Continued)
Special design
considerations for
on-line IMI courses
1 November 2002
247
For courses that require timely or frequent content updates

to maintain the currency and accuracy of the instruction
presented
To simply increase the speed, and improve the
presentation of on-line courses delivered over narrowband networks.
On-line IMI courses have the following special considerations:
Save graphics and other data in JPEG or GIF formats to
reduce file sizes.
Use animations, 3-D modeling, and compressed motion video
only if required to effectively present the instruction.
The following issues should be taken into consideration for
computer-managed instruction (CMI) functions that will be
incorporated and integrated with the IMI:
How will student identification/verification be accomplished?
Validating that students complete their own work/test can be a
sensitive issue for course certification.
How will student performance be measured? Will electronic
testing methods be employed? A well-designed IMI course
will build in a measurement and evaluation process to monitor
progress, completion and test results.
How will student progress be tracked and performance be
recorded? What mechanisms will be used to transfer student
data to and from a database? Multiple standards-based tools
are available on the market for transferring data to HTML
pages.
Will the student be required to log on to a LAN and central
CMI system, or will individual student floppy disks be used to
record lesson data and book marking information? Will the
student use emails or bulletin boards to send performance
data?
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considerations for
on-line IMI courses
(Continued)
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Will student files be maintained locally or transmitted to a

central site? Management and administrative planning are
required to define these requirements since technical
solutions are available.
Will course reference materials need to be provided on-line,
downloaded, or printed, emailed, faxed, and distributed in
hard copy form? Determine long range requirements and
develop reference materials within the IMI.
What on-line help applications and technical or instructor
support will be required? Carefully evaluate what
Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) products are available on
the market since several development tools will include online help modules.
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Section C
Special
considerations
The actual development of Interactive Multimedia Instruction for

non-resident courses would not be much different than for
resident courses. However, there are some special
considerations for distance learning IMI:
For the development of on-line courses, the lowest delivery
platform client computer configuration and Internet/Intranet
connectivity will need to be determined at all potential sites.
For example, developers should be cautious when producing
an IMI course with a video segment that uses MPEG
compression that requires a special video card for play back.
Technically, there are certain limitations on the capacities of
different sized servers where courseware can be stored and
accessed by students. This is particularly applicable to
simulation courseware. The maximum number of students
that will be taking an on-line course at the same time will
need to be determined to identify server requirements.
The development of hybrid courseware is more complex and
will require special programming efforts. Proper software and
hardware configuration control and documentation will be
important.
Some remote student training may be required in PC
operations, network or courseware access procedures, and
other fundamental computer skills. Additional student
materials such as instructional handouts, guides, or a tutorial
computer program for these students will need to be
developed in coordination with the production of the
interactive courseware, EPSS, or simulation course.
During the development phase for IMI courseware,
instructional designers and developers should consider the
reuse of media components such as video, audio, animation,
and graphics. Cataloging and using previously developed
modules or digitized segments of multimedia will save
development time and reduce costs.
Compatibility with existing databases IMI courseware
needs to be developed in coordination with existing student
management systems. The designing the tracking and
access systems as well as integrating of these students data
can become a significant programming effort.
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Section D
Implementation
Fielding the interactive multimedia instruction distance learning

course requires a comprehensive amount of functional planning
for management, administration, and support. The number of
students and training sites involved will impact the level of effort
in each of these functional areas.
Management
function
The importance of active management of the implementation

process cannot be overemphasized for implementing interactive
multimedia, EPSS, job performance aids, and simulation courses.
Critical functions include organizing, scheduling, communicating,
and coordinating IMI implementation. These functions involve
database management, local management of distance learning
students, site operations, and equipment as well as the IMI
product and lifecycle management itself.
Administration
function
Administrative procedures and processes should be in place for

both students and hardware/software at all sites. Student
registration, processing, tracking, and assistance just as important
for interactive courseware, EPSS, and simulation Courses as
traditional or IBI courses. Other administrative functions include
resource scheduling, routine/preventive maintenance, and
equipment refreshment/upgrades.
Support
function
Particularly for on-line distance learning instruction, technical and

maintenance support must be readily available to maintain
continuous computer and network system operation for reliable
student access. The students motivation and interest level,
which are more crucial in a distance learning environment, will be
enhanced the more seamless and transparent the instruction
is.
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Section E
Evaluation of IMI
instruction
As with other IMI courseware, the evaluation process would

consist of a formative, summative, and operational evaluation.
The evaluation procedures would be much the same for all IMI.
Chapter 2. The general guidelines for IMI evaluations are
contained in MIL-PRF-29612 and its supporting handbooks.
evaluations of IMI distance learning instruction.
Formative
evaluation
(Beta testing
Phase I)

The primary difference in the IMI validation process for distance
learning would be the manner in which the individual and small
group beta testing are conducted for on-line IMI instruction. It is
best to conduct these evaluations at the remote sites in the actual
environment that the course will be delivered. Selection of the
least capable site would be preferred to fully test the delivery of
the instruction under less than favorable conditions.
Summative
evaluation
(Beta testing
Phase II)
The operational testing for the summative evaluation should also

be conducted at several of the sites under actual distance
learning conditions. If possible, plan to conduct the evaluation of
on-line courses with all sites participating at the same time to
exercise the server and the performance of the IMI on the
system.
Operational
evaluation

such as:
AFH 36-2235
Operational
evaluation
(Continued)
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This operational evaluation process requires the following
procedures:
What information needs to be collected: performance,
effectiveness, etc.
How the information will be gathered: on-line, printed
questionnaires, etc.
How it should be stored and formatted for analysis: servers,
databases, etc.
How and who should analyze: ISD team, managers,
instructors, etc.
For on-line IMI courses, computer/network system access and
reliability will need to be carefully assessed since these factors
significantly impact the effectiveness of the distance learning
program.
General IMI
evaluation
Some general areas to consider in the evaluation of IMI distance

learning instruction are:
Course content organization, relevancy, clarity, quality,
currency, etc.
Course materials adequacy, availability, effectiveness,
currency, etc.
Instructional methods/media effectiveness, quantity, and
quality of interaction.
Instructional equipment availability, reliability, user
friendliness, etc.
Internet/Intranet network access, speed, reliability, etc.
Instructor support necessity, availability, effectiveness, etc.
Proctor support usefulness, availability, effectiveness, etc.
Technical/maintenance support access, availability,
timeliness, effectiveness, etc.
Administrative support usefulness, adequacy, availability,
etc.
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Chapter 8
ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEO TELETRAINING
AND INTERACTIVE TELEVISION INSTRUCTION
Overview
Introduction
There are differences in the application of the course planning,

design, production, and postproduction processes for IVT
courses. This chapter describes the ISD considerations for the
analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation of
Interactive Video Teletraining (IVT).
One-way versus
two-way video
During the analysis and design process, it must be decided if the

course can be delivered using one-way video, or if two-way video
is required for the effective accomplishment of the learning
objectives. This needs to be determined since:
Satellite uplink capability is not available at most remote
training sites.
Two-way video instruction is much more costly.
The Air Force currently provides only one-way video/two-way
audio, or Interactive Television (ITV), instruction. As such, the
primary focus of this chapter is on ITV instruction. Special ISD
considerations for VTC lessons are addressed separately in
Section E of this chapter.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains five sections.
Section
Title
Page
ITV Analysis and Design
256
ITV Development
269
ITV Implementation
277
ITV Evaluation
283
Special Considerations for VTC
288
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References
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Section A
ITV Analysis and Design
Selecting the ITV Course
Selecting
the course
In order to determine if a course of instruction or a segment of a

course of instruction is a candidate for ITV, complete the
following steps:
Perform media analysis to determine whether a course of
instruction or a segment of a course of instruction is a
suitable candidate for ITV based on the learning objectives.
Perform a cost analysis comparing costs of alternative
methods with the estimated costs of ITV delivery.
Identify estimated offsets and/or expected educational or
training benefits to be derived from conversion of the course
of instructionthis is known as Return on Investment (ROI).
Identify the team responsible for developing the course of
instruction for ITV.
Identify the instructor(s) for presentation of the course of
instruction, and evaluation of student performance.
Identify and secure approval/participation of functional
managers and guest presenters
Identify administrative procedures, and secure administrative
support.
Ensure a DITIS search has been done to avoid duplication of
instructional development.
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Analysis and Design

Entertainment
versus instruction
ITV instruction differs from television entertainment.

Emphasis is on instructional content not video production.
Visual presentations enhance the instructional content.
Presentation is interactive, not passive.
Why planning is
essential
ITV instruction differs from traditional classroom instruction.

In classroom instruction, the instructor provides information,
distributes course materials, operates presentation
equipment (audiovisual and computer-based), personally
interacts with the students, and is solely responsible for the
presentation of instruction.
In ITV instruction, the instructor must rely on a team of
technical experts to produce (broadcast) the instruction.
The video crew is a support group of television experts; the
instructor is the content expert.
The instructor must convey a plan of instruction to the video
crew.
Lesson plans that worked in the traditional classroom will not
necessarily work for ITV. The ITV team may have to
reconfigure instruction for the medium and use different
instructional strategies.
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Instructor Preparation for an ITV Course

Instructor
preparation
Effectively teaching an ITV lesson requires preparation.

Specific training is required prior to developing and
presenting an ITV lesson.
Instructors need an opportunity to practice effective ITV
techniques.
Instructors should have a thorough understanding of the ISD
process as presented in AF Handbook 36-2534, Instructional
System Development. Use of the ISD process will ensure:
Development of instruction based on criterion-referenced
education and training (job performance) requirements.
Sound instructional design and management decisions.
Graduates acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSAs) to perform a job.
The affective
component of
distance learning
In any classroom situation, there is a strong relationship between

attitudes and behaviors displayed by an instructor, and the
attitudes and classroom behaviors shown by the students.
ITV instruction does not provide observable one-on-one
student-teacher classroom relationships.
ITV instruction does not provide the ability to observe student
non-verbal cues.
Maintaining student interest in distance learning is a challenge for
the instructor. The instructor must employ variety, interaction,
and involvement to maintain student interest. Instructors can
mitigate the affective deficiencies of distance learning by:
Asking frequent in-depth questions (Key is to interact early
and often and ask direct questions)
Fostering interactive discussions.
Using teaching interviews with recognized experts.
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Team approach
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An effective distance learning course requires a closely

coordinated effort by a number of people working as a team.
Curriculum / Instructional Designer:
It is essential for an individual who understands the ISD
process to work with the instructor and SME to develop the
course.
Not all courses can be delivered by distance learning. After
careful analysis, the designer may find only part of a course
is appropriate for delivery via ITV.
A curriculum designer must be involved because a resident
course usually does not work effectively via distance learning
using the same format and learning materials.
Instructors and Administrative Support:
Instructors must take an active part in the administration of a
distance learning course.
Instructors must have a class roster for each site receiving
the broadcast.
Students must have required handouts and materials at each
site prior to the broadcast.
The training manager, scheduler and/or instructor must
coordinate procedures to determine who is in class for each
session.
The instructor must establish a process for student evaluation
(i.e., grading tests, getting tests from students to the
instructor, and back to the students).
The training manager/scheduler, and/or instructor must
determine a proper time for delivery of the course, taking into
account various time zones.
On-site Facilitators, Monitors, or DL POCs:
A designated person must be available at each remote
distance learning classroom to assist with administrative and
technical issues.
The classroom must be prepared prior to each broadcast.
Multimedia delivery technology equipment and student
instructional materials must be available for the students.
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Team approach
(Continued)
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Site facilitators are responsible for letting the instructor know

who is in attendance for a given session or period.
Instructional or Subject-matter Facilitators:
Instructional facilitators help conduct instruction at the remote
sites.
Special training may be required for instructional facilitators.
Technical Support:
Coordination between studio production crew (technical
support personnel) and the instructor is essential.
Special camera angles and shots, technical advice on
appearance, movements, and limitations should be discussed
in advance of the broadcast.
The director can give advice to make presentations more
professional and enhance overall delivery, ensure a smooth
transition of camera shots from the presenter to the visual
aids, and make the technology transparent to the student.
Visual Aid Support:
Due to limitations on print size and lines of text, more visuals
will be needed for a distance learning course than for a
traditional classroom course.
Work with visual experts to ensure the clarity and
effectiveness of visual aids. Pay particular attention to colors.
Colors that are acceptable in a typical classroom presentation
may not pass the groan test when broadcast!
Communication
skills
Distance learning students are usually more critical, and

television is less forgiving of communication mistakes.
Instructors need to consider two areas of communication skills:
Verbal Communication:
Clarity of speech and enunciation are more important for ITV
than they are in a live classroom.
Changes in volume and unconscious sounds are more
distracting to students.
AFH 36-2235
Communication
skills (Continued)
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Grammar and vocabulary are more important for ITV.

Effective questioning skills are critical for ITV. Allow brief
periods of silence after asking a question to give students
time to answer.
Non-Verbal Communication:
Eye contact is an important non-verbal behavior in the studio
environment. Instructors must maintain direct eye contact
with the camera.
The instructor should look at, and talk to, the camera. The
instructor must appear to talk to the remote site students
directly.
Minimize looking at the monitor that provides a view of what
is being broadcast to remote sites when it is not collocated
with the camera.
The instructor must maintain appropriate eye contact with
students in the studio classroom and at remote sites.
The natural tendency when teaching live classroom students
and remote site students at the same time is to have most of
the interaction and eye contact with the live classroom
students instead of the camera.
Instructors must make an effort to overcome this tendency, or
the involvement of the remote site students may be limited.
Facial expressions of the instructor are very clear to remote
site students.
Movement of the instructor is an important non-verbal
behavior. Excessive movement is a distracter. Hand
gestures can be a distracter. Be aware of movement
limitations. Watch the monitor to ensure movement and
gestures are not off camera.
Listening skills are an important non-verbal behavior. Listen
attentively to student questions and responses. Ensure
students at remote sites understand questions and responses
by repeating or paraphrasing and asking direct questions.
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Audience Analysis
Understanding the
target audience
Planning a curriculum requires the following:

Understanding the learner.
Understanding the intended relationship between courses.
Understanding how the learners will use the courses.
An effective curriculum requires a detailed understanding of the
target audience. This is a sampling of questions used during an
audience analysis:
Why is the instruction needed?
What are the specific needs of the target audience?
What external data verify the need?
What factors led to the instructional need?
What past experiences indicate that the instruction being
planned can effectively meet this need?
What are the ages, cultural backgrounds, interests, and
educational levels of the students?
How will the audience apply the KSAs gained in the course,
and how are they sequenced with other courses?
Impact of ITV on
audience analysis
Target audience analysis considerations for ITV also include the

following:
How familiar are the students with the various
telecommunication instructional methods and delivery
systems under consideration?
Will students other than the primary target audience be
allowed to participate in the ITV course?
How will the expanded ITV audience differ from the primary
audience?
Where are the students located?
Do all students have access to a satellite downlink site?
Will TDY to a downlink site be required for some students?
Will overseas students participate, and if so, how?
Will there be a studio audience at the uplink site in addition to
the remote students at the downlink sites?
How large an audience will the uplink and downlink sites
accommodate?
Are there special training conditions such as weekend
broadcasts for the ANG and AFRC?
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Learning Objective Analysis

Review learning
objectives
Individual course KSA learning objectives must be developed

based on the:
Educational and training requirements previously defined.
Audience analysis previously conducted.
Well-developed KSA learning objectives will ensure that the
course topics are instructed in a logical and sequential order.
When reviewing learning objectives:
Note whether any objectives require special laboratory or
research facilities, or equipment. Identify alternate sources at
remote sites. If alternatives do not exist, the learning
objectives may need revision.
Note whether any objectives require instructor observation of
student performance. The objectives may require special
two-way video or use of a facilitator.
One of the goals is to select instructional strategies that will
enhance the learning objectives.
Instructional
strategies
There are several important instructional strategies to keep in

mind:
ITV is a visual medium that should be fully exploited for
effective instruction.
Subject matter facilitators may be used to enable mastery of
performance and group activities at the remote sites.
Interactivity must be planned to ensure student involvement
in the learning process. Design some type of interactive
event every 7-10 minutes.
Student familiarity and comfort in the DL environment must be
maintained.
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Scheduling and
resource
considerations
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Consider the following items for determining the scope and

sequencing of lessons in a course of instruction:
Availability of instructors and guest speakers.
Availability of students and attendees.
Schedule students by ability or experience groups.
Consider student fatigue factor for viewing video
presentations.
Ensure access to rooms equipped for video/audio reception.
Determine the estimated number of students to receive
instruction. Repeated deliveries of lessons may be required.
Determine the number of sites for delivery of instruction.
Repeated deliveries of lessons to remote sites may be
required.
Determine the difficulty of lesson content. Allow enough time
for the lesson knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be absorbed
by the students.
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Summary
Summary of ITV
analysis
Perform the following steps during ITV Analysis:

