Paper accepted for presentation at 2003 IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conference, June 23th-26th, Bologna, Italy

Operating stationary fuel cells on

power system and micro-grids
D. Audring and G. Balzer

Abstract The integration of stationary fuel cells for dispersed

power generation is a challenge for utilities and service provider
in the next few years. Local distribution companies have to
assess the impact of distributed generation on power system
planning, operation, protection and tariff. Service providers have
the opportunity to power micro-grids by fuel cells. Rating of fuel
cells and limitations of connectable power are discussed. The
impact on protection scheme of power systems and micro-grids
are described. Remedial measures are proposed to ensure safety
and selectivity.
Index Terms Fuel cells, dispersed generation, interconnection, protection, isolated operation, micro-grid

II. I NTERCONNECTION

A. Limits of power injection

Rated power is determined dependent on operation modes,
e.g. current-controlled operation or heat-controlled operation.
Power injection of dispersed fuel cells is limited by requirements of power system, i.e.:

I. I NTRODUCTION

ROLIFERATION of distributed generation makes new

demands on local distribution companies [1]. Liberalization of electrical energy market offers great opportunities for
development and marketing of dispersed generation. Fuel cells
are developed for a wide range of applications. Stationary fuel
cells for dispersed generation are one field of application. This
paper considers fuel cells as dispersed generators, but a lot of
results are applicable to other distributed energy converters.
Fuel cells connected to power system are suitable for
cogeneration of heat and power due to high ratio of electric
to thermal power of about one and a part-load capability at a
high efficiency [2]. Hence fuel cells are appropriate to supply
manufacturing plants and department stores as well as office,
public and residential buildings [3].
Stationary fuel cells may be used as an uninterruptible or
back-up power supply or to supply a micro-grid. A micro-grid
with fuel cells may be an alternative to supply remote and
undeveloped areas with electrical energy. Economic efficiency
may be achieved more easily for this range of applications.
A dynamic simulation model using EMTDC program was
developed in order to investigate the impact of fuel cells on
power system and micro-grids [4]. The results of simulations
on model networks with dispersed fuel cells will be discussed.
The first part of this paper describes impact on power system
by dispersed fuel cells. Recommendations are given for simple
and efficient integration of fuel cell systems into the power
system. The second part deals with fuel cells supplying a
micro-grid. Special considerations are necessary to ensure
safety, selectivity and a high power quality at micro-grids.
Dipl.-Ing. D. Audring and Prof. Dr.-Ing. G. Balzer are working with
Darmstadt University of Technology, Department of Electrical Power Systems,
Darmstadt, Germany (e-mail: [email protected]).
This research project is supported by the German Research Society (Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft).

0-7803-7967-5/03/$17.00 2003 IEEE

OF FUEL CELLS WITH POWER

SYSTEM

voltage variation at point of common coupling (PCC) [5],

[6],
permissible voltage range of network [7] and
current carrying capacity of devices.

Present guidelines permit a voltage variation at the weakest

PCC of 2% for distributed generators. That requires extensive
load flow calculations at every low voltage network and is not
feasible with increasing number of small dispersed generators
[8]. Stationary voltage variation can be calculated by means of
short-circuit power and angle at PCC as well as rated power
and power factor angle of fuel cell (Equation (1)).
uPCC [p.u.] =

with:

Ssc,PCC
sc,PCC
SFC
FC

SFC
Ssc,PCC

ej(sc,PCC FC )

(1)

short-circuit power at PCC

short-circuit angle at PCC
complex power of fuel cell
power-factor angle of fuel cell

Absolute value of resulting voltage variation at PCC is

calculated by vector addition and is given at equation (2).
Figure 1 displays resulting voltage variation at PCC depending
on short-circuit power at PCC and power injection of dispersed
fuel cell. With a short-circuit power of 2.0 MVA and a shortcircuit angle of 30 at PCC an active power feed-in of 40 kW
leads to a voltage rise of 1.7%. At the same PCC a power
injection of 40 kVA with an inductive power factor of 0.95
(F C = 18.2) results in a voltage rise of 1.96%. If shortcircuit angle is unknown or power factor of fuel cell varies,
the graph with a difference of angles of 0 is to choose to
consider the worst case scenario.
| uPCC | [p.u.] =
s
S2
SFC
1+2
cos(sc,PCC FC ) + 2 FC 1 (2)
Ssc,PCC
Ssc,PCC