Review the reason for using the ITV mode of instruction.
Review who the target audience is.
Review the learning objectives.
Review whether the ITV lessons are to be used for initial
instruction, remedial instruction, refresher instruction, job
certification, or job upgrade instruction.
Review the lessons that are to be taught using other media.
Review the satellite broadcast timing limitations and any
resource limitations.
Determine the type of broadcast setup (studio production or
instructor controlled approach)
Select an instructor to deliver the instruction and provide
training in effective communications skills for ITV.
Identify scope and sequence of material and generate a
tentative schedule.
Determine whether to deliver the material over a series of
short broadcasts (i.e., for 2 hours on Monday, Wednesday,
and Friday) or to present the instruction in one large block
(i.e., 6 hours on Monday).
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Design
Designing
instructional
protocols for the
ITV environment
There are several instructional protocols for ITV that must be

considered during the design phase, and firmly established at the
beginning of each course. These protocols may need to be
incorporated in the script:
Schedule Protocols: Identify the dates and times for ITV
classes. Delineate live broadcast hours from other activities
at the remote sites.
Attendance Protocols: Establish a system to take
attendance, and to ensure students attend class. Determine
if the presenter will do a roll call from the host or uplink
facility.
Break Protocols: Plan breaks in advance. Determine break
time and frequency.
Consider different time zones, and adjust break schedule
accordingly.
Schedule frequent breaks to avoid student fatigue.
Student Interaction Protocols: Determine if students can ask
questions at any time or only at specific times.
Determine how questions will be asked and answered.
Determine if questions will be generated and answered
using audio, computer-generated text, E-mail, or Fax.
Establish protocols for asking questions and response
times to deal with questions.
Response Systems Protocols: Decide when students will
receive instruction on the use of response systems at the
downlink sites.
Ensure students know how to use response systems.
Establish protocols for use of audio, computer-generated
text, E-mail, or Fax communication.
Student Project Reporting Protocols: Determine how students
will make reports using audio, computer-generated text, Email, or fax transmissions.
Determine how students will share information between
remote sites.
AFH 36-2235
Designing
instructional
protocols for the
ITV environment
(Continued)
Summary of ITV
design
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Determine if reports are to be sent to the host site and

then transmitted to all remote sites.
Student Assessment Protocols: Establish the protocols for
formative and summative evaluation of each lesson and the
course during the design phase. Determine how tests are to
be proctored and administered at the downlink sites.
Determine grading protocols.
Include the following steps during ITV Design:
Plan It
Incorporate appropriate instructional strategies and
methodologies.
Design appropriate protocols into each lesson.
Translate verbal teaching points into relevant audio and
visual video images. Include the types of video shots that are
required.
Translate verbal teaching points into relevant graphic, video,
photographic, text, animation, or simulation images. Specify
exactly what images are required, and exactly how the
images are to be incorporated and distributed in the ITV
lesson.
Use common cues in the script to prompt the director for all
movements, transitions, visuals, etc. that the instructor wants
to present.
Write It
Use a topical, chronological, space, pro/con, or cause-effect
pattern for the body.
List the main and supporting teaching points. Use a
combination of the Outline and Verbatim script formats.
Write the body portion of the script first.
Include questions, interim summaries, and transitions.
Add the introduction and conclusion after developing the
body.
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Final scheduling
actions
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Work with schedulers to complete the following steps after the

audience has been identified, the scope and sequence of the
course of instruction has been determined, a development /
conversion timeline has been established, and a delivery date
has been determined:
Determine the dates and times of broadcast and confirm the
schedule.
Identify and confirm downlink sites.
Schedule facilities and satellite time.
Implement marketing strategies to ensure student notification
of course dates and times, and how to register.
Call ATN Program Management Office to find how to connect
to other Service networks, if required.
Refer to the AFIADL Home Page Web Site for the current
listing of GETN downlink sites and locations:
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Section B
ITV Development
Developing the Lesson Plan
Steps for
completing lesson
plan development
Complete the following steps to develop lesson plan scripts and

storyboards after the audience has been identified, and the scope
and sequence of the course of instruction has been determined.
Determine the type of script format and the script elements to
include.
Prepare the script with appropriate markings and proof it
carefully.
Develop storyboards for each teaching point to include
visuals, production notes, and narration. Include instructional
protocols, questions, transitions, and summaries.
Follow all guidelines related to the use of copyright material.
Script purposes
A well-written script will provide the ITV instructor with information

that is required to conduct and guide an instructional lesson. The
script will:
Sequence the primary lesson topics.
Provide guidance to the entire studio crew.
Be incorporated into a teleprompter, as desired.
Script types
There are four types of scripts described below:

1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Verbatim script
Verbatim Script
Outline Script
Keyword Script
Combination Script
The characteristics are:

Every word spoken by the instructor is written down.
Contains specific cues for graphics, wording, movement,
questions, etc.
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1. Verbatim script
(Continued)
2. Outline script
1 November 2002
269
Customarily used with a teleprompter.

Beneficial if specific key wording is to be used.
Useful for new Interactive Video Teletraining (ITV) instructors.
Interpretive reading (conversational dialog) of the script is
required to avoid uninteresting presentations.
A true verbatim script does not allow for much spontaneous
discussion or development of ideas.
The instructor should include time for interactive discussion
periods.
Minimal coordination between instructor and studio
production crew.
Each specific word is not written down.
Usually, only the opening and closing remarks are listed.
The rest of the script is in an outline format.
The sequence of information is pre-established.
The instructor is free to develop sentence structure to support
teaching points.
Require the instructor to be very knowledgeable of the
subject being taught.
Close coordination with the director and studio production
crew is required.
3. Keyword script

Not a good type of script for the instructor to use.
Requires the instructor to be extremely knowledgeable of
subject matter.
Primary use is for studio technicians who can use instructorgenerated key words as cues for performing actions, or
presenting graphics, etc.
Extensive coordination between the instructor and studio
production crew prior to rehearsing lesson presentation is
required.
Adequate for broadcasting studio setup.
More effective if combined with other script formats to
achieve maximum instructor performance.
AFH 36-2235
4. Combination
script
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Closely resembles a typical lesson plan.
Combines Verbatim, Keyword, and Outline formats, and
enables the instructor to present a thoroughly planned
lesson.
Most versatile script type.
Coordination between the instructor and studio production
crew prior to rehearsing lesson presentation may be greatly
reduced.
Requires more instructor planning time than the other types
of scripts.
Script
characteristics
A lesson script should contain everything that a well-designed

resident lesson plan contains, and more. Ensure that the
following elements are included:
Learning objectives and methods for communicating them.
An Introduction, Body, and Conclusion.
The Introduction contains motivational statements, visual
images, and usually a Verbatim Script.
The Body lists the main and supporting teaching points,
and contains both Outline and Verbatim Scripts.
The Conclusion repeats the major teaching points, and
emphasizes the teaching points that are most difficult for
the students.
Interim Summaries that are a mini conclusion of teaching
points inserted in the lesson where appropriate, using Outline
Scripts and visual media.
Transitions to inform the students at remote sites of the
continuance of new information, and to enable the students to
acknowledge the changes in lesson events.
Scripted Questions that require and encourage student
interaction with the instructor.
Remember to build in adequate time for student questions.
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ITV script
development
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Script Marking:
Use symbols or cues to highlight important teaching points in
the script.
Use lines to separate different topics.
Use clear, precise, and consistent marking throughout the
script.
Script Proofing:
Print a hardcopy of the script and proofread it for intent and
effective topical coverage.
Rework the script as required.
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Developing Storyboards
Storyboard use
Storyboards are used to convey visual ideas and concepts.

Coordinate the lesson plan text with associated visuals.
Cards or sheets can be organized into different sequences.
Usually setup on videotape or on a computer, which allows
the storyboard to be scrolled up or down, highlighted.
Storyboard images setup on a videotape must allow minimum
viewing times for each image.
Storyboard
composition
The three main sections of the storyboard to consider when

developing ITV lesson plans are:
Visual Section:
Visualize the teaching points by drawing, sketching or
illustrating the visual images that will be seen in the final
screens.
Usually accomplished using a graphic format.
Production Notes:
Describe where, when, what, and how the visual subject
teaching points will be used.
Contain the name of the visual subject teaching points.
Contains the video shooting, timing, and display
requirements, audio production and timing requirements for
each visual subject teaching point.
Narration: The narration supports, and is secondary to the visual
images.
Describe and enhance the teaching points.
ITV storyboards may not contain the complete lesson plan
narration.
Teleprompter scripts, verbatim scripts, content outline scripts,
or keyword scripts may be used.
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Develop visual
materials
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Visual materials should have the following characteristics:

Visual materials should fit the setting, support the message,
and heighten audience attention.
Visual materials should be pictorial. Key points and
supporting materials should be expressed using expressive or
vivid photos, graphs, charts, illustrations, animations, and
simulations.
Visual materials should be colorful. Color induces responses
and appeals to emotions. Colors can promote attention,
evoke moods, create desire, and generate a favorable
response.
Visual materials should be creative. Creative visuals will have
more impact, and gain more attention.
Visual materials
tests
ITV visuals must pass three tests:

Aspect Ratio: A television monitor screen has an aspect ratio
that is three units high and four units wide. Visuals displayed
on the screen must correspond to this aspect ratio.
Safe Area: Visuals in the correct three by four aspect ratio,
with a one-to-one pixel aspect ratio (i.e., computer graphics),
will require additional space when presented on a television
monitor. A television monitor has a one-to three pixel aspect
ratio that makes a one-to-one pixel aspect ratio image bleed
off the television screen unless the image is sized correctly
for display on a television monitor.
Contrast: Television cameras handle colors in the middle of
the spectrum better than colors at the ends of the spectrum,
such as black and white.
ITV visual
materials
preparation
Use the following general rules for designing effective visuals:

Write the Words First. Develop the message, the headlines,
and the outline with key points. Consider the key points in
the outline that need special emphasis.
Keep It Short and Simple (KISS). Design no more than one
main idea per visual.
Keep It Large and Legible (KILL). Use only 7 lines per visual,
including the title.
AFH 36-2235
ITV visual
materials
preparation
(Continued)
Using color
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Use the Six by Six Rule: 6 lines per visual; 6 words per line.
Use a simple typeface no smaller than 18 points for
transparencies.
Use Descriptive Titles. Visual titles should summarize the
points to be made on the visual.
Decide on a Basic Design. Use the same colors, type styles,
and graphics throughout a presentation to show a continuing
relationship.
Proof the Visuals. Use others to proof for incorrect data or
spelling errors.
Proof received visuals. Proof as they will appear at receive
sites. Visuals sometimes take on a different appearance
after conversion from digital to analog. If this is not possible,
view videotape of broadcast.
Allow Enough Time. Good, quality graphics take time to
develop.
Tips for using color:
Color combinations that look good on a computer monitor will
not always look good on a television monitor.
Use different background colors to introduce new sections of
the presentation, to change a mood, or to call attention to
important transitions.
Use light colors against dark backgrounds and vice versa.
Avoid bright red, magenta, and some blue colors that tend to
get lost in the background.
A solid background will enable text, graphics, and graphs to
stand out. Special effects can add visual appeal.
Use visuals with more images, and less words.
Use words to label, highlight, and summarize.
Yellow and white text bold with shading work well.
Types of ITV
visual materials
Types of ITV visual materials include:

Camera Art or Hard Graphics. Must be large enough, and
pass the contrast and aspect ratio tests. Are usually
prepared prior to the live presentation, rather than using a
camera to shoot them live during the presentation. May
also be shown during the broadcast using a visualizer.
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Types of ITV
visual materials
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Computer-Generated Graphics. Computers are used to

create animated, still, and modeled images and text using
templates with correct aspect ratios and safe areas.
Character Generator (CG). Used to create words and
numbers in a variety of sizes and colors for display on the
television monitor. Can be a stand-alone device, or a
component of a computer graphics system.
Full Animation Systems. Sophisticated computers that can
reproduce any type of animated, still, or modeled image;
create unlimited motion; add shading; specify the angle and
intensity of the light source; and give a two-dimensional
drawing depth and three-dimensional effects.
Still-Store. Captures a still image from any type of video
source and stores the image as a still image. Provides
random access to still images, with numbered frames.
Images are displayed on the television monitor by calling up
the frame number.
Ultimatte or Chroma Key. Allows the presenter to interact
with the displayed images. Electronically finds a particular
color frequency in the television picture, usually green or
blue, and removes it from the image being broadcast.
Anything green or blue becomes invisible. For example, if
the wall behind the presenter is green, Ultimatte removes the
wall. The wall can be replaced in the broadcast image with
another background video image. The presenter (who
cannot be wearing green) is visible in front of the new image.
Roll-Ins (video clips). Pre-produced videotapes that are shot
to videotape by a live camera and edited for desired scenes
and length of display prior to the live broadcast.
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Section C
ITV Implementation
The TV studio
ITV classes may take place in a video production facility (TV

studio), or in an ITV broadcast classroom. The TV studio should
be equipped with:
Room Features
Metal framework on the ceiling, from which lights can be
suspended for illumination of the set below.
Curved wall painted in a solid color that can also be used as
a backdrop.
Studio doors large enough to provide access for large training
support equipment.
Draperies in a solid color, that can be used as a backdrop.
Clocks. Timing is important and instructors must avoid dead
time while on-the-air.
Equipment
One to four analog or digital TV cameras on wheels or wallmounted.
Analog or digital television monitors.
Computers with monitors and Internet access.
Projection or digitizing systems for transparencies, slides,
graphics, solid objects, etc., capable of projecting images on
screens or monitors.
Fax machine for student roster, submitting questions or
course materials, etc.
Furniture for use in sets.
The production facility should be staffed with production
personnel such as camera operators, stage manager, technical
assistants, etc. as may be necessary for the production.
The control room
The control room is the heart of the ITV production facility and
should normally contain:
All equipment for transmission of ITV broadcast and the
appropriate crew to ensure a successful broadcast.
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A director or videographer, linked to a key personnel

instructor by microphones, headsets, and earphones.
Several analog or digital TV monitors.
Large electronic control panels for management of equipment
and personnel.
Videotape and audiotape players.
Each of the television monitors in the control room displays a
specific video output. Each camera on the studio floor is tied
electronically to the control room so that the director can monitor
what each camera is recording. Other video or computer
monitors are used to display:
Analog or digital graphics.
Scripts, animations, and computer simulations.
Digital and analog videotape lesson segments.
Prerecorded lesson segments.
The image that is being transmitted to students at remote
sites.
ITV equipment
The following devices are commonly used during ITV production.

Instructors should become familiar with all of the
equipment/devices used during the production.
Microphones
Lavaliere or clip-on microphones: Designed to pick up the
voice of one person, and clipped to the clothing of the
presenter.
Tabletop microphones: These are important if students are
present in a studio classroom. These microphones permit
questions to be transmitted to students at the remote or
downlink sites. Students at downlink sites often use push-totalk tabletop microphones to talk to the instructor and to
other sites.
Video Components
Cameras: Usually, three cameras are used.
One camera is used to shoot graphics. It can be mounted
in the ceiling, in a lectern, or in a visualizer.
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ITV equipment
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Two cameras are mounted on movable bases to achieve

different shooting angles.
Cameras in the broadcast classroom are mounted in the
back of the room, and are operated by remote control from
the control room.
Most studio cameras have red lights on top to indicate
which camera is in use.
Teleprompter: Designed to display text within view of the oncamera presenter. The script is entered into a computer that
is used to scroll pages of the script through the machine as
the presenter reads them. May be controlled by the director
or the instructor.
Monitors: Each ITV receiving site must have one or more
analog or digital video monitors that enable the students to
see the presentation.
Video cassette recorders (VCR): Required at the ITV
receiving site if local videotapes (not a part of the broadcast)
are to be presented to the students and for recording
broadcasts for remediation or future reference.
Computer Components
Computers: Each ITV receiving site must have instructor and
student computer stations that enable the presentation if
Interactive Multimedia Instruction, computer simulations, and
electronic testing (Internet access).
Voice/Data fax/Computer modem: Required at the ITV
receiving site to provide text and voice interface between
students and the instructor. Also used to control the
transmission of test information test information.
Interactive presentation system (instructor controlled).
Other Equipment
Lighting: Spotlights are placed to eliminate shadows on the
presenter, and to create appropriate shadows on the set and
backdrop.
Whiteboard (Softboard): Connects to a Windows-based
computer. Information written on the whiteboard is displayed
on the computer monitor in color. Files can be created and
saved.
Visualizer.
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Preproduction Phase
Preproduction
activities
The ITV preproduction phase involves the following activities:

Conducting preproduction conferences.
Developing television platform skills.
Conducting rehearsals.
Production preparations.
Preproduction
conferences
The instructor, studio director, and graphics designer must meet

to discuss and coordinate the sequencing of the various
instructional media elements of the distance learning course.
Decide whether, when, and how the ITV components are to
be broadcast.
Determine the development times and resources required to
develop and integrate the ITV course.
Develop ITV skills
ITV is a visual medium, and instructor presentation skills are very

important aspects of instructing using this medium. It is strongly
recommended that instructors and developers attend a course to
learn ITV techniques. Rehearsals and dry-runs should be
accomplished by the instructor to hone verbal and nonverbal
presentation skills, and practice using the equipment.
Conduct
rehearsals
Rehearsals will allow the instructor and production team to work

out the broadcast details to include the exact presentation
sequence/timing, camera shots, supporting graphics/display
requirements, etc. Videotape rehearsals for review.
Production
preparations
Below are just a few of the considerations and preparations that

may need to be accomplished prior to the actual production (use
checklist if available).
Ensure the production and remote site facilities have been
reserved and are still available.
Ensure the remote sites have all the necessary instructional
materials.
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Production
preparations
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Ensure site monitors are trained.

Ensure the facilitators are aware of their responsibilities/roles.
Ensure the telephone link/audio bridge is operating properly.
Conduct last minute checks on equipment, instructional
materials, etc.
Confirm satellite connection with downlink sites and ensure all
remote classroom sites are up and operating on production
day.
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Production Phase
The broadcast
The Production phase is actual on-air time, when the lesson is

being broadcast by the instructor and received at all downlink
sites. Videotape the broadcast and conduct a debriefing with the
production team after the production.
Potential technical
problems during
production
Visual or audio problems may occur when conducting ITV live via
satellite:
Visual difficulties include the loss of the transmitted uplink
image due to:
Studio cameras not relaying the image properly.
Camera operators and switchers not being in sync with
each other according to which image needs to be
broadcast.
Space satellite malfunctions.
Visual difficulties include the loss of the transmitted downlink
image due to:
Television monitor malfunctions in the ITV classroom.
Satellite downlink dish not receiving signals properly.
Audio difficulties include the loss of the transmitted uplink
signal due to:
Instructors microphone not functioning properly.
Satellite may be sending the visual image but not the
audio signal.
Audio difficulties include the loss of the transmitted downlink
signal or audio return due to:
Television monitor volume variations in the ITV classroom.
Inoperative television monitor speakers.
Student microphones problems.
Telephone patch-in/audio bridge problems.
Have a backup
plan
Develop a backup plan and coordinate it with the remote site

facilitators in case of transmission problems or failures. This
should include an alternate lesson plan at the remote sites that
may include showing a previously taped ITV lesson if appropriate,
or accomplishment of other instructional activities under the
direction of the site facilitators.
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Section D
ITV Evaluation
Overview
Evaluation usually refers to anything that occurs after

implementation, such as evaluation of the effectiveness of the
ITV course of instruction, including assessment of the learning
outcomes, instructional skills, and studio services.
Evaluation is the last phase of the ISD process.
Effective evaluation requires a continuous feedback process.
Evaluation identifies both intended and unintended outcomes
so that decision-makers can make necessary adjustments in
the instructional program.
Evaluation usually involves formal and informal processes
that measure the effectiveness of instruction and support
functions.
There are unique evaluation requirements for ITV and
distance learning courses of instruction.
The quality control procedures described in Chapter 2 are
part of the evaluation process for ITV courses of instruction.
Evaluation of ITV, and the required documentation, is based
on the distance learning metrics described in Chapter 2.
Formative and
summative
evaluation
The formative and summative evaluations provide a feedback

mechanism that allows for adjustments and modifications of
strategies being used to assure achievement of program goals
and objectives. They include:
Evaluation of Internal Processes: Look at how well the
process worked. Was ISD followed? Did the team work well?
Were policies followed? Was required documentation
maintained? Were general quality control (QC) procedures
followed?
Design/Development Criteria for ITV: Were the proper
procedures and design techniques followed? Did the team
members follow the QC procedures in the design and
development of the courseware?
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Formative and
summative
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Validity and Beta Testing Prior to Release: This is to ensure

instruction works prior to wholesale implementation. For ITV,
this involves pre-production coordination, rehearsals, and
feedback from the field for the initial broadcast.
Monitor Technical Production: The technical and studio
production staff must continuously monitor the output signal
as well as return audio during a production. Testing of
equipment must occur prior to broadcast time and must be
factored into the ITV schedule. The production crew must be
able to work with site monitors or POCs to fix technical
problems that occur during production.
Formative
evaluation
Formative evaluation is a continuous feedback mechanism that

includes:
Evaluation of Internal Processes
Design/Development Criteria for ITV
Validity and Beta Testing Prior to Release
Monitor Technical Production
Evaluation of
internal processes
Evaluation of internal processes includes:

How well did the process work?
Was the ISD process followed?
Did the team work well together?
Were policies followed?
Was required documentation maintained?
Were Quality Control procedures followed?
Design /
development
criteria for ITV
Design / development criteria for ITV includes:

Were development procedures and design techniques
followed?
Did team members follow Quality Control procedures in the
design and development of courseware?
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Validity and beta

testing prior to
release
Validity and beta testing prior to release includes:
Monitor technical
production
Monitoring of the technical production includes:
Has beta testing been accomplished to measure the validity

of the instruction?
Have pre-production coordination and rehearsals been
accomplished?
Has feedback from the field for the initial broadcast been
obtained?
Does the technical and studio staff continuously monitor the

output signal and the return audio during a production?
Has testing of equipment prior to broadcast time been
accomplished and factored into the ITV schedule?
Can the production crew work with site POCs to fix technical
problems that occur during production?
Summative and
operational
evaluation
Summative Evaluation is based on data collected upon

conclusion of a program. It indicates the initial level of success.
The Operational Evaluation is conducted throughout the life cycle
of the course. It indicates the on-going level of success.
Operational evaluations will show trends over time and should
help differentiate between an isolated incident and potential
system/program failure. As with all DL programs, ITV Evaluation
is based on DL Metrics in Chapter 2 and includes:
Instructional Effectiveness
Costs
Technical/System Reliability
Administrative Efficiency/Operational Effectiveness
Customer Satisfaction
Instructional
effectiveness
Instructional effectiveness includes the following:

The instructor, along with the course director or training
manager, is responsible for determining if students achieved
the desired learning outcomes. This is usually accomplished
through some form of testing or course completion data.
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Instructional
effectiveness
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An important indicator of effectiveness is how well the

instructor and any subject matter facilitators performed in the
ITV environment. Measurement of the effectiveness of these
people is usually accomplished through student critiques of
the instructional program and feedback from peer or
supervisory evaluations as well as site POCs. Also, ITV
producers/directors are a source of feedback. Student
critiques of ITV instructional effectiveness should provide
feedback on:
Content
Relevancy of material.
Level of student-instructor and student-student
interactivity.
Effectiveness of instructor presentation techniques.
Instructor knowledge of subject matter.
Overall technical quality of presentation.
Quality of the learning environment at the remote sites.
Costs
Costs are kept in accordance with DL Metrics in Chapter 2.
Technical / system
reliability
Technical / system reliability includes the following:

The production/engineering and ITV studio (uplink) crews are
primarily responsible for monitoring technical and ITV system
reliability.
Site POCs must report any technical difficulties at the remote
sites. The production/engineering crew must determine if the
problems are system or site related. These difficulties are
documented and reported to the ATN program manager as
directed. Documentation should include:
System/studio utilization.
Type of equipment failures.
Percentage of downtime.
Point of failure (cause and location of problem) .
Requests for assistance from remote sites.
Actions taken.
Usually a debriefing occurs at the end of each production to
identify areas for improvement.
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Administrative
efficiency /
operational
effectiveness
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This involves a review of the administrative procedures that

support ITV to include:
Course notification.
Registration procedures.
Materials handling.
Student access to facilities.
This information can be obtained from students as part of the
course critique as well as from site POCs. Problems should be
reported to the appropriate support organization.
Customer
satisfaction
Customers for ITV include all those listed for DL in Chapter 2 as

well as all production/engineering and studio crews, and site
POCs. Surveys are usually used to determine customer
satisfaction.
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Section E
Special Considerations for VTC
Overview
VTC versus ITV
The most significant difference between ITV and VTC is the twoway video capability of VTC instruction. A VTC system provides
visual communications between the participating sites. Any VTC
classrooms that are networked to ITV sites would still be limited
to one-way (receive-only) video. Also, there are budgeting
limitations for VTC systems, therefore, the number of sites that
can be conferenced-in at one time is limited.
Much of the ISD process for VTC is the same as for ITV
instruction. This section addresses some of the special
considerations or processes involved in the analysis, design,
development, implementation, and evaluation of a VTC course
that is not covered under the ITV sections.
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Analysis
Is two-way
video required?
To help determine if two-way video instruction is required, the

following questions can be asked as part of the decision process:
Is an instructor required to present the instruction?
Do the students need to see the instructor?
Is the desired learning objective a skill objective that requires
the demonstration and performance of a task?
Does the instructor need to observe the students actions,
performance, progress, or interaction in the accomplishment
of the task? If so, does the instructor need to observe the
student in real-time?
Can student performance be adequately seen through a VTC
camera?
Can subject matter facilitators at the local sites fulfill the
requirement to observe student task performance?
Are there other instructors, SMEs, or guest speakers at any
of the participating sites that are required to present some of
the instruction?
Is VTC feasible?
If two-way video is determined to be required, then the following

questions can be asked to determine if VTC is a viable option for
delivery of instruction:
How many sites will be participating?
Is it required that all sites participate at same time? Can the
instruction be presented to different sites at different times?
How will the fact that each participating site may only be able
to view one other site affect the presentation and instruction?
How many students will be at each participating site?
Will each individual student be required to be observed?
Do all the participating sites have adequate equipment and
trained personnel to operate the equipment?
Do all the participating sites have compatible
connections/capability?
Are there any other delivery options or methods of instruction
available to accomplish the desired learning objective?
Will VTC instruction be cost effective?
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Design
How is VTC
design different?
There will be some differences in the instructional design of VTC

presentations since there will be more than one originating
production site. It will be necessary to develop instructional
strategies that incorporate and integrate the video capability at
the other selected site(s).
The production capabilities and limitations of the other sites
must be considered in the instructional design process.
Clearly define what actions or performance are required of
the students.
Determine what instruction or expertise is required from
participating sites.
Determine what is expected of the other site teams or POCs
and ensure those expectations are communicated.
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Development
Develop an
integrated lesson
plan
Develop an integrated lesson plan that includes the other

participating site(s).
Coordinate with the other site instructors/speakers in the
development of the storyboards and script. They are part of
the team.
Determine how and when the video will be switched between
participating sites if applicable.
Determine who will produce the instructional materials for the
other sites.
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Implementation
Additional VTC
considerations
Additional implementation considerations for VTC instruction

include:
Involve other participating production teams or POCs in the
preproduction conference.
Confirm other participating production sites have proper
equipment/support.
Ensure all participating site instructors have received the
required training.
Schedule and conduct rehearsals with other production sites.
Ensure students at each site are familiar with the production
equipment and presentations procedures as applicable.
Conduct two-way video/audio checks with each site prior to
VTC session.
Ensure the backup plan covers the possibility of transmission
problems or failures at one or more sites as applicable.
Have the other sites videotape their productions.
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Evaluation
Guidelines
Formative and summative evaluation for VTC media is the same

as for ITV and IMI. Ensure the evaluation plan and process
includes all participating sites. Detailed guidelines for IMI
formative and summative evaluation are contained in MIL-PRF29612 and the associated handbooks in this series.
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Chapter 9
ISD CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERNET-BASED INSTRUCTION
Overview
Introduction

design, development, implementation, and evaluation of InternetBased Instruction (IBI).
What is IBI?
As described in Chapter 3, IBI encompasses the range of

instruction and data provided on-line over the Internet/WWW
from simple text-based files and applications to interactive
multimedia instruction.
Note: A stand-alone course that is downloaded via the
Internet/WWW (from an FTP or web site) to an individual PC and
accomplished solely off-line by learners, is not classified as IBI
within the context of this chapter.
Where to read
about it
This chapter contains five sections:
Section
References
Title
Page
IBI Analysis
297
IBI Design
302
IBI Development
306
IBI Implementation
315
IBI Evaluation
319

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References
(Continued)
Current
capabilities
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http://www.cisnet.com/~cattales/Deducation.html
Online Delivery Software: http://www.ct.bc.ca/landonline/
If learners are geographically separated so that distance and time
zones are a barrier to using other alternatives (such as resident
training, VTCs and audioconferences), and if learners have
access to adequate computer equipment and the Internet, the
instructional solution of choice may well be IBI. A skilled
developer can change content on the Internet quickly, which
means that IBI may be highly appropriate for dynamic course
content. Depending on the structure of the course, learners can
see which students are on line; they can converse in chat rooms
or forums; they can communicate with instructional staff in both
synchronous and asynchronous modes. Designers can employ a
wide variety of techniques to lead learners through the course
content, provide opportunities for interaction, and reinforce
learning objectives. Special skills are required to design a quality
IBI course, but authoring systems and instructional aids are
available to facilitate IBI development.
The future capabilities and instructional potential of IBI are
significant. Technology is revolutionizing IBI and is changing the
way we look at distance learning. Advances in computer network
technology, compression algorithms, streaming technologies, and
improvements in bandwidth will permit virtually unrestricted
access to instructional materials stored in various, noncentralized locations on demand, enabling learning to occur
independent of time and distance.
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Technical constraints such as the capabilities of learners PCs

(modem speed, etc.), bandwidth availability, and network
interfaces limit the speed that data can be transmitted and
received over the Internet/WWW. This equates to transmission
delays and slow-loading web pages, particularly when the
pages are complex in structure and/or content.
Bandwidth is an issue in three areas: on each Air Force base,
between bases, and between the DoD Defense Information
Services Network (DISN) backbone and the Internet.
Base blueprints are being enhanced to reflect the growing
reliance on connectivity and to prepare for access to an
upgraded DoD backbone.
Bandwidth impinges primarily on the level of technical
sophistication one can employ from a central server that is
accessed by the user community.
Vendors are offering audio and video streaming technologies
to mitigate the bandwidth problem, but these typically employ
small video windows at frame rates less than the rate at
which somewhat smooth video is attained.
Many base LAN policies currently prohibit streaming; this
impacts design considerations.
Before you begin
Using the latest development tools, course providers can develop

and deploy web-based instruction with increasing speed.
However, the potential for the proliferation of uncoordinated
variations of web-based courses throughout the Air Force is a
point of major concern.
Before initiating an IBI project, research current development
tools and assess their applicability. In addition, consult the
AFIADL homepage (http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/) for current
guidance on the use of IBI, and for information concerning
hardware and software standards, operating systems standards,
and database management requirements.
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Section A
IBI Analysis
Introduction
The analysis process for IBI is similar to the process described in

Chapter 7 for IMI. Both of these instructional technologies can
support self-paced and self-directed interactive instruction. IBI is
also similar to CMC in that both can support instructor-led or
group-paced conferencing and collaboration. The differences lie
in their application and delivery method.
When to use IBI
Consider using IBI when:

There are large numbers of learners distributed over diverse
time zones and duty locations.
Learners cannot travel to the training site or be absent from
their duty station for extended periods.
Availability of instructors with subject matter expertise is
limited.
Hands-on training is not required. IBI is good for knowledge
and attitude objectives, but has limited application for motor
skill objectives.
Just-in-time training is needed.
On-demand instruction is required.
Instruction needs to be platform independent (not limited to
Windows, Mac, Unix, etc., environment).
Frequent updates or revisions are required in the course
materials.
Other
considerations
Other general considerations for IBI include:

Time for IBI course preparation:
Some types of IBI can be set up quickly if required.
On-line conferences require only the time it takes to inform
participants.
Simple WWW pages can be created in only slightly more time
than text document. However, it may require an instructor to
be on-line for an extended period of time once the conference
begins.
Cost of IBI course preparation:
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Other
considerations
(Continued)
Is IBI costeffective?
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Some supporting IBI can be implemented at very little

additional cost if pre-existing resources for E-mail, chat room,
etc., are used.
Can also be costly if IBI applications require a high-end,
server with a fast network connection in order to run.
The cost-effectiveness of any media is dependent on its fit with
the instructional objectives and training environment. If the
learner population is widely dispersed geographically so that
several time zones are involved, the course content is fairly
straight forward, and the objectives can be achieved without
hands-on instruction, IBI can be a very cost-effective solution. If
the material is complex, students are collocated, and/or hands-on
training is required, IBI will not only not be the most cost-effective,
but it is likely that the instructional objectives will not be realized.
Both direct and indirect costs must be considered in the analysis
process. In addition, all constraints must be examined for cost
impact. For example, if near term funding is extremely limited, a
phased approach to training may be used, with IBI as the ultimate
delivery media. Cost analysis will include:
Training cost/cost avoidance: Will the expected IBI cost

savings offset the development costs?
Course life cycle cost: Will development and maintenance
costs be offset during the expected life of the IBI course?
Return on Investment: Is the expected ROI acceptable?
(Refer to Chapter 4.)
Defining the
training
development /
delivery options
The three critical tasks of the analysis phase are the definition of
the learning population, the definition of the instructional
objectives, and the definition of the learning environment. Who is
the target group? What is the learning environment? What are
the objectives of the instruction? What tools do learners have
available? The better these variables are defined, the more
accurately the development/delivery options can be analyzed for
suitability and cost-effectiveness.
IBI feasibility
The following table provides some considerations for determining

the feasibility of IBI:
IBI feasibility
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Type of Factor
What to
Examine
Impact on IBI Decision
CONTENT
Content
characteristics
Learning
objectives
Stability of
Content
Course life
cycle
Supported
instructional
system data
Supported
instructional
system data
Consider how best to match the technology

to the objectives of the course. Will IBI be
used to distribute course information
(syllabus and notices), for supplementation
(links to resources)? Will major course
components be presented on the web? Or
will the entire course be provided by means
of the web? Will the instruction be
synchronous or asynchronous?
Consider IBI if frequent updates or revisions
are required.
Consider IBI if development and
maintenance costs can be offset during the
life of the course.
COST
Training cost
Projected
savings
resulting from
use of IBI
Return on
Investment
(ROI)
Consider IBI if the cost savings can offset

development cost within a specified time
period.
Staff
availability
Staff
experience
Resources and
commitments
Resumes
Attitudes
toward IBI
Staff meeting
reports
Consider IBI if development/delivery/support

staff is available.
Plan time for learning curve if staff is
inexperienced with distance learning
instruction/ equipment. Include support
personnel (e.g., help desk) in assessment.
Plan for IBI awareness training if resistance
is high.
ORGANIZATIONAL
5
6
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IBI feasibility (Continued)

A
Type of Factor
Support for IBI
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What to
Examine
Impact on IBI Decision
Survey
management
attitudes
Plan for development of position paper if

support is low get buy-in.
Unit/student
surveys or
records
Consider IBI if student has previous

computer-based and Internet learning
experience. Plan for student training if
computer/Internet literacy is low.
Plan for IBI awareness training prior to actual
instruction if resistance is high.
STUDENT
Computer
literacy
10
Attitude toward Unit/student

IBI
surveys
COMPUTER/NETWORK RESOURCES
11
12
Instructional
equipment
Network
infrastructure
Equipment at all
applicable sites
Existing and
planned Internet
/ Intranet
network system
Consider IBI if required server/client

hardware and software are available.
Consider IBI if computer network
connections/ infrastructure are, or will be,
available to support instruction on a reliable
basis.
Table 33 IBI Feasibility Determination

Develop the plan
Depending on the role IBI will play in the course (informational,

supplemental, dependent, or fully webbed), define IBI resource
requirements and constraints. Refer to Chapter 2 for planning
and management factors to be considered. Depending on the
requirements and constraints defined, consider options; define
the alternatives for obtaining required resources (e.g., use of
advanced development tools may eliminate the requirement for
skilled programmer).
Consider the effort and all risks involved with the development of
the planned instruction. Determine if:
In-house development is feasible.
The project scope, requirements, and/or schedule exceed inhouse capabilities and require contract support.
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The recommended plan of action should reflect the most costeffective solution to the instructional requirement. Obtain buy-in
from senior management and the customer before beginning the
design phase.
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Section B
IBI Design
Introduction
The design of the IBI project is dependent on a host of issues that

must be defined. Bandwidth availability, infrastructure,
development and delivery tools and browsers, delivery standards,
security issues, user configuration requirements, user access,
student tracking, scalability requirements these are some of the
factors that must be examined. Some of these will have been
defined during the analysis phase. Others will be defined as the
design process begins. Be sure to contact the Base Network
Communications Center (BNCC) and check the AFIADL Home
Page (http://www.maxwell.af.mil/afiadl/) for the most up-to-date
guidance.
This section discusses instructional strategies and methods, key
design considerations, and constraints for IBI delivered in a
synchronous and/or asynchronous mode.
Design the
instructional
strategy
During this phase, the instructional designers will refine the

instructional approach and define the instructional design
(organization and presentation of content to meet desired
learning objectives).
It is useful to have a both a subject matter expert and a
representative of the learner population participate in the design
phase (refer to Chapter 2 for a list of IBI development team roles
and responsibilities). As the instructional objectives are
examined, each of these players can provide valuable insight on
the optimum use of Internet resources. A few of the factors to
consider:
Hardware and software requirements for development and
delivery.
Whether and how chat rooms should be constructed.
How instructor/learner and learner/learner discussions will be
conducted.
How and when learners will receive feedback.
For a synchronous course, whether and which portions of the
course should be asynchronous (and vice versa).
How learner achievement will be assessed.
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instructional
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(Continued)
Design the IBI

structure
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How frequently the course contents changes and how it will

be updated.
Relative functions of the website, newsgroup, and e-mail.
What the contingency plans are for network failure (for
synchronous instruction).
The following table describes a few of the structural options
associated with IBI design. Again, the designer must decide how
best to use the technology how best to draw or lead the learner
through the instruction.
WWW Mode
Description
This mode is best when the designer wants
Linear Mode With the learner to follow a particular path through
Hierarchies
one portion of the site. More than a single
Attached
path can lead through a given portion of the
site. Other portions of the site are not
accessible within paths of a particular
portion, though they are accessible from the
uppermost page within that portions
hierarchy.
Very similar to the linear mode with
Hierarchical Mode hierarchies attached; access to different
portions of the site is only possible from the
upper most page in the hierarchy (e.g. the
Home Page or the Administration page).
This could, in effect, divide the site into four
or five smaller sites such that they are
independent of each other with access
controlled by an administrator.
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structure
(Continued)
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1 November 2002
WWW Mode
Web Mode
303
Description
This format is best for delivering studentcentered instruction, allowing a multitude of
paths interconnected with each other from
which students can explore. Web mode is
not effective for a testing situation, since in
testing you would want the user to follow a
particular path through a battery of tests, or
when linear instruction is intended,
progressing through a set of instructional
modules from beginning to end.
Table 34 Structural Options Associated with IBI Design

Define structure
and content of
support media
IBI may include photographs, videos, audio tracks, and

embedded graphics. The design phase is the time to define the
role support media will play in the IBI program. This is also the
time to do trade-offs among the support media alternatives to
define the most cost-effective way of achieving the instructional
objectives.
Technical
considerations
Some technical information that will need to be obtained to

identify limitations that may be placed on IBI design include:
Connectivity
What type of connection to the Internet does the delivery
computer have? Is a dial-in provider, such as an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) to be used?
Will a fast Ethernet connection, ISDN line, T-1 or ATM
connection be available?
What are the connection data transfer rates upstream and
downstream?
What standards and protocols apply (technical standards
such as authoring software, file name conventions,
connectivity protocols, bandwidth limitations, security and
user access control, etc.)?
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Computer Capability
What type of computer will accommodate the delivery of the
IBI based on the selected browsers?
What computer or server will house the courseware?
Which web browser, such as Internet Explorer or Netscape,
will be used? Which version will the design be mapped to?
What plug-ins will be required?
Other Considerations
How many students will be accessing the IBI at a given time
and for how long?
What security provisions are required for collection and
management of Privacy Act data?
The design of IBI graphics and files will generally be limited by
the lowest, or least capable, student access method and
computer configuration (web browser version).
It is important to note that highly interactive multimedia IBI with
extensive graphics, animations, simulations, and video is not yet
a realistic option due primarily to available bandwidth limitations.
Currently, IBI can only effectively imitate IMI through the use of
HTML hyperlinks to other files and pages with limited graphics,
sound, and motion video.
However, as network infrastructure, bandwidth, and
hardware/software support capabilities continue to improve and
expand, multimedia IBI (e.g., video, animation, audiographics)
becomes more attractive as an instructional alternative.
However, until transmission and bandwidth issues are resolved,
the design process for IBI must factor its limitations into the
instructional program.
Refine the plan
The project plan should be refined to reflect the decisions made

and approved during the design phase. In addition, the
instructional designers should have prepared a design document
that will guide the development team through the next phase.
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Section C
IBI Development
Introduction
The primary focus during the development phase should be on

developing the instructional program based on the decision made
during the design phase. During the development phase, the
instructional developers must constantly evaluate the materials to
ensure they are not building in technical complexity that could
compromise the success of the program. That is, attention must
always be paid to the both the technical capabilities and the
limitations of IBI.
This section provides technical considerations and helpful hints
for the development of IBI programs.
Development
phase
The steps accomplished during the development phase include:

Preparing the Plan of Instruction and Course Control
Document.
Preparing the Lesson Plan for the instructor.
Developing the instructional courseware/materials.
Lesson validation/evaluation.
Key project team

activities
Key IBI project team actions and responsibilities for development

of IBI include:
Instructional Development
Student Administration/Evaluation
Instructional
development
Instructional development points include:

Determine if any existing materials can be used and delivered
over the Web.
Determine who will develop and maintain the courseware.
Develop user-centered interface design or style guide
(navigation features, metaphors, colors, graphics, etc.)
Design a template for presentation of the instruction (prepositioned and coded navigation controls, repeating screen
elements, etc.)
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Determine what level of working knowledge of (HTML, VMRL,

or CGI scripting, etc.) is required for designers or instructors.
Identify Web server support and database management /
configuration control procedures.
Develop storyboards and obtain SME/client review and
approval.
Create instructional media/content (text, still graphics, video,
narration, etc.)
Student
administration /
evaluation:
Student Administration/Evaluation:
Basic IBI
components
Regardless of the type of IBI, the following components should be

part of an on-line IBI product: the Home page, Identifiers and
Help, Critical course data, Tools, and Page features.
Establish procedures for officially registering and tracking

students.
Define student access and password procedures.
Define technical support structure and requirements (e.g.,
help lines that are available for users who may not be familiar
with this mode of instruction).
Establish evaluation strategies.
Develop tests and exams and define associated security and
administration procedures.
Define metrics and data collection/tracking procedures (e.g.,
how to collect and track data via on-line methods).
Establish requirements and procedures for archiving student
materials.
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Home page
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This is the first page that a student will see after accessing the
course.
Home Page Design

It should be simple and should avoid large, complicated
graphics.
At a minimum, it should display the course number and title,
and name and location of the school/unit.
It may contain a main menu with all major sections listed with
hyperlinks to each section, or you may choose a hierarchical
menu in which the main menu leads to sub-menus with
further links. Limit the number of sub-menus to three if
possible.
Choose sequential pages in which the homepage scrolls
down sequentially.
Choose the linear selection model in which buttons are
marked on a line that represents different stages or time
periods along a continuum.
Introduction: List on the home page any greetings, credits, date
of last update, and other pertinent data.
Identifiers and Help
Air Force Disclaimer and Copyright Information: Be sure to

check Air Force requirements for disclaimers on Web-sites and
for copyright information.
Technical Requirements and Help: Use this page to indicate
minimum computer configuration and software requirements,
special procedures, on-line resource links, links for downloading
web browser, and how to obtain technical help.
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Depending on the size and purpose of your IBI project, list these
things on separate pages:
Course Components
Course overview
Course objectives
Class syllabus and outlines
Course requirements and prerequisites
Course schedule
Assignments and Tests: Be sure to include a section that lists
student assignments, required readings, criteria for grading, due
dates, and penalties for late work. Include all information relating
to tests and grading procedures. Give a sample test, and provide
download capability.
Tools
How to Learn and Protocols: Include an explanation on how to

learn on-line and how to navigate through the course.
Point out major differences associated with this new mode of
learning.
Clearly state the roles and responsibilities of the instructor
and students.
Clarify the rules of engagement for on-line communication.
Administrative Information: List any requirements and
protocols relating to how students gain access to support
personnel for information related to enrollments, completion
dates, disenrollments, etc. Provide links to appropriate
administrative officers and to relevant institutional policies.
Procedures for Student Advising and E-mail Addresses of
Instructional Personnel: Be sure to tell students how they can
get advice and instructional help.
Glossary of New Terminology: Define all new terms. Key
words can be linked to these definitions throughout the course via
hypertext.
Supplemental Resources List: List relevant resources and
where to locate them.
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Biographical Sketches of Instructional Personnel: Include

biographies of all key personnel who may be interacting with the
students. Invite learners to include brief biographical sketches;
provide instructions on how to do this. (Note: It is better to have
learners enter their own information to protect Privacy Act
information.)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) Pages: Posting frequently
asked questions and their answers will cut down on the number
of spontaneous questions asked.
Course Evaluation and Feedback Forms: Give students an
opportunity to evaluate the course and to give feedback during
the course.
Size of Text/Audio/Video/Graphic Files: Inform users of the
approximate file size, and how long downloads will take.
Time of Day/Traffic on Net: Inform users of the best time of day
(least traffic) to use the Internet.
Additional IBI
components
In addition to the basic IBI components, other on-line features

might be incorporated into a virtual classroom. Procedures
need to be established during the development phase.
On-line Interaction: Make sure students have a way to

communicate on-line. The following modes can be used:
One-to-one can be used for confidential communications
between individual students and the instructor or when two
students need to have a private conversation.
One-to-many is similar to the traditional lecture approach and
works for lecture style presentation.
Many-to-one is a special feature that allows students to
access experts around the world in a conferencing session,
or by posting their questions.
Many-to-many is a discussion group forum such as bulletin
boards or conferencing areas and is described below.
Asynchronous conferencing can become difficult to follow if
too many people are interacting.
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Conferencing: Chat room, bulletin board, E-mail and several

COTS products provide mechanisms to features for students to
post information and to raise or respond to topic-related
questions.
Software used for this will list the date and time of each
comment, the name (or cyber nickname) of the student
making each comment.
Chat room or bulletin board discussions can be threaded (i.e.,
tied to each other electronically so that related conversations
are linked), electronically archived for analysis, and printed.
If synchronous on-line conferencing is used, the software will
indicate when a student enters the conference so all
participants can see who is present in the forum.
Limit the number of people who can participate in a
synchronous conference so that the discussions do not
become unruly.
On-line Library and Web Resources for Reference Materials:

Include electronic or on-line access to topical areas and
hyperlinks to relevant on-line resources.
Directory of Other Students: Because these methods of IBI
involve student-to-student interaction, each student should know
who is registered for the course and how to get in touch with
other students.
Student Evaluation/Testing: Any IBI course should incorporate
some form of knowledge testing. On-line testing using Web page
forms to provide fill-in-the-blank, short answer, multiple-choice,
and true-false questions is one possible method for evaluating
students. However, security of test material and test results, and
student authentication are issues that would need to be
addressed if a proctor is not available to monitor the student
testing.
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The following helpful hints and support strategies are provided for
IBI instructional designers/developers:
Design Issues
Divide the learning event into smaller segments and use
various types of technology to meet the different learning
goals.
Design instructional content for readability, navigability, and
interaction, all of which affect learner retention.
Use frames only if necessary since they increase complexity
and apparent load time.
Image maps provide a graphical interface for
navigation/hyperlinks, but they must be used wisely since the
transfer/load time is longer.
Development Techniques
Use standardized templates, and keep screens simple and
uncluttered.
Use forms creatively to provide active learning and interaction
(feedback, quizzes/testing, interface to databases, etc.)
Avoid using fixed width tables.
Make documents easy to print (consider distributing lengthy
documents in printed format to avoid shifting the cost and
burden of printing to the user/unit).
Check all URLs to ensure they are current and that they do
not contain any objectionable material.
TEST EVERYTHING!!!!
Use of color
Tips for using color:

Use color sparingly and consistently.
Use color for contrast and to highlight specific words.
Avoid clashing colors. Soft backgrounds with sharp
contrasting text usually work best.
Select a text color that will be legible when printed. Then test
it.
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Tips for text:

Use no more than three different font sizes on a page.
Flush left margins are better than centered text.
Do not display text that disappears after a certain amount of
time.
Use lists instead of paragraphs to cut down on text.
Avoid special effects (blinking, flashing, or moving text)
unless desired for emphasis, or to gain attention.
Use natural dialogue and a spell checker.
Use of graphics /
images
Tips for graphics/images:

For optimization, use the JPEG file format for high color
photographs and the GIF file format for 8-bit images, if
possible.
Use thumbnail images with links to larger files, if possible.
Use images for functional reasons such as for navigation,
clarification, or identification, not to entertain the learner.
Use smaller graphics when possible to speed up download
time.
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Some tips for producing quality video files or streaming video for
the Internet are:
Do not indiscriminately use videos produced for TV monitors.
Net video reduces resolution significantly. What looks good
on a TV may look bad on the net. Produce or re-edit Net
videos from scratch. Test them prior to use to ensure quality.
Make titles big. Avoid shots with small details. Type is
difficult to read with low resolution and small frame sizes.
Use close-ups to enhance detail in important areas.
Avoid lengthy headshots. Lip synchronization may be a
problem. Avoid tight close-ups. Text may obscure part of the
image.
Use smaller frame sizes for video to enable as fast a frameper-second rate as possible.
Make video sequences as short as possible.
Open and close video sequences with high quality still
frames.
Use many illustrative cutaways. If the video slows down, the
cutaways will look like still frames instead of long dissolves or
wipes.
Use fewer colors in video graphic screens and animations.
For graphics, use a 16-color palette and avoid shading,
transparencies, and textures.
Use the highest quality camera available, preferably a digital
video camcorder, and edit digitally (digital in, and digital out).
The better the source, the better the end result.
When creating primary .AVI or MPEG files from videotape
masters, create several versions with different audio bit rates
prior to recording for the Web. This will help in the selection
of that format for the .AVI file that provides the best
compromise between music and voice.
Most streaming video encoders work best with
uncompressed .AVI source files.
Test and retest everything

there is no substitute for quality.
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Section D
IBI Implementation
Introduction
Once the IBI course is on-line and operational, it is important to

ensure that the instructional system continues to receive the
necessary support and maintenance. Both internal and external
evaluations should be conducted regularly to ensure effective
instruction and cost-efficient operations are maintained.
Implementation functions include:
Management
Administration
Support
Delivery
Conduct of Instruction
Management
function
Management of the instructional system does not end with the

implementation of the IBI course of instruction. The continued
planning, organizing, coordinating, evaluating, and reporting
activities are the shared responsibility of all the individuals directly
involved with the IBI course. Active management of a distance
learning course versus a traditional resident course is more
critical because of the distributed and dynamic nature of the
instruction and resources.
Administration
function
Administrative support is an essential component of a successful

IBI program. The support staff (at both individual DL sites and at
the IBI administrative center) performs this function. The
development of the administrative processes and procedures was
accomplished during the development phase. Implementation
requires the careful coordination of those processes and
procedures, including:
Student management (registration, processing, data tracking,
etc.)
Administrative records and reports
Personnel support (personnel records, processing, etc.)
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function
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Resource scheduling and tracking (students, equipment

utilization, etc.)
Database management.
Note: Course administration takes on new dimensions when
delivering courses over the Internet. Developers are advised to
contact AFDLO for guidance on establishing appropriate
processes and procedures on this subject.
Support function
An IBI course cannot be effectively delivered or maintained

unless technical, maintenance, and training support are available.
As stated in the previous section, the requirements, processes,
and procedures should have been developed and tested during
the development phase. The support functions include:
Maintaining facilities and equipment.
Supplying equipment and instructional course materials.
Providing services such as network engineering, courseware
revision and maintenance, publication, etc.
Helpful hints for

instructors
The following are helpful hints and support strategies for IBI
instructors:
Planning
Be aware that students have different learning and
communication styles.
Remember that students must take responsibility and an
active role in the learning process.
Plan to introduce the students to the IBI process. Make sure
they understand how the course will be administered and
what protocols will be used.
To compensate for the lack of cues that indicate feelings and
emotions, adopt a set of symbols to convey emotions.
Establish electronic and telephone office hours as required to
assist students.
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Materials
Distribute class announcements through E-mail or post in a
special area on the bulletin board.
Use pre-class study assignments, questions, and guides to
prepare students for interactive or collaborative on-line
lessons. Encourage discussion and interaction.
Put lecture notes on-line for student reference.
Provide a range of approved universal resource locators
(URLs) or hot links for supplemental reading and research.
Prepare case studies and make separate pages for each.
Use a traditional case study with open-ended questions built
into the body. Students would answer the questions by filling
in blanks in scrolling text files. Both the questions and the
answers would appear within the case file.
Interactivity
Divide students into groups and have them discuss case
studies, a conference, and publish on-line reports.
Set up a student group to serve the function of the student
lounge. On-line students can interact without the instructor
looking in.
Encourage brainstorming in a small-group setting by opening
up a separate conference area and invite students to come
up with solutions to particular problems or to generate ideas
and proposals.
For on-line collaboration among members of a large group, it
is important to focus the group (and keep them focused) on a
particular problem or set of issues.
Humanize the process. Make sure students have access to a
real live human tutor. Personally, welcome each student to
the on-line class.
Assign specific research tasks to students either individually
or in groups. Students can present reports online or publish
their reports on their own web pages.
Provide timely feedback via E-mail, fax, phone, etc.,
regarding performance on tests, assignments, and projects to
help motivate the student.
Recruit other SMEs and interesting personalities to lecture
on-line or to have discussions with the students.
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Instructors. The effectiveness and success of a distance

learning program are dependent primarily upon the instructors
who manage and deliver the instruction. The instructors must
adapt to a learner-centered instructional environment and change
from their traditional role as a teacher to become more of a
facilitator, guide, consultant, resource provider, and learning team
member. Therefore, instructors must be able to:
Understand the needs of the remotely located students.
Be sensitive to the different learning styles and adapt the
instruction.
Effectively function as a facilitator and content provider.
Understand the delivery technology and effectively use the
equipment.
Be prepared to spend more time on learner support that one
would for a traditional course; responding to learners e-mails,
participating in chat rooms, and providing individualized
guidance can consume a great deal of time.
Delivery System. Operating and maintaining the instructional

delivery system is another key function. The most critical
component is the computer network system, which is the primary
instructional link or bridge to the student.
The student (and instructor) must be proficient with the computer
equipment, and have reliable network access and connections. If
required, computer training must be provided to minimize the
occurrence of operator errors.
Note: Technological advances now permit access to the Internet
by means of television that is PC independent. As technology
evolves, the impact of interface and capacity issues will
decrease.
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Section E
IBI Evaluation
Introduction
Evaluation is the last phase in the ISD process. As with other

instructional technologies, the evaluation process for IBI consists
of a formative, summative, and operational evaluation (refer to
Chapter 2). This section addresses the special considerations for
conducting IBI evaluations.
Formative
evaluation

Because IBI learners are usually remote from any direct support
structure, formative evaluation of the course takes on absolutely
critical importance.
The rule is: test and retest.
And then test again.
Summative
evaluation
The primary purpose of the summative evaluation is to determine

whether the IBI course achieves the established objectives. In
the case of IBI, this assessment also includes an evaluation of
the effectiveness of the delivery system and support processes.
It must be noted that IBI courses present unique challenges for
those preparing a summative evaluation program. A limited
access site should be established so that impartial
representatives of the learner population can access the course
and perform the required activities. Structured feed back forms
can be developed to help the sample learners focus and
comment on specific aspects of the course. The feedback
received from the sample learners is used to identify problems
and take corrective actions prior to implementation of the course.
Operational
evaluation
Operational evaluation is an ongoing process that accomplished

after the formative and summative evaluations. This evaluation is
based on internal and external feedback data such as:
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Operational
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Results of embedded data collection systems (metrics to

assess reliability of hardware/software, and to collect data
such as student connect time, time spent in courseestablished chat rooms, etc.)
Results of such assessments are considered during course
update cycles.
Areas of evaluation
Design the evaluations to get both positive and negative

feedback. Some general areas to consider in evaluating the
delivery of the IBI course are:
Course content organization, relevancy, clarity, quality,
currency, etc.
Course materials adequacy, availability, effectiveness,
currency, etc.
Instructional methods/media effectiveness, interaction
quantity/quality, etc.
Instructional equipment availability, reliability, ease of use,
etc.
Internet/Intranet network access, speed, reliability, etc.
Instructor support necessity, availability, effectiveness, etc.
Technical support access, availability, timeliness,
effectiveness, etc.
Administrative support usefulness, adequacy, availability,
etc.
Evaluation
strategies
Various collection strategies can be employed to gather IBI

evaluation data:
Written questionnaires/critiques/tests that can be mailed or
faxed.
Electronic questionnaires/critiques/tests that can be
accomplished on-line.
E-mail/bulletin board correspondence.
Audio conferences.
Telephone interviews.
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Chapter 10
SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter provides general considerations for the incorporation

of support technologies into IMI, IBI, and IVT instruction. These
support technologies can be used in conjunction with the other
instructional media to enhance instruction.
The ISD process for IMI, IBI, and IVT resident and non-resident
instruction should include the selection and application of these
supporting instructional technologies.
Where to read
about it
References
Section
Title
Page
Electronic Testing
323
Electronic Management Tools
325
328
329
E-mail, Bulletin Boards, and Fax

Conferencing
331
Student Response Units and

Audioconferencing Units
332

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AFDLO Home Page web site:
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Section A
Electronic Testing
Electronic
testing
Electronic testing is a support technology for IMI, IBI, and IVT that
can be used to gather information from learners and assess their
progress before, during, and after the learning process. By
considering electronic testing during the ISD process, instructional designers can add electronic testing to find out what
learners know, how well are they learning during the course, and
assess what they have learned. These tests can be embedded
within the instructional material and/or distributed electronically
via email, bulletin boards, student response units, an intranet, or
the Internet/WWW.
Applications for electronic testing can be used to:
Access Learning
Distribute quizzes, tests, and surveys for study aids,
diagnostic tests, pre-course skills assessments, and course
evaluations.
Administer practice, pre-configured, and competency testing
Administer equipment and system knowledge exams and
certifications
Determine learner needs and attitudes through
questionnaires
Assess staff members' readiness for certain courses.
Provide Feedback
Provide interactive and instant feedback and responses to
learners
Show learners an analysis of all answers with the percentage
of learners choosing each answer.
Show test scores for all learners who have taken the test
Create self-administered teaching materials
Arrange jumps or links to other tests
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Instructional designers can create and design various types of

questions electronically. Some of these formats include:
Multiple choice, in which the learners select one choice from
multiple answers.
Multiple response, which is similar to multiple choice, except
learners are not limited to choosing one response; they can
select none, one, or more of the choices offered.
Text questions, where the learner answers by typing a
designated amount of text. The instructional designer should
define what is right or wrong in advance by entering a list of
acceptable answers. Text questions allow learners to ask
questions without prompting possible solutions. This
question type also works well when soliciting short opinions
or suggestions on a particular subject.
Selection questions, where a series of statements are
presented and the learners can select from a number of
items and answers. This question type is ideal for designing
matching questions, ranking questions, or to present a series
of yes/no, true/false, or other simple multiple choice
questions on the same screen.
Security
Special consideration should be given to security issues for

electronic testing.
Questions and answers should be password protected.
Answers should only be accepted if a password is entered
correctly. When using web-based testing, these answers
should be held in map files separate from the HTML files the
learners see.
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Section B
Electronic Management Tools
Electronic
management tools
Electronic management tools are computer programs that can aid

in the instructional process. These tools can be used as:
Decision support aids.
Job aids.
Tools to support the conduct and administration of instruction.
Two specific types of electronic management tools used to
support courses are:
Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Integration of CMI
CMI can be integrated in IMI and IBI courseware and perform the
following course administration and management functions:
Scheduling of training.
Recording and tracking individual and group performance
data.
Providing information on performance trends over time.
Automated CMI functions assist the instructor in managing
instruction:
Manage the development of course structures and curricula
rapidly and flexibly.
Provide for management of testing and evaluation of student
performance and progress.
Register and enroll large numbers of learners easily with their
associated demographic data.
Administer and track student progress in curricula for training
administrators.
Ease the difficulty of student access, enrollment, and
monitoring of their personal training.
Provide for automatically collecting and managing student
data and eliminating the need for manual data entry.
Allow user choice and flexibility through system openness.
Provide rapid and direct feedback to learners, administrators,
operating managers.
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CAI can be developed to aid in the delivery of classroom

instruction, and can provide for the storage and retrieval of
information for both the instructor and student.
When integrated with a network system of instructor and student
stations in a classroom, the instructor can manage and control
the training environment by:
Observing each student station, and the performance of
individual learners. For example, student responses to
instructor-generated questions, questions from individual
learners to the instructor, student performance on collective
exercises, student performance on individual tests, exercises,
and problem scenarios, etc.
Controlling student functions, such as access to courseware,
tests, other student stations, access to reference materials,
etc.
Providing assistance to learners from the instructor station.
For example, providing real-time help, remediation
courseware, tutorial instruction, etc.
Accessing other electronic media for display in the classroom
environment such as Electronic Performance Support
Systems (EPSS), and Interactive Electronic Technical
Manuals (IETM).
CAI systems can be used to provide:
Automated instructor guides for directing activities.
Automated trainee guides that provide learners additional
course information and exercises for practice and study.
Interconnected student and instructor workstations.
Student response monitoring for summarizing student
responses and assignments.
Instructor controlled multimedia presentations in the
classroom using a variety of media formats.
Benefits of CAI
integration
Information technology advances are changing the way DoD

personnel operate and maintain equipment. For example:
IETMs are beginning to be used in the operational
environment.
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integration
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The same technical manuals are used for classroom training.