|Dupcc| [%]
4.0

60

~
~
~

sc,
pc c j
FC =

P
Q

FC

y
s
yc,pcc -j
sc
F =
y ,pcc -j C 0
sc,
F =
pc - C 15
c j

FC =
30
y

sc,
pc c j
FC =
45

Generator reference-arrow system

3.5
ysc,pcc-jFC= 75

3.0
2.5
2.0

phase L1 equals three-phase power injection. Since singlephase power injection is referred to three-phase short circuit
power at PCC, a factor of three results from equation (4).
Equal impedances at all symmetrical components occur at
distribution transformer. With increasing distance from distribution transformer, zero-sequence impedance increases and
hence voltage variation increases. At a ratio of zero-sequence
impedance to positive-sequence impedance of four, voltage
variation of single-phase power injection is twice as threephase power injection.
Single-phase power injection has to be symmetrically spread
over all three phases in order to equalize current at neutral
conductor and reduce voltage variation. Present guidelines
limit single-phase power injection to 4.6 kVA.

1.5

B. Short-circuit performance of fuel cells with three-phase

connection to power system

1.0
ysc,pcc-jFC= 90

0.5
0
0

Fig. 1.

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

SFC
Ssc,pcc

0.1

The examined low voltage network is shown at figure 2.

The low voltage network is simulated as a radial network.
Star-point of distribution transformer at secondary substation is
direct grounded (TN-C-system). Three-phase and single-phase
inverters of dispersed fuel cells are connected to network.

Absolute values of resulting voltage variation at PCC

MV

The maximum power injection can be calculated depending

on permissible voltage variation UPCC,max by means of
equation (3).
SFC,max = Ssc,PCC
q
2
sin2 (sc,PCC FC ) + (UPCC,max + 1)

cos (sc,PCC FC )

(3)

2+

Z0
Z1

SL1,FC
ej(sc,PCC L1,FC )
Ssc,PCC
(4)


Z0
SL1,FC
1
ej(sc,PCC L1,FC )
Z1
Ssc,PCC
(5)


SL1,FC
Z0
=
1
ej(sc,PCC L1,FC )
Z1
Ssc,PCC
(6)

U L2,PCC =

U L3,PCC

F1

Voltage variation depends on ratio of zero-sequence

impedance (Z 0 ) to positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ). If zerosequence impedance equals positive-sequence impedance, influence of phases L2 and L3 vanish. Voltage variation at

1~ FC
4.6 kVA
3~ FC
10 kVA

Dyn5 10/0,4kV
400 kVA; ukr= 6 %

F2
A1

Single-phase power injection leads to a voltage variation

at all three phases of PCC. Voltage variation at PCC with
power injection into phase L1 is given at equations (4) to (6).
Equal impedances at positive-sequence and negative-sequence
are assumed at these equations.
U L1,PCC =

3PEN~50Hz 230/400V

A2

A3

FC

B1
3~ FC
SC 20 kVA
B2
3~ FC
20 kVA

3~ FC
10 kVA
Fig. 2. Single line diagram of examined low voltage network corresponding
to figures 3, 4 and 5

Short-circuit performance of fuel cells is determined by

control of inverter. Since inverter is current controlled at inner
control loop, fuel cell contributes maximally their rated current
to network during short-circuit. Figure 3 shows results of a
simulation of a fuel cell with three-phase inverter. A remote
three-phase short-circuit occurs at time TSC on node A2 and
voltage drops to 70% of nominal network voltage. The fuel
cell with a rating of 20 kVA feeds their rated current of 29 A
to network. Current injection remains the same during shortcircuit. Power injection decreases to 70% of rated power due to
reduced voltage at PCC. Fuel cell is disconnected from power
system by undervoltage protection relay after 50 ms. The fault
is cleared after 100 ms by overcurrent protection of the faulted
feeder at secondary substation and voltage restores.

uPCC [V]
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-0.05
iL,FC [A]
40
20
0
-20
-40
-0.05

Voltage at PCC:

0.05

0.1

0.15
(t-TSC) [s]

Current injection of fuel cell:

0.05

0.1

Currents through fuses at secondary substation:

0.05

iL,FC [kA]

0.15
(t-TSC) [s]

0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.05

-10
-20
0

0.05

0.1

0.15
(t-TSC) [s]

Fig. 3. Short-circuit performance of fuel cell with three-phase power injection

at node B1 (figure 2)

Neutral point connection of inverter transformer of dispersed fuel cells may influence unsymmetrical faults to
earth, like single-phase or two-phases-to-earth faults. A direct grounded star-point of inverter-transformer reduces zerosequence impedance. Hence high zero-sequence current flows
through the inverter transformer. Figure 4 shows currents
through phase conductors and neutral conductor of a threephase fuel cell with direct grounded inverter-transformer during single-phase-to-earth short-circuit. A single-phase-to-earth
short-circuit at phase L1 on node A2 occurs at time TSC and
current at faulted feeder increases to 2.8 kA at secondary
substation. This current splits at zero-sequence and part of
zero-sequence current flows via neutral conductor to star-point
of inverter-transformer. High zero-sequence current at phase
conductors of fuel cell inverter-transformer trip overcurrent
protection at network connection in this case after 50 ms.
Single-phase fault is cleared after 200 ms by overcurrent feeder
protection at secondary substation.
Fuel cells with isolated inverter-transformer do not influence zero-sequence and hence no zero-sequence current flows
through inverter-transformer. If inverter of fuel cell is connected transformeless to power system, control of inverter has
to measure and limit current injection into neutral conductor.
C. Short-circuit performance of fuel cells with single-phase
connection to power system
Short-circuit performance of fuel cell with single-phase
inverter is described at figure 5. A single-phase-to-earth shortcircuit at phase L1 on node A2 occurs at time TSC and
phase-to-earth voltage of phase L1 drops to 43% of nominal
value. Current injection of a fuel cell with rated power of 4.6
kVA at phase L1 keeps constant during single-phase shortcircuit until undervoltage protection relay disconnects fuel cell
here after 50 ms. Power injection of fuel cell with double

iPEN,FC [kA]
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
-0.4
-0.8
-0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25
(t-TSC) [s]

0.2

0.25
(t-TSC) [s]

0.2

0.25
(t-TSC) [s]

Currents through phase conductors

of inverter-transformer:

0.05

0.1

0.15

Current through neutral conductor

of inverter-transformer:

Power injection of fuel cell:

PFC [kW]
0

-0.05

iL,N [kA]
4
2
0
-2
-4
-0.05

0.05

0.1

0.15

Fig. 4. Short-circuit performance of fuel cell with inverter-transformer at

node A3 (figure 2)

frequency, due to single-phase connection, is shown at figure

5. Power oscillation can be decoupled from fuel cell stack by
an electrical energy storage. Power output decreases to 43%
of rated power during short-circuit, due to voltage reduction at
PCC of phase L1, until disconnection of fuel cell. Overcurrent
feeder protection of Phase L1 trips here after 200 ms and the
single-phase fault is cleared.
uL1,PCC [V]
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-0.05
iL1,FC [A]
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-0.05
PFC [kW]
10
8
6
4
2
0
-0.05

Voltage at PCC - phase L1:

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25
(t-TSC) [s]

Current injection of fuel cell - phase L1:

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25
(t-TSC) [s]

0.2

0.25
(t-TSC) [s]

Power injection of fuel cell:

0.05

0.1

0.15

Fig. 5.
Short-circuit performance of fuel cell with single-phase power
injection at node A1 (figure 2)

D. Impact on protection scheme

Voltage drop during a short-circuit may trip undervoltage
protection relays of fuel cells at faultless feeders, if tripping

time of feeder protection is longer than tripping time of undervoltage protection relay. Figure 6 represents the examined
medium-voltage model network. Medium voltage network is
simulated as an open ringed network. Fuel cells are connected
at medium-voltage and subordinated low-voltage networks.
Figure 7 shows the simulated RMS-values of node voltages
on low-voltage side of distribution transformers during a threephase short circuit at medium-voltage node A2. Voltages on
all subordinated low-voltage networks drop below 0.8 p.u. and
hence undervoltage protection relays of fuel cells trip and
disconnect fuel cells from power system (in this case 50 ms).