Therefore, DoD schoolhouses must incorporate IETMs into
their training curricula to prepare personnel before they are
assigned to operating activities.
CAI can provide an instructor with the capability to access
IETMs, and other forms of digital instructional materials.
CAI may consist of only an instructor workstation that supports
automated development and delivery, or may be a full suite of
student workstations networked to the instructor station.
CAI provides the instructor with an efficient means for
developing and displaying personal course annotations,
including related graphics, videos, and other multimedia.
Instructional treatments for instructor-student interaction,
presentation of the course materials, student study, and
monitoring student activities are controlled from the instructor
workstation.
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Section C
How electronic
help desks can be
used
Electronic help desks can be established to provide:
Information
Student schedules and activities.
A source for student access of ancillary text, graphic, or video
course materials.
A source of electronic reference materials for student
downloads.
Answers to frequently asked questions (FAQ) for student
review.
Technical support capabilities as required.
Links to other web sites and reference materials.
Interaction
The capability for a student to send E-mail to the instructor.
The capability for student to chat with the instructor.
The capability for the student to share files with the instructor.
A bulletin board capability for learners to post messages.
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Section D
Electronic
publications
An electronic publication is a document prepared in a digital form

for display to an end user. Two examples of electronic
publications are electronic guides and Interactive Electronic
Technical Manuals (IETM).
Electronic Guides. Electronic Guides are automated electronic

versions of training guides that can be developed to replace the
traditional paper-based training guides. Electronic guides can be
maintained in a computer-based file, or on a CD-ROM, on the
Web, or other electronic medium.
Data can be retrieved for instruction in the classroom, in a
learning center, or during on-the job training.
Data can be provided during performance of a job as an
Electronic Job Aid.
To develop an automated guide to aid instruction, ask the
following questions:
What guides are appropriate for automation of instructional
presentations?
How can the materials be automated most effectively and
efficiently?
Are there software tools available to support the
development?
What are the anticipated benefits of this development?
What impact will this development have on student
performance?
What are the requirements for staff support and training?
Interactive
Electronic
Technical Manual
(IETM)
An IETM is a technical manual delivered electronically. An IETM

possesses the following three characteristics:
An IETM can be presented either on a desktop workstation or
a Portable Electronic Display Device (PEDD).
The elements of technical data constituting the IETM are so
interrelated that a user's access to the information is
achievable by a variety of paths.
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Electronic
Technical Manual
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The IETM can function to provide procedural guidance,

navigational directions, and other technical information
required by the user.
Interaction with the surrounding environment is often a critical
part of a task that must be trained.
For real-time interactive training environments must
sometimes be simulated.
Typical applications include aircraft piloting, air traffic control,
ship navigation, driving a tank, gunnery, missile control.
Portable electronic
display device
(PEDD)
A PEDD is a small electronic device that has been designed and

engineered to facilitate the presentation of an IETM to a
technician during maintenance procedures.
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Section E
E-Mail, Bulletin Boards, and Fax Conferencing
E-mail
E-mail can be used as both an asynchronous and synchronous

support technology. Examples include the following:
Transmit/receive text, graphic, audio, and video files.
Send instructional materials to learners.
Provide tests and test results via secure or authenticated
mail.
Correspond with the instructor, ask questions, and provide
feedback.
Submit reports and papers to the instructor.
Response tool for live courses.
Bulletin boards
Bulletin boards can be used as both an asynchronous and

synchronous support technology.
Learners and instructors can use bulletin boards to post
messages, and participate in or instigate class discussions.
Messages can be sent to a designated location on a bulletin
board, allowing designated class or group members to easily
locate them.
Instructors can use bulletin boards to post schedules and
assignments, and notify learners of any changes.
Information can be provided about the organization and staff.
Learners can download files containing the most current
instructional materials.
Facsimile (Fax)
conferencing
Fax conferencing is an asynchronous support technology that

can be used during the course to:
Correspond with other learners/instructors via faxed text and
graphics documents.
Fax copies of written tests and test results.
Fax attendance rosters for DL courses, seminars, and
conferences.
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Section F
Student Response Units and Audioconferencing Units
Student Response
Units (SRUs) and
Audioconferencing
Units (ACUs)
Incorporation of SRUs in classrooms can enhance the

interactivity between the student and the instructor and provide
enhanced instructor control of the instruction. SRUs can
enhance instructor-based presentations by:
Providing individual interaction with privacy of response; the
ACU, however, is an open microphone with no expectation of
privacy.
Providing the instructor with the capability to provide
immediate feedback to student responses.
Providing the instructor with the capability to track individual
progress as well as trends.
Provide instructors with immediate feedback on student
performance and ACUs.
SRUs are not a stand-alone medium, and are used in conjunction
with other media for presentation of instruction to provide twoway audio or data exchange between the instructor and learners.
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Chapter 11
THE ADVANCED DISTRIBUTED LEARNING (ADL) INITIATIVE
Overview
Introduction
This chapter discusses the implications of the ADL initiative for

design, development, and deployment of instruction.
What is Advanced
Distributed
Learning (ADL)?
ADL is an initiative launched in November, 1997, by the

Department of Defense (DoD) and the White House Office of
Science and Technology Policy (OSTP). The purpose of the
Initiative is to provide access to high quality cost-effective training
and education that can be tailored to the individual, and made
available anywhere and any time it is required.
ADL is a collaborative public/private partnership involving the
broader education and training community. It provides a common
framework for developing, administering, and using distributed
learning content and tools.
While ADL does involve a form of Distance Learning (DL), it is
more narrowly focused on technology-based methods for
enabling access to content on-demand, and developing
standards for reusable learning objects that are interoperable
across Learning Management System (LMS) platforms.
Although ADL is not restricted to IBI, the Internet and networks
based on Internet/WWW standards are envisioned as the primary
means for providing access to ADL instructional content.
Therefor, the information presented in Chapter 9 applies
generally to ADL as well.
This Chapter will focus on the key ADL concept of reusable
learning objects and the implications of that concept for
instructional analysis, design, development, and deployment.
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Where to read
about it
References
Volume 5
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333
This chapter contains three sections:
Section
Title
Page
ADL Background
336
ADL Implications for Design
338
ADL Implications for Development
343

Guidance for Acquisition of Advanced Distributed Learning
(ADL) Compliant Products
Department of Defense Strategic Plan for Advanced
Distributed Learning, Report to the 106th Congress, April 30,
1999.
Enhancing Learning and Education Through Technology,
Memorandum for the Heads of Executive Departments and
Agencies, The White House, January 30, 1998.
Using Technology to Improve Training Opportunities for
Federal Government Employees, Executive Order, The White
House, January 12, 1999.
ADL Home Page Web Site: http://www.adlnet.org/.
SecDef Training Technology Vision:
http://www.jwfc.acom.mil/public/adl/docs/secvis.html.
Sharable Courseware Object Reference Model (SCORM),
Advanced Distributed Learning Initiative
Draft Standard for Learning Object Metadata, Learning
Technology Standardization Committee, The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., February 2000.
IMS Learning Resource Meta-data XML Binding
Specification, EDUCAUSE, 1999.
Merrill, M. D. (1998). Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT):
Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects, Chapter
17 in C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional Design Theories and
Models: A new Paradigm of Instructional Theory. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Merrill, M. David. (1998). Knowledge Objects. CBT Solutions.
Mar/Apr. 1-11.
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References
(Continued)
Gagn, Robert M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and

Theory of Instruction: Fourth Edition. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
XML Standards and References: http://www.w3.org/xml/ and
http://www.oasis-open.org/.
Current
capabilities
The ADL Initiative has produced as its first product the Shareable
Courseware Object Reference Model (SCORM). SCORM is a
set of specifications and guidelines for instructional content and
Learning Management Systems that are designed to provide:
Small, reusable, sharable course content;
Discoverable and interoperable learning content repositories;
Ability to locate and move entire courses;
Vendor support for Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products
that support SCORM; and ,
A framework for the development of adaptive learning
systems that can dynamically assemble content to meet
individual needs.
Current constraints
COTS development tools and LMS products are only beginning

to implement the SCORM guidelines. Some lower-level technical
issues affecting interoperability remain to be fully resolved.
Before you begin
Search the ADL Home Page and related DoD and Air Force links
to discover the current state of ADL implementation. This is a
rapidly changing environment. New Internet/WWW standards
and advances in technology will affect the direction of ADLrelated development.
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Section A
ADL Background
ADL Sharable
Courseware Object
Reference Model
(SCORM)
The ADL Initiative Partnership has published the Sharable

Courseware Object Reference Model (SCORM). SCORM
presents a set of guidelines that describe an approach to
developing instruction based on sharable courseware objects.
These interrelated specifications define a Web-based (IBI)
learning content model that meets DoDs high level requirements
for ADL:
Accessibility: the ability to access instructional components

from one remote location and deliver them to many other
locations;
Interoperability: the ability to use instructional components
developed in one location with one set of tools or platform in
another location with a different set of tools or platform (note:
there are multiple levels of interoperability);
Durability: instructional components that do not require
redesign or re-coding to operate when base technology
changes;
Reusability: the design of instructional components so that
it can be incorporated into multiple applications.
To meet these requirements, ADL assumes an Internet/WWWbased infrastructure where content is delivered to a platformneutral browser. The reference model defines a generalized
Learning Management System (LMS) that is capable of launching
and communicating with courseware objects, and transferring
whole courses from one LMS environment to another.
SCORM defines a course as consisting of the following elements:
Shareable Courseware Objects (SCOs): Content consists

of collections of SCOs. The lowest level (atomic) SCO is
called an Assignable Unit (AU). An AU is an executable
chunk of instruction that can be launched by a LMS and
exchange data with it. AUs are organized into Block of
various levels (module, unit, lesson, etc.), and can be of any
size, but smaller is better.
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ADL Sharable
Courseware Object
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(SCORM)
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Course Structure Format (CSF): The CSF consists of an

Extensible Markup Language (XML) representation of course
structure (relationships and sequencing of AUs and Block),
and references to all the course elements (content, metadata
records, and raw media) required to move an entire course
in-tact from one LMS to another.
Run Time Environment (RTE): The SCORM RTE specifies
the launch protocol used by a LMS to execute an AU, and a
common application programming interface (API) and data
model to enable data exchange between the LMS and AU.
Within the RTE, an LMS can provide student history and
profile data to any SCORM-compliant learning application
(AU), and an AU can move student-tracking data to any
compliant LMS during execution.
Metadata: As the SCORM guidelines are implemented in
both the public and private sectors, very large and continually
growing repositories of courses, content (AUs and Block),
and raw media will rapidly develop. Locating the specific
learning resources needed among these widely distributed
databases could be a real challenge. The solution is to wrap
metadata around (i.e. associate with) all these objects. In
this context, metadata provides standardized descriptions of
entire course packages, content objects, and raw media.
SCORM incorporates the IEEE Learning Technology
Standardization Committee Learning Object Metadata (P1484-12) standard along with the EDUCAUSE Instructional
Management System (IMS) metadata implementation in
XML.
The RTE insures data interchange and interoperability among
content objects and LMSs. The CSF provides interoperability for
entire courses across all compliant LMSs. Metadata records
facilitate the identification and location of specific learning
resources regardless of where they reside on the network, and
contribute greatly to the reusability of the objects they describe.
By searching on metadata, developers can locate existing media
to re-purpose into new content. Training managers and even
learners can locate individual chunks of content that can be
used for performance support or refresher training, or put
together into a personalized course tailored to the learners
needs. This capability will enable the development of adaptive
learning systems that can assemble tailored courses on the fly.
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Section B
ADL Implications for Design
Introduction
The intention of the ADL Initiative is to break full instructional

courses down into smaller components known as Assignable
Units (AUs). AUs then become self-contained units of information
that are given keyword and search information known as
metadata tags. The AUs are then placed in a large digital
repository, or database, that will be made available to
instructional developers. Developers can then search the
information, read metadata tag descriptions, and construct
lessons using available AUs.
Ideally, AUs should be small, self-contained units of instruction.
Each AU should cover no more than one or two clearly stated
objectives. The instructional design process should analyze
content into these individual components. The Course Structure
Format (CSF) specifies the intended course-level relationships
among AUs. This approach results in maximum reusability, and
supports the flexible use of content for providing on-demand
performance support and personalized courses.
Benefits
The primary benefits of Assignable Units are:
Reusability. The greatest benefit of breaking down

instructional information into AUs is the ability of instructional
designers and developers to reuse information. Information
that has been previously developed can be captured and
included in new courses where applicable. This eliminates the
need for designers to research and develop instruction that
already exists. This not only reduces development time, but
development costs as well.
Just-In-Time Training. When full libraries of AUs have been
developed, designers can create timely instruction for
unexpected military contingencies. Because of the dynamic
nature of world military operations, military personnel may
need training for operations with which they are unfamiliar.
Operations specific instruction can be quickly developed and
delivered to military personnel for just-in-time training.
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Differing Learning Styles. Learners possess varying

learning styles that may necessitate different presentation
strategies. Using AUs, lessons can be developed that present
information in different sequences, in greater or less detail,
and with more or fewer examples. This allows users with
different learning styles receive the most efficient and effective
instruction available.
Self-Structured Learning. With AUs available to learners,
students, where applicable, can have the opportunity to pick
and choose what instructional segments they can skip and
what instructional segments they need to cover. This allows
learners to maximize their training time by examining only the
information they havent learned and not the information they
already possess.
Assignable Unit
(AU) Composition
According to Robert Gagn, effective lessons can be constructed

if the following nine events are followed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Gain Attention
Inform Learner of Objectives
Stimulate Recall of prior learning
Present Stimulus Material
Provide Learner Guidance
Elicit Performance
Provide Feedback
Assess Performance
Enhance Retention and Transfer
With the advent of Assignable Units, information cannot be

chunked in such a grandiose way. However, lessons that follow
this general structure can be constructed from AUs. Examining
Gagns nine events, it is discovered that certain events logically
coincide. By combining events, three categories of AUs can be
created.
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Categories of AUs
Assignable
Unit
Informational
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339
The following table describes the combined instructional events.
Gagns
Event
2. Inform
Learner of
Objectives
4. Present
Stimulus
Material
8. Assess
Performance
Example
5. Provide
Learner
Guidance
Practice
6. Elicit
Performance
7. Provide
Feedback
Explanation
Informational Assignable Units contain the bulk of the
presentation information necessary for instruction.
The objective is directly linked to the information that
supports the objective, which, in turn, is directly linked
to the assessment that evaluates mastery of the
objective. It is important that these events remain
connected. Without a direct link between the three
events, information presented may not match the
objective, making objective mastery impossible to
correctly assess.
Informational AUs may be further categorized (see
the following table).
Example Assignable Units contain all illustrative
examples and non-examples. Although examples and
non-examples are directly linked to the presentation
information, the Example AU is kept separate
because different presentation and learning styles
may necessitate more or fewer examples and nonexamples.
Practice Assignable Units contain the practice items
and the feedback given to the student during or after
the delivery of the practice item. Similar to Example
AUs, Practice AUs are directly linked to their
corresponding Informational AUs. Practice AUs are
kept separate for the same reason Example AUs are
kept separate; different presentation and learning
styles may necessitate more or less practice and
feedback.
Table 35. Combined Instructional Events for AU Design.
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Informational AUs
Informational
Type
Verbal Information
Intellectual Skills
Psychomotor Skills
Attitudinal Skills
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Informational AUs can be further broken down by information

type. The following table presents the Informational AU types
using established Instructional Design terms.
Definition
The learner is asked to state or
list very specific information.
Example Objective
Given an American state, the
learner will name the states
capitol with 100% accuracy.
The learner is asked to solve a Given a list of American States,
problem or perform an activity. the learner will classify the
The four most common types of states as east coast or west
intellectual skills are
coast states with 100%
discrimination, concept
accuracy.
formation, rule application, and
problem solving.
The learner is asked to perform Given a pen and paper, the
a motor skill to achieve a
learner will draw the state of
required result.
Kansas with 80% accuracy.
The learner is asked to make a Given list of American states,
particular choice in a particular the learner will choose to
circumstance.
vacation at an east coast state.
Table 36. Informational AU Types.
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Not all of Gagns nine events have been covered this AU

classification system. This is not because these steps have been
deemed useless. This is because these steps are unique to each
assembly of Assignable Units and most likely will not be reused.
Therefore, these steps cannot be classified as Assignable Units.
They are, however, extremely important in the development of
instruction. These three remaining steps are presented in the
table on the following page. It is recommended that after a
developer has compiled Assignable Units into a lesson or
lessons, the developer author these events as necessary.
Gagns Event
Explanation
This step is presented to focus the learners
1. Gain Attention
attention. Although it may seem that this step is
specific to the Informational AU, it is, in fact,
unique to the lesson. The lesson flow may
dictate a specific attention-gaining device. Also,
a thematic approach may be used when more
than one lesson is constructed. In this case,
attention-gaining devises should be similar from
lesson to lesson.
This step is presented so learners may construct
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning an informational schema; the information they
are about to receive is in some way linked to the
information they have already received.
Because Informational AUs can be grouped in
any order and in any fashion, the transitions
between AUs will differ. Transitions must be
created for each unique grouping of AUs and
lessons.
This step is also presented in the effort to build
9. Enhance Learning and Transfer
an informational schema. Similar to step 3, this
step will be unique to particular lesson
groupings.
Table 37. Remaining Events to Design and Author.
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Section C
ADL Implications for Development
Introduction
The development process for ADL courseware involves:

Building each AU, either as an encapsulated executable or
XML structure that links to each media object;
Defining all the metadata elements that describe that AU;
Implementing the RTE APIs and data model to communicate
with a LMS; and,
Defining the course-level relationships among AUs, and links
all the related course elements.
Aspects of this process unique to ADL SCORM are described
below.
Metadata
composition
Metadata is the information that describes and labels Assignable

Units. It allows developers to quickly search and locate pertinent,
existing AUs for use in new instruction. It is recommended that
developers use the Information Management System (IMS)
standards for metadata creation. The following describes the
major groups of metadata tags.
General
General metadata includes the AU title, language, description,
and keywords.
Lifecycle
Lifecycle metadata includes the AU version number, build status,
and build date.
MetaMetadata
MetaMetadata includes the AU catalog entry and contributors.
Technical
Technical metadata includes the AU file format, size, location,
and requirements.
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Educational
Educational metadata includes the AU interactivity type and level,
learning resource type, context, and target audience information.
Rights
Rights metadata includes the AU copyright information.
Relation
Relation metadata includes the relationship between this
resource and other targeted resources, if any.
Annotation
Annotation metadata includes the AU author and publish date.
Classification
Classification metadata includes the AU purpose and taxonomy.
AU construction
Extensible Markup Language (XML) is the construction tool of

choice for implementing AUs and CMI systems. XML is a
standard mark-up language that uses tags that represent
elements to which attributes can be applied. The instructional
content is linked from a database and placed between the
attribute tags. The attributes specified by the tags are then
applied to the content for visual and organizational purposes.
The XML language also gives developers the ability to nest
attribute tags within other attribute tags. This allows multiple
attributes to be applied to the content. This also allows separate
AUs to be placed and organized in the same document. XML files
can then be imported from and exported to other CMI systems.
This allows developers to keep the organization of the lesson the
same, regardless of the CMI system used. The XML code will
also contain the metadata tags that help describe and organize
content information as well as define course structure and ensure
interoperability.
SCORM Course
Structure Format
(CSF)
The purpose of an XML document is to lay out the design and

structure of course content as well as modularize segments of
content. The SCORM Course Structure Format is an XML
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Structure Format
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document that defines course structure and points to all the

course elements, AUs, metadata, and raw media. Once the XML
document segments the information, the AUs can be stored in a
database for later use. By using the XML language, the course
material becomes interoperable, allowing AUs to be combined
with other AUs regardless of operating system.
The XML code does not contain any instruction in itself. Instead,
it points the way to specific AUs and defines the relationships
among them. The following is and example of XML code that
points to an AU.
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE course SYSTEM "file:scormcsf(1.0).dtd " >
<course>

<block>
<au id="A1">
<identification>
<title>Title of AU</title>
</identification>
<launch>
<location>http://www.AU_location.mil/AU_1.html</location>
</launch>
</au>
</block>
</course>
AUs in an Learning
Management
System (LMS)
The implementation for the interchange between AUs and a LMS

doesnt deviate from the model that AICC/IEEE have already
established in the figure below.
The LMS allows access to the databases, repositories and
servers that house the course content and can be implemented
numerous ways. The standards of ODBC are encouraged for
database implementation and allow for LMS systems to be
swapped using the same databases.
When the AU is incorporated into a Computer Managed
Instruction (CMI) system, the AU must accept and deliver values
and identifiers. An AU is presented with public functions that
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pass and receive CMI values, informing the CMI of student

interaction. The following chart illustrates data flow between the
CMI system and the learner.
Figure 7 Data flow between CMI system and learner
The chart shows the content server on the top interacting with the
student computer on the bottom. Content information is passed
from the server to the student machine through a Web browser.
Any student input is collected through the API adapter and
delivered to learning server. The adapter facilitates the
communication between the CMI and the learner and has two
potential approaches for implementation:
HTTP based Protocol
The CMI launches the AU sending it two important values: A

Session ID and URL to a CGI/ASP/Servelet that will receive
tracking data from the AU.
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The AU will use this session ID to return student-tracking data

directly to the URL of the adapter and will continue to send
information until an Exit command is encountered.
API Based Communication
AUs are armed with standard JavaScript functions that find

the CMI API. All communication with the CMI continues
through a series of JavaScript functions embedded in the AU
content
The API, defined as part of the SCORM Run Time Environment,
is the meat of the implementation and commonly uses Java
servelets to implement the persistent communication with the
server.
RICHARD E. BROWN III, Lt General, USAF

DCS/Personnel
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Attachment 1
GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION
References
AFPD 36-22
Military Training
AFI 36-2201
Developing, Managing and Conducting Military Training
AFI 36-2301
Professional Military Education
AFMAN 36-2234
Instructional System Development
AFMAN 36-2236
Handbook for Air Force Instructors
MIL-PRF-29612
Training Data Products
MIL-HDBK-29612-1
Department of Defense Handbook, Guide for Acquisition of

Training Data Products and Services
MIL-HDBK-29612-2
Department of Defense Handbook, Instructional Systems

Development/ Systems Approach to Training and Education
MIL-HDBK-29612-3
Department of Defense Handbook, Development of Interactive

Multimedia Instruction (IMI)
MIL-HDBK-29612-4
Department of Defense Handbook, Glossary of Training Terms
AFH 36-2235
Information for Designers of Instructional Systems (12 Volumes)

Vol 1
ISD Executive Summary for Commanders and Managers
Vol 2
ISD Automated Tools/What Works
Vol 3
Application to Acquisition
Vol 4
Manager's Guide to New Education and Training Technologies
Vol 5
Advanced Distributed Learning: Instructional Technology and

Distance Learning
Vol 6
Guide to Needs Assessment
Vol 7
Design Guide for Device-based Aircrew Training
Vol 8
Application to Aircrew Training
Vol 9
Application to Technical Training
Vol 10
Application to Education
Vol 11
Application to Unit Training
Vol 12
Test and Measurement Handbook
AFH 36-2235
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Other DoD and AF Publications Pertinent to Distance Learning

DoDI 1322-20
Development and Management of Interactive Courseware for

Military Training
AFI 36-2201
Training
AETCI 36-2208
Job Site Training
AFCAT 36-2223
AF Catalog of Formal Schools
AETCI 36-2209
IMI Development
Ann E. Barron & Gary W. Orwig (1997). New Technologies for Education: A
Beginner's Guide 3rd Edition. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 1563084775
Robert Heinich & Michael Molenda (1998). Instructional Media and Technologies
for Learning 6th Edition. Prentice Hall. 428 pages. ISBN 0138591598.
Diana Laurillard (1993). Rethinking University Teaching: A Framework for the
Effective Use of Educational Technology. Routledge. ISBN 0415092892.
Tom Boyle and Tim Boyle (1996). Design for Multimedia Learning. Prentice Hall.
275 pages. ISBN 0132422158.
William W. Lee and Diana L. Owens (2000). Multimedia-Based Instructional
Design: Computer-Based Training, Web-Based Training, and Distance
Learning. Jossey-Bass. 304 pages. ISBN 0787951595.
Margaret Driscoll & Larry Alexander (Editor) (1998). Web-Based Training: Using
Technology to Design Adult Learning Experiences. Jossey-Bass Inc. 288
pages. ISBN 0787942030.
Brandon Hall (1997). The Web-Based Training Cookbook. John Wiley & Sons.
496 pages. ISBN 0471180211.
Stephen M. Alessi & Stanley P. Trollip (2000). Computer Based Instruction. Allyn
& Bacon. 432 pages. ISBN 0205276911.
Andrew S. Gibbons & Peter G. Fairweather (1998). Computer-Based Instruction.
Educational Technology. 570 pages. ISBN 0877783012.
Berge, Zane, and Collins, Mauri, (1996). Facilitating Interaction in Computer
Mediated On-Line Courses
Berge, Zane, and Collins, Mauri, (1996). The Role of the On-Line
Instructor/Facilitator
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Berge, Zane, and Collins, Mauri, eds., (1995). Computer-Mediated Communication

and the Online Classroom in Distance Education. Hampton Press, Cresskill, NJ.
Cyrs, Thomas E. (1997). Teaching At a Distance with the Merging Technologies: An
Instructional Systems Approach. Center for Educational Development. Las Cruces,
NM.
Cyrs, Thomas E. (1997). Teaching At a Distance with the Merging Technologies: An
Instructional Systems Approach Center for Educational Development. Las Cruces,
NM.
Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #2, Engineering Outreach College of
Engineering, University of Idaho, October 1995.
Eastmond, Daniel V. (1995). Alone but Together: Adult Distance Study through
Computer Conferencing. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.
Griffith University, Alternative Teaching Technology: Audioconferencing.
Harasim, Linda. (1990). On-line Education and Training: Perspectives on a New
Environment. Praeger, New York, NY, Greenwood Publishing Group.
Hiltz, Starr Roxanne. (1994). The Virtual Class: Learning Without Limits Via
Computer Networks. Norwood, NJ, Ablex Publishing Corporation
Jonassen, D. (1996). Computers in the Classroom: Mindtools for Critical Thinking.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall.
Jonnassen, David H. (Editor) (1996). Handbook of Research on Educational
Communications and Technology. Macmillan. 1267 pages. ISBN 0028646630.
Moore, Michael, G., and Kearsley, Greg (1995). Distance Education: A Systems
View. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA. (800) 347-7707.
Moore, Michael, G., and Kearsley, Greg. (1995). Distance Education: A Systems
View. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA.
National Institute of Health, Audioconferencing.
Olgren, Chris, (1997). Designing for Interactive Audio. Handouts for a seminar on
same subject. Univ. of Wis.-Madison.
Olgren, Chris, (1997). Facilitating Learning via Computer Conferencing. Handouts
for a seminar on same subject. Univ. of Wis.-Madison.
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Reeves, Byron & Nass, Clifford (1996). The Media Equation: How People Treat
Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People and Places. Cambridge
University Press. 305 pages. ISBN 1-57586-053-8.
University of Idaho, Guide #10, Distance Education: Research, January 1996
AFH 36-2235
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Acronyms and Abbreviations

2 AF
Second Air Force
ADL
ADS
AFCAT
AFCFM
AFIADL
AFPATS
AFRC
AFTMS
AI
AIV
ANG
ASCII
ASE
ATN
AU
AV
Advanced Distributed Learning

Advanced Distributed Simulation
Air Force Catalog
Air Force Career Field Manager
Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning
Air Force Primary Aircrew Training System
Air Force Reserves Command
Air Force Training Management System
Artificial Intelligence
Analog Interactive Video
Air National Guard
American Standard Code for Information Exchange
Advanced Synthetic Environments
Air Technology Network
Air University
Audiovisual
BNCC
Base Network Communications Center
CAI
CAT
CBI
CBT
CD-I
CD-ROM
CMC
CMI
CODEC
COTS
CPU
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Computer Adaptive Testing
Computer-Based Instruction
Computer-Based Training
Compact Disc Interactive
Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory
Computer-Mediated Communication
COder/DECoder
Commercial Off-the-Shelf
Central Processing Unit
DAVIS
DFAD
DHTML
DIS
DISN
DIV
DL
DoD
DOS
DTIS
DVD
Defense Audio Visual Information System

Digital Feature Analysis Data
Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language
Distributed Interactive Simulation
Defense Information Services Network
Digital Interactive Video
Distance Learning
Department of Defense
Disk Operating System
Defense Technical Information Service
Digital Video Disc
351
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DVI
Digital Video Interactive
EBB
EC
ECI
EPME
EPSS
ET
Electronic Bulletin Board

Electronic Classroom
Extension Course Institute
Enlisted Professional Military Education
Electronic Performance Support System
Embedded Training
FEA
Front-End Analysis
GETN
GMT
Government Education and Training Network

General Military Training
IBI
IBT
ICAI
ICW
IETM
IGR
IMI
IMS
IOE
IPR
IPS
ISD
ISP
IT
ITS
ITV
IVT
Internet-Based Training
Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction
Interactive Electronic Technical Manual
Instructor-Guided Review
Instructional Management System
Integrated Operational Environment
In-Process Review
Interactive Performance Systems
Instructional Systems Development
Internet Service Provider
Intelligent Tutoring Systems
JPA
JPEG
Job Performance Aid

Joint Picture Expert Group
KSA
Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes
LAN
LC
Local Area Network

Learning Center
M&S
Mb
Mbps
MHz
MIL
MOA
Modeling and Simulation

Megabyte
Megabits per second
Megahertz
Mediated Interactive Lecture
Memorandum of Agreement
352
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MOU
Memorandum of Understanding
OJT
OMT
PDU
PEDD
PLV
POA&M
PQS
PSS
PST
On-the-Job Training
On-Board Maintenance Training
Packet Data Unit
Portable Electronic Display Device
Production Level Video
Plan of Action and Milestones
Personal Qualification Standards
Performance Support System
Performance Support Tools
QC
Quality Control
ROI
RTV
Return On Investment
Real Time Video
SEN
SME
SRU
SSS
SVGA
Satellite Education Network

Subject Matter Expert
Student Response Unit
Staff Summary Sheet
Super Video Graphics Adapter
TRADOC
Training and Doctrine Command
VRML
VRAM
VTC
VTT
Virtual Reality Markup Language

Virtual Random Access Memory
Video Teletraining
WAN
WBI
WWW
Wide Area Network

Web Based Instruction (Browser Based)
World Wide Web
XML
Extensible Markup Language
353
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Terms
Advanced Distributed Learning A DoD initiative to promote widespread collaboration,
exploit Internet technologies, develop next generation learning technologies and create
reusable content, and lower costs, with object-based tools.
Air Force Catalog of Formal Schools (AFCAT) The AFCAT is a listing of nearly all
formal courses offered within the AF. The AFCAT is a formal publication that is updated
semiannually. Its publication number is AFCAT 36-2223.
Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning The focal point for
implementation of distance learning policy and emerging distance learning technologies
within the Air Force. It is located at Maxwell Air Force Base Gunter Annex.
Air National Guard (ANG) A wartime mobilization force providing personnel and
aircraft to augment the active duty forces.
Air Technology Network (ATN) The Air Force education and training interactive TV
network. Created in 1992 to broadcast the newly-required acquisition courses, ATN has
expanded to four uplink sites at Wright-Patterson, Maxwell, Sheppard, and Keesler Air
Force bases with more than 80 downlink receive sites typically located at base
education offices and 5 sites within AFRC. The system uses 1-way video, 2-way audio
over a compressed digital video signal, along with a terrestrial audioconferencing
system that permits interaction with all participants. Combined with ANGs Warrior
Network, the Air Force can reach almost 300 sites within the US and Europe.
Analog Information, such as video and audio, that is recorded and stored in a
continuously variable form similar to its source: information that is not digital.
Appended Systems Embedded Training systems appended, or strapped on to
operational equipment.
Asynchronous Transmission that does not occur simultaneously with the audio and
video associated with the broadcast. Computer Based Training (CBT) and traditional
correspondence courses would be considered to operate in the asynchronous mode.
Audio Bridge Specialized equipment that permits several telephone lines to be joined
together in a conference call.
Audioconferencing Instruction delivered by two-way voice communication.
Audioconferencing Unit A stand-alone microphone that provides a means for
students to provide verbal feedback to the instructor.
Audio Conferencing System (ACS) ACS uses ordinary phone lines for transmitting
voice for multi-point, synchronous interaction. It allows for a free and open exchange
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instructor-to-student and student-to-student. The ACS includes microphones, and a

speaker and sound mixer unit, and is the interactive part of interactive video teletraining.
Audiographics Two-way audio and two-way computer data exchange.