URMS [p.u.]
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

UB1, UB2, UB3, UB4

0.5
0.4
0.3

UA1

0.2
0.1

Yd5 110/10,5 kV
40 MVA; ukr= 12 %

B1

B2

A2
SC

have to be higher than operating current to enable power flow

to medium-voltage network.
MICRO - GRIDS WITH FUEL CELLS

FC

B3

A. Conception of a micro-grid
UB3

A4

B4

UB4 SSLOAD each 250 kVA

cos j= 0,9
SPFC each 250 kW
FC

FC

UA4

0.525 0.55

UB2

FC

A3

FC

UA3

SPFC = 15 MW
SSLOAD = 20 MVA

0.475 0.5

RMS-Voltages at low-voltage side of distribution transformers

III. S UPPLYING

FC

UA2

UB1
FC

FC

A1

0.025 0.05 0.075

(t-TSC) [s]
Fig. 7.

UA1

UA2, UA3, UA4

0.0
-0.05 -0.025 0.0

Fig. 6. Single-line diagram of medium-voltage model network corresponding

to figure 7

Present guidelines recommend instantaneous tripping (i.e.

maximally 200 ms), if voltage at point of common coupling
drops below 0.8 p.u. [6]. The overcurrent-time protection relay
at faulted feeder trips here after 500 ms and disconnects
medium-voltage feeder A. Short-circuits on medium-voltage
networks may affect a huge number of dispersed generators
on subordinated networks and may result in a loss of dispersed
power generation. Selectivity may be achieved by delaying the
tripping of undervoltage protection relays of fuel cells longer
than tripping time of feeder protection, if inverter of fuel
cell remains synchronized with power system. Simultaneously,
uncontrolled and unintended isolated operation of a network
area by dispersed generators must be avoided to ensure safety
and prevent from out of step reclosing.
Non-directional overcurrent protection relays of feeders are
not affected by fuel cells due to low short-circuit currents of
fuel cells. But fuel cells may cause reverse currents through
directional protection relays, like meshed network master
relays at distribution transformers of meshed low-voltage network. Set-point values of tripping current in reverse direction

A micro-grid is a small isolated network with the purpose to

supply loads at remote, undeveloped areas or during temporary
disconnection from power system. Main characteristics of
micro-grids are low short-circuit power and higher fluctuations
of load demand [9]. A micro-grid may be supplied by just one
fuel cell or by fuel cells in conjunction with electrical energy
storage, like capacitors or batteries. Services of power system,
like voltage and frequency stability, have to be provided by a
fuel cell or electrical energy storage.
Rating of fuel cell is based on peak load demand, if one
fuel cell supplies a micro-grid. Change of power output of
fuel cell has to meet load variation. Hence hydrogen has to be
supplied from storage. Fuel cells supplying micro-grids have
to be overrated to ensure an acceptable power quality. Batteries
or capacitors can support fuel cell during short-time overload
and hence a reduction of rating of fuel cell is possible [10].
Peak load are supplied by both fuel cell and electrical energy
storage. Electrical energy storage may be used to smooth load
characteristic.
The examined micro-grid is shown at figure 8. It is simulated as a radial network. Star-point of inverter-transformer of
fuel cell is direct grounded (TN-C-system). A fuel cell with
rated power of 50 kVA supplies the micro-grid. The loads are
a resistive load with 5 kW, a resistive-inductive load with 5
kVA and a power factor of 0.95. Furthermore two induction
motors with a rating of 5.5 kW and 3.7 kW for continuous
duty are simulated. The applied load torque at the induction
machines represent a compressor or a pump, that means a
square-law load torque depending on revolution of motor [11].
The micro-grid may be operated in parallel with power system
or isolated.

Power System
3PEN~50Hz 230/400V
SC2

UBB

50 kVA

iM2

SC1
V2

5 kVA
cos j = 0,95
5 kVA
cos j = 1,0

iM1

FC

V1

M
M1 3~
M2
5,5 kW 3,7 kW
M
3~

Micro-grid

Voltage at busbar of micro-grid:

uBB [V]
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300

Fig. 8. Single-line diagram of examined micro-grid corresponding to figures

9, 10 and 11

B. Disconnection from power system

Disconnection from parallel operation with power system
during short-circuits on network side has to carried out fast
to reduce voltage drop at micro-grid. Especially, if induction
motors are running at micro-grid, re-acceleration may cause
voltage disturbances after disconnection from power system.
Figure 9 shows results of a simulation. The micro-grid was
connected to power system, when a remote three-phase short
circuit occurs at power system at time TSC2 (fault location
SC2). Voltage at point of common coupling drops to 25% of
nominal voltage. The micro-grid is disconnected from power
system after 100 ms. The control of fuel cell changes from
current control to voltage-frequency control. Revolutions of
induction motors are decreased to 60% - 70% during voltage
dip. Re-acceleration of induction motors take about 200 to 250
ms. Voltage of micro-grid is disturbed during re-acceleration
period.
C. Start-up of induction motor
Start-up of induction motors take longer due to limited
power output of fuel cell inverter. Figure 10 illustrates start-up
of the two induction motors at examined micro-grid. Induction
motor M1 is started at time TM1 . Voltage at main busbar of
micro-grid is reduced until induction motor M1 runs at basic
speed. Induction motor M2 is started after 400 ms and voltage
at main busbar decreases as well. Due to reduced voltage,
induction motor M1 needs more current and start-up time
of induction motor M2 increases to 500 ms. Both induction
motors accelerate between 250 ms and 300 ms at network
connection.
D. Short-circuit performance
Short-time overload capacity is limited by current carrying
capacity of inverter valves of fuel cell inverter and stored

0.1

iFC [A]
100
50
0
-50
-100

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
(t-TSC2) [s]

0.4

0.5
(t-TSC2) [s]

Currents of fuel cell:

0.1

0.2

0.3

Revolution of induction motor M1

und M2
Applied torque M1
und M2
:

[p.u.]
1,0
0,8

0,6
0,4
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
(t-TSC2) [s]

Fig. 9. Disconnection of micro-grid with induction motors due to remote

three-phase short-circuit at power system

Voltage at busbar of micro-grid:

uBB [V]
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
0

iM1 [A]
100
50
0
-50
-100

0.1

[p.u.]
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0

Fig. 10.

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8 0.9
(t-TM1) [s]

0.7

0.8 0.9
(t-TM1) [s]

0.7

0.8 0.9
(t-TM1) [s]

Current of induction motor M1:

0.1

iM2 [A]
100
50
0

-50
-100

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Current of induction motor M2:

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Revolution of induction motor M1

und M2
Applied torque M1
und M2
:

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8 0.9
(t-TM1) [s]

Acceleration of induction motors at micro-grid

energy of d.c. link capacitor. Hence short-circuit power of

micro-grid is low and this leads to low tripping currents
during short-circuit. Fuel cell acts as voltage source, due to
voltage-frequency control, until maximum permissible current
of inverter is reached and limited. Hence current limitation

of inverter determine short-circuit current. If inverter of fuel

cell is connected directly to micro-grid (without an invertertransformer), short-circuit current equals maximum permissible current of inverter. Setting of protection scheme has to be
based on maximum permissible current of inverter.
If fuel cell inverter feeds via an inverter-transformer to
micro-grid, short-circuit current may be different from maximum permissible current of inverter, since current is limited
on inverter side of inverter-transformer. Transformation ratio
is to consider as well as vector group of inverter-transformer.
Figure 11 shows results of simulations with delta-star invertertransformer of fuel cell. Delta winding is on inverter side
and currents are limited to 102 A. The transformation ratio
is set to one. A short-circuit at fault location SC1 occurs
at time TSC1 . Single-phase-to-earth and two-phase-to-earth
short-circuits leads to highest currents
at micro-grid. Transformed current on micro-grid is 3 times the maximum
permissible current of inverter, due to delta-star invertertransformer. Minimum short-circuit current of micro-grid is
phase-to-phase clear of earth short-circuit current. It reaches
only 86.6% of maximum permissible current of inverter and
setting of protection scheme has to be based on that value.
Phase-to-phase short-circuit
clear of earth:

iSC [A] Single-phase short-circuit:

200
100
0
-100
-200
-0,05
0
0,05
0,1 -0,05
(t-TSC1) [s]
iSC [A] Three-phase short-circuit:
200
100
0
-100
-200
-0,05
0
0,05
0,1 -0,05
(t-TSC1) [s]

Fig. 11.