Bandwidth Capacity of a communications channel. The frequency width needed to
transmit a communications signal without excessive distortion. The more information
contained in a signal, the more bandwidth it requires for distortion-free transmission. For
digital transmission, generally measured in kilobits (Kbps) or megabits per second
(Mbps). The higher the compression, the greater the loss of resolution and fluidity of
motion. But, the higher the compression, the lower the bandwidth requirements, and
consequently, the lower the cost of transmission.
C-Band A type of satellite transmission with less path loss than other satellite
standards such as Ku-Band. C-Band, however, requires a relatively large antenna.
C-Band frequencies are shared with terrestrial microwave transmissions, which cause
interference with weaker satellite signals.
Coaxial Cable System Thinnet (10 Base T2) cable, similar to TV cable. 10 Base T-5
is a thicker cable that permits computers to be farther apart.
CODEC Coding-decoding equipment used to convert and compress analog video
signals into a digital format for two-way video transmission, then convert them back to
analog signal upon reaching their destination. CODECs may also be configured as
send-only and receive-only, and be used to transfer a terrestrial signal to a broadcast
satellite, or vice versa.
Collective Training Training conducted with a team, crew, or group.
Compressed Digital Video (CDV) Compressed Digital Video (CDV) is a signal coding
technology used to compress the bandwidth required for the transmission of video
images by eliminating redundant information within or between video frames; also called
data compression, bandwidth compression, or bit rate reduction. The higher the
compression, the lower the bit transmission rate. Terrestrial VTC network (desktop to
large-screen monitors) use a variety of compression rates beginning at 56 Kbps (low
resolution, less than full motion) to 1.5Mbps (intermittently full-motion, broadcast-quality
video. Satellite broadcast systems allow for the use of full-motion, broadcast-quality
video. It is common to see rates of transmission of 3 to 20 Mbps. ATN uses 3.3 or 6.6
Mbps. This compression rate gives full-motion with a resolution quality that is very
nearly that of normal analog broadcasting. At 3.3 Mbps, you may notice some image
skipping when there is a lot of motion. While most ATN broadcasting is done at 3.3
Mbps, ATN can broadcast at 6.6 Mbps when it is necessary to eliminate all such
skipping. The costs of transmission, however, double for 6.6 Mbps.
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Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) A term referring to courses delivered using a

personal computer and includes floppy disks, CD-ROMs, and Internet-delivered
courseware.
Computer Based Instruction (CBI) The same as computer assisted instruction.
Computer Based Training (CBT) The same as computer assisted instruction.
Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) A disc designed to hold up to 600 MB
of data in a digitized format. Because it is read only, users cannot alter or write over
the data on the CD making it very popular with courseware developers.
Compression Rate The figure used to estimate the number of hours of instruction
required to conduct an existing resident course if converted to the given technology.
Compression Software Compresses digital video for storage and transfer using
CODECs (COder/DECoder) algorithms.
Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI) Interactive Courseware (ICW) component that
enables student record-keeping.
Computer-Mediated Conferencing (CMC) Another way of conferencing using the
personal computer and telephone lines as the communication vehicles. It provides
instructor-student and student-student interaction in both an asynchronous and
synchronous mode.
Constructed Model or Simulation Models and simulations that involve simulated
people operating real systems.
Course Director/Manager The person responsible for the development of an
instructional sequence. This person often serves as the primary presenter.
Digital The representation of information as discrete numbers; in contrast with analog
information, represented as a continuously variable signal.
Digital Video Disc (DVD) An electronic storage and read-only medium with 5 to 50
gigabits of storage space.
Distance Learning (DL) Distance learning is defined as Structured learning that takes
place without the physical presence of the instructor. With this definition, the Air Force
includes correspondence courses, satellite broadcasts, videotape and computer-based
instruction or any combination thereof.
Distance Learning Classroom; same as Electronic Classroom (EC) Any location
where learners can receive instruction electronically from a remote or local instructor.
An EC can include Student Stations, Instructor Stations, Presentation Monitors,
Audiovisual Equipment, and Telecommunications Equipment. Electronic
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communication with the EC can include Television, Satellite, Internet, Commercial

Education and Training Networks, and Military Education and Training Networks.
Distance Learning Office POC The term used by MAJCOMs and others to describe
the individual responsible for administering distance learning programs within an
organization.
Downlink A location where equipment receives a satellite or ground based signal(s) for
display on video, audio, or data receiving equipment. Normally, a downlink includes a
room equipped for display of satellite signal(s) through a TV monitor and permits
occupancy by 15 to 50 people.
E-Mail An electronic delivery system used to send digital messages over the
Internet/Intranet to contact and collaborate with other individuals.
Electronic Classroom (EC); same as Distance Learning Classroom Any location
where learners can receive instruction electronically from a remote or local instructor.
An EC can include Student Stations, Instructor Stations, Presentation Monitors,
Audiovisual Equipment, and Telecommunications Equipment. Electronic
communication with the EC can include Television, Satellite, Internet, Commercial
Education and Training Networks, and Military Education and Training Networks.
Electronic Management Tools Computer programs that can aid in the instructional
process.
Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) Just-in time ICW designed to
enable learners to gain access to large amounts of information, provide tutorial ICW and
ICAI, and provide advice and coaching through a user-friendly interface.
Electronic Testing A general term used to encompass all methods for applying
computers in the assessment and reporting of human knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
It is also known as Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT).
Embedded Training A training capability which is designed into or added onto
Encoder A hardware device that transforms analog video signal into digital form. One
encoder is used for each channel broadcast. ATN, as well as the rest of GETN, uses
the CLI Spectrum Saver encoder; as many as 6 can be used simultaneously on a single
uplink.
Exportable Training Training that is sent out or exported to a field location; also
referred to as Type 6 training. See Distance Learning.
Extension Course Institute (ECI) Formerly the Air Forces correspondence school for
military subjects ranging from general courses to specific career areas. Combined with
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the Air Force Distance Learning Office (AFDLO) to form the Air Force Institute for
Advanced Distributed Learning (AFIADL).
Facilitator (See instructional facilitator)

Fax Conferencing Electronic data transfers between individuals over telephone
networks using facsimile equipment or over the Internet using fax modems.
Fiber Optic Cable System Consists of fine fibers of glass. Conducts light (photons)
instead of electricity (electrons). Able to transmit audio, video, and data signals on the
same cable.
Formative Evaluation Provides information about the effectiveness of products and
processes as they are being developed. Performed periodically from initial ISD planning
throughout the development phase; can include small-group tryouts of instructional
components; used to validate design of individual components of the instructional
system for integration. Objective is to identify deficiencies early, when revision is least
expensive.
Government Education & Television Network (GETN) GETN is a network of
Government networks. It was conceived by AFIT in the interest in interagency distance
learning. AFIT had its digital network added to the GSA and Defense Information
Systems Agency (DISA) contracts. Now, all agencies using the FTS2000-DSCF
contract can join the Air Force on a single, interoperable satellite network. Currently,
GETN includes 17 Federal agencies that reach over 950 sites within CONUS. Among
these are the Dept of Energy, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Environmental
Protection Agency, the Internal Revenue Service and the Social Security Administration.
The Army Satellite Education Network and the Air National Guard Warrior Network were
among the first to join GETN.
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) A language of Internet Web Pages (WWW),
allowing authors to create text and graphics, and link to other Web pages.
Instructional Management System (IMS) A non-proprietary, Internet-based
Instructional Management System that provides the means to customize and manage
the instructional process and to integrate content from multiple publishers in distributed
or virtual learning environments.
Instructional Systems Development An adaptation of the systems engineering
process to the process of curriculum development.
Instructor Guided Review (IGR) Remote or local instructor presentations in an
electronic classroom using a seminar or review format.
Instructional Facilitator A content-knowledgeable person, not an instructor, at a
downlink site who assists the content provider (normally at the uplink site) to conduct
instruction using the satellite system.
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Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI) Interactive Courseware (ICW)

component that includes an intelligent tutor that diagnoses student performance and
individualizes instruction.
Internet-Based Instruction (IBI) Instruction that makes use of Internet technologies
and provides a platform for the integration and distribution of multimedia instructional
components.
Internet-Based Training (IBT) A term referring to courses delivered via the Internet.
Interactive Courseware (ICW) Any type of computer-controlled education or training
that relies on student inputs to determine pace, sequence and content of training
delivery using more than one type of medium to convey the cost of instruction.
Integrated Electronic Technical Manual (IETM) A type of Interactive Courseware
(ICW) job aid that incorporates graphics, photographs, video, simulations, text, and
access to database information.
Integrated Operational Environment (IOE) Merges real-world and synthetic
operations to support all aspects of training and education, weapons systems
deployment, strategic and tactical strategies and analysis, Joint theater-level operations,
mission planning, mission rehearsal, etc.
Integrated Receiver Decoder (IRD) A hardware device that reconstructs a video
signal from a compressed digital format. It is located at each downlink receiving site.
One IRD decodes one selectable channel. ATN, as well as the rest of GETN, uses the
CLI Spectrum Saver IRD.
Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI) IMI is a group of computer-based training
and training support products. IMI includes source materials that are commonly used in
IMI products, electronic products used in the delivery of or supporting the delivery of
instruction, and software management tools used to support instructional programs.
Interactive Television (ITV) An interactive means of instructing learners at a distance
through the use of one-way video and audio over a satellite communication link with
interactive return audio via phone lines. Also referred to as Teleseminar.
Interactive Video Teletraining (IVT) Describes video-based instruction over broadcast
television networks (satellite and/or terrestrial). Composed of Video Teleconferencing
(VTC) and Interactive Television (ITV).
Job Site Training (JST) Training delivered to learners at their base of assignment
without an instructor physically present. The training media can take the form of
interactive courseware, interactive video teletraining, videotape, paper, or some
combination of these. Does not include mobile training teams or CDCs.
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Job Site Training POC Organization or person at base-level responsible for all aspect
of training administration.
Ku-Band A type of satellite transmission of a higher frequency that C-Band
transmission, requiring smaller antennas.
Live Simulation A simulation involving real people operating real systems.
Local Area Network (LAN) A system that connects computers, printers and other
office equipment together within a defined area (like your office building).
Mediated Interactive Lecture (MIL) Remote or local instructor presentations in an
Electronic Classroom using a lecture format.
Mobile Training Team Any group of personnel and training equipment gathered
together to provide instruction on some subject or in some area of endeavor, available
for movement from place to place in order to provide instruction at the various locations
concerned.
Model A physical, mathematical, or otherwise logical representation of a real-world
system, entity, phenomenon, or process.
Modeling and Simulation (M&S) The use of models, including emulations, prototypes,
simulations, and stimulations, either statistically or over time to validate a physical,
mathematical, or otherwise logical representation of a system, entity, phenomenon, or
process.
Multimedia In its strictest definition is anything that includes or involves the use of
several media; mixed media. Within communications, the term has evolved to refer to
any system or strategy that uses a combination of data, graphics, video, and sound.
Common storage systems include CD-ROM devices. Combined with hypertext or
computer-based instruction, it becomes interactive multimedia.
Operational Evaluation Includes periodic internal and external evaluation of the
instructional program to ensure graduates meet established education and training
requirements. Performed periodically from completion of the operational tryout
throughout the life of the instructional system. Objective is continuous improvement and
maintenance of instructional effectiveness.
Originating Facility The site location from which transmissions originate.
Portable Electronic Display Device A small electronic device that has been designed
and engineered to facilitate the presentation of an IETM to a technician during
maintenance procedures.
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Professional Continuing Education (PCE) Provides short course instruction in a

broad range of essential educational programs to meet specific skills and functional
competencies required in designated career fields. PCE courses provide learners with
the opportunity to think critically, plan strategically, and give them the ability to apply
those skills and knowledge to undefined future programs and challenges.
Professional Military Education (PME) Education in the profession of arms and the
employment of forces. It provides and develops the skills, knowledge, understanding
and appreciation of leaders in the nations armed forces.
Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) Two or more hard drives or optical
storage devices working together in a file server.
Remote Site Training Any training or education conducted in other than a formal
schoolhouse setting.
Satellite Education Network (SEN) The transmission system operated by the Army
from Ft Lee, VA. This network serves more than 60 downlinks located at Army posts
throughout the US. The SEN is compatible with ATN.
Senior Non Commissioned Officer Academy (SNCOA) Formed to help the Air Force
improve leadership and management within senior noncommissioned (NCO) officer
grades. Designed for professional managers, the curriculum focuses on leadership and
management, communication skills and military studies. The academy uses case
studies and group problem solving as well as lectures and small-group activities to
promote the exchange of ideas.
Simulation A method of implementing a model over time.
Site Coordinator/Monitor An individual at a downlink site who is responsible for
having the site ready for use, who assists learners and instructional facilitators or Job
Site Training POCs in using the equipment in the classroom, and who often has other
minor administrative support responsibilities. Often referred to as site monitor.
Student Response Units (SRU) Provide voice, text, and data links from each student
to the remote instructor.
Subject Matter Expert (SME) (a) An individual who has thorough knowledge of a job,
duties/tasks, or a particular topic, which qualifies him/her to assist in the training
development process (for example, to consult, review, analyze, advise, or critique). (b)
A person who has high-level knowledge and skill in the performance of a job.
Summative Evaluation Provides information to determine the summed effect of
instruction under operational conditions. Used to assess full system integration and
effectiveness of the individual components; based on an operational tryout of the
program (normally 2 or 3 classes) using real student throughput and full instructional
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system operation. Objective is to ensure that the instructional system is fully integrated
and achieves desired outcomes.
Synthetic Environments (SE) Intermitted simulations that represent real-world

activities at a high level of realism.
T-Net A two-way video, two-way audio, low-bit rate video system currently used by the
AFRC through a contract with Army's TRADOC. ATN can connect to and transmit over
T-Net using special arrangements through the Army's Satellite Education Network at Ft
Lee. Due to the difference in system configuration and transmission rates, receive
locations may experience some difficulties in receiving clear video and audio signals.
Technology Insertion Use of appropriate instructional technology in resident
instructional programs.
Teleconferencing (Video Teleconferencing: VTC) Two-way video and two-way
audio exchange.
Telecourse Instruction delivered by Telecommunications instructional delivery
technology.
Teleseminar See Interactive Television
10 BaseT Cable System A pair of unshielded wires with higher wiring standards than
standard telephone systems.
Test Administrator Person at a downlink who has responsibility for the acceptance,
secure storage, distribution, control and return of assessment items.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) An engineers way of saying Homepage address.
It tells your browser where the file is located on the Internet and the type of file it is.
Umbilical Systems Embedded training systems with a physical umbilical connection to
Uplink The location where equipment permits the transmission of video, audio, and
data signal to a satellite. Uplinks can have multiple channels for transmission purposes.
An uplink normally has the capability to function as a downlink.
Video Teletraining (VTT) Job site training using one-way video, two-way audio
instructional technology delivered to learners at their base of assignment via the Air
Technology Network. Also known as interactive television (ITV).
Video Teleconferencing (VTC) Job site training using audio and video instructional
delivery technology delivered to learners at their base of assignment via satellite.
AFH 36-2235
Volume 5
1 November 2002
363
Virtual Classroom An Electronic Classroom where learners and instructors are not
physically collocated.
Virtual Simulation Models and simulations that involve real people operating
simulated systems.
Virtual Stimulation Models and simulations that involve simulated people operating
real systems.
Virtual Reality Mark-up Language (VRML) A language of Internet Web Pages
(WWW), allowing authors to create animated graphics and simulations.
Warrior Network The Air National Guard's interactive TV network. Created in 1993,
the ANG designed the system to be received by every flying unit, geographically
separated unit, state headquarters and combat readiness training center. The ANG
currently broadcasts from McGhee-Tyson ANG base in Knoxville, Tennessee. They are
also building broadcast facilities at Andrews AFB in Maryland and at Tyndall AFB in
Florida. Warrior Network is part of the Government Education and Training Network.
Web Based Instruction (WBI) Term referring to courses delivered via the World Wide
Web (WWW), through a Web Browser and using TCP/IP network protocols.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Used to connect two or more LANs to designated host
computers.
Wireless LAN Use of radio waves of infrared light beams to transmit data between a
file server and the network computers.
World Wide Web (WWW) A system for sharing many different kinds of information
over the Internet. Designed in 1989 by researchers at CERN in Switzerland, the Web is
accessed by Web Browsers like Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet
Explorer.

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BY ORDER OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE

AIR FORCE HANDBOOK 36-2235

INFORMATION FOR DESIGNERS OF INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS

Certified by: HQ USAF/DPDT

Instructional Technology using technology to enhance the learning experience.

Chapter 3 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES .......................................................... 79

Chapter 8 CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEO TELETRAINING

Chapter 11 THE ADVANCED DISTRIBUTED LEARNING (ADL) INITIATIVE.......... 333

This volume provides information and guidance on applying the

This handbook contains the following chapters:

This chapter contains three sections:

For additional information see:

The Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning

Three key terms

Instructional Systems Development (ISD) is an adaptation of the

References are listed in Appendix A.

This section identifies the instructional technologies that may be

Numerous technologies are available for delivering instruction.

Instructional Technology (IT) is more than just applying

Instructional designers have long used technology to support

Professional Continuing Education

Each instructional situation presents unique challenges. The goal

Technology insertion is not new. The use of language

Research indicates that the benefits of technology insertion,

An increase in student retention of instruction over time

Distance learning is structured learning that takes place without

Distance learning is not new; it has been an effective method of

There seems to be an assumption that unless a learner is in a

Thus, there is no direct correlation between face-to-face

Distance learning programs are packaged into units of instruction

Existing resident methods for instructing large groups of

Air Force DL goals

Air Force distance learning goals are to:

Air Force Distance Learning Points of Contact

Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning

40 years. Today, the Extension Course Program ECI offers more

In this handbook, the user is presented with guidance on the

This chapter provides an overview of the Instructional Systems

This chapter contains four sections:

Overview of the ISD Process

Overview of Instructional Systems

The ISD Process and Instructional

Overview of Project Management

The Instructional Technology

Distance Learning Project

The material in this chapter is based on the following references:

MIL-HDBK-29612-3, Department of Defense Handbook,

This section provides an overview of the ISD process and

The Analysis Phase is the process used to identify the critical

Analysis phase (Continued)

Figure 1 ISD Analysis Phase

The lines between

The Design Phase is based on the results of the Analysis Phase.

The following flowchart depicts the ISD Design Phase.

Figure 2 ISD Design Phase

The Development Phase is based on the results of the Design

The following flowchart depicts the ISD Development Phase.

Figure 3 ISD Development Phase