0,05
0,1
(t-TSC1) [s]

Two-phase-to-earth
short-circuit:

IV. C ONCLUSIONS
Power injection into power system is limited by voltagevariation due to functional switching of a single unit, the
upper limit of the voltage range for all distributed generators
and current carrying capacity of the devices. Non-directional
overcurrent protection of feeders are not affected by fuel
cells. Exceptions are fuel cells with direct grounded inverter
transformer, where tripping of overcurrent protection at point
of common coupling is possible due to high zero-sequence
currents during unsymmetrical faults to earth. Directional
protection relays have to allow operating current in reverse
direction to prevent from false tripping. Voltage sag during a
short-circuit may trip undervoltage protection relays of fuel
cells at faultless feeders, if tripping time of feeder protection
is longer than tripping time of undervoltage protection relay.
Hence selectivity is only achieved by delaying tripping of
undervoltage protection relays until faulted feeder is disconnected, if possible.
Voltage and frequency at an isolated micro-grid is set by
a fuel cell or an electrical energy storage. Disconnection
from power system has to carried out fast to reduce voltage
disturbances at micro-grid. Main characteristic of a micro-grid
supplied by fuel cells is low short-circuit power. Hence start-up
of induction motor may takes longer and voltage disturbances
may occur during acceleration. Setting of protection scheme
has to consider inverter-transformer, since minimum shortcircuit current may be lower than current limiting of inverter
of fuel cell.
Technical problems with integration of fuel cells into power
system and micro-grids are solvable. Fuel cells have to prove
reliability, availability and economic efficiency, before they
take on important tasks of electrical power supply.
R EFERENCES

0,05
0,1
(t-TSC1) [s]

Short-circuit performance of micro-grid

In case of occasional isolated operation of a micro-grid,

tripping range of protection relays have to guarantee the same
selectivity in a micro-grid as in connection with power system.
Selectivity within the micro-grid is difficult to achieve by using
conventional over-current feeder protection [4]. Over-current
feeder protection may be sufficient, if operating current splits
between several feeder and hence tripping current of feeder
protection is lower than current output of fuel cell. Overcurrent protection is not suitable for main busbar protection of
micro-grid. Main busbar can be protected by current differential protection. Protection of main busbar should be integrated
into control of fuel cell in order to shut down fuel cell at
fault on main busbar. Undervoltage protection relay of fuel cell
has to be delayed and used as back-up protection of microgrid during isolated operation. Induction motors increases peak
short-circuit current, but have to be re-accelerated after shortcircuit [12].

[1] Cigre Working Group 37.23, Impact of increasing contribution of

dispersed generation on the power system, Cigre Report 137, 1999.
[2] R. H. Wolk, Fuel cells for homes and hospitals, IEEE Spectrum,
pages 4552, May 1999.
[3] D. Audring, G. Balzer, O. Schmitt, A. Wildenhain, Impact on power
system by fuel cells supplying residential buildings, IEEE Porto
PowerTech 2001, IEEE, 2001.
[4] D. Audring, G. Balzer, Simulating electrical performance of stationary
fuel cells for dispersed generation, 14th Power System Computation
Conference (PSCC), 2002.
[5] IEC 1000 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - part 3: Limits, IEC,
1994.
[6] VDEW-Richtlinie, Eigenerzeugungsanlagen am Niederspannungsnetz,
VWEW-Verlag, 2001.
[7] EN 50160 Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution systems, European Standard CENELEC, 1999.
[8] D. Audring, G. Balzer, S. Demmig, W. Zimmermann Impact on
power system by stationary fuel cell applications, 17th International
Conference on Electricity Distribution (CIRED), 2003.
[9] H.L. Willis, Energy storage opportunities related to distributed generation, IEEE PES Summer Meeting, IEEE, 2000.
[10] J.F. Chen, C.L. Chu, Combination voltage-controlled and currentcontrolled PWM inverters for UPS parallel operation, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 10, No. 5, IEEE, September 1995.
[11] W. Boning, Hutte: Elektrische Energietechnik, 29. Auflage, Band 1
Maschinen, Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1978.
[12] D. Audring, G. Balzer, Supplying micro-grids with stationary fuel
cell systems, 17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution
(CIRED), 2003.