Stress Management
Stress Management
Management
Richard Pettinger
management
Covers all the key techniques for reducing stress in yourself
tackled stress, including Nike, Sony and Semco Inc, and ideas
from the smartest thinkers, including Elaine Sternberg and
Charles Handy
Includes a glossary of key concepts and a comprehensive
10.10
resources guide
Introduction to
ExpressExec
ExpressExec is 3 million words of the latest management thinking
compiled into 10 modules. Each module contains 10 individual titles
forming a comprehensive resource of current business practice written
by leading practitioners in their field. From brand management to
balanced scorecard, ExpressExec enables you to grasp the key concepts
behind each subject and implement the theory immediately. Each of
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Contents
Introduction to ExpressExec
10.10.01
10.10.02
10.10.03
10.10.04
10.10.05
10.10.06
10.10.07
10.10.08
10.10.09
10.10.10
v
1
7
17
27
41
55
71
91
101
111
123
10.10.01
Introduction to Stress
Management
Costs
Human factors
Responsibilities
Conclusions
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Stress management is set to become a primary strategic and operational
concern for all organizations because of the direct relationship between
decency and humanity, good employment practice, and successful
business. Stress places a cost burden on organizations in all locations
and sectors, and there is also a human price among those who work in
stressful situations or suffer from stress-related injuries and illnesses.
This is reinforced in the European Union (EU) by legislation that
requires an active responsibility for the health and well-being of
employees. It includes specific attention to stress. While this form
of social workplace legislation is a lesser concern elsewhere, the costs
of managing individual cases and situations are nevertheless high.
COSTS
Costs incurred include the following.
The cost of having staff off sick for stress-related injuries and illness.
The cost of paying compensation to those who can demonstrate and
prove that their lives have been damaged or ruined as the result of
stress at work.
Costs in reputation and, invariably, business losses as the result
of publicity surrounding specific media coverage in cases of accident, disaster, bullying, victimization, harassment and discrimination.
These costs include customers taking business elsewhere when able
to do so because no-one likes to be associated with this kind of
organization. Such organizations experience increased difficulties in
recruiting and retaining high quality, expert staff, because nobody
with any choice in the matter wishes to work for such a concern.
Organization and managerial costs involved in investing and defending individual and collective complaints of stress, and in remedying
and resolving these.
Costs involved in having to manage, address and resolve related
issues, for example, where staff have turned to drink and drugs as a
relief from stress.
Wider humanitarian concerns that bring costs with them. Known,
believed and perceived stress-related illnesses and injuries cause
general damage to workplace and human morale and motivation.
HUMAN FACTORS
Some stress is physical, such as Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSIs) and
back injuries, and therefore much easier to address both managerially
and culturally. Problems are compounded, however, because so much
stress is psychological and behavioral, and is therefore much more
difficult to observe and quantify.
Stress also has a very strong subjective element. Some individuals
take in their stride what others find extremely stressful. Some people
find different parts of work more stressful than others. For example,
some nurses regard having to do paperwork as an opportunity to
sit down away from hospital ward pressures, while others resent it
because it interferes with the ward work.
Some people complain of stress when, while it is known and
understood that the particular working environment is very pressurized,
this is nevertheless simply the norm for the particular occupation or
organization. Those who do complain consequently come to be badly
thought of, and so the individual pressure is compounded.
A major cause of individual stress is being on the receiving end of
bullying, victimization, discrimination, and harassment. These activities
are morally repugnant and an affront to basic humanity. They are
endemic in all organizations, industrial, commercial, and public service
sectors across the Western world and Far East. Organizations have
active legal responsibilities in recognizing and resolving these matters
in the EU, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa; and the moral and
ethical case is absolute everywhere.
RESPONSIBILITIES
Effective stress management brings direct obligations and responsibilities, and these also have a cost. Organizations and their managers are
going to be increasingly required to invest time, financial resources,
and expertise in creating a quality of working life and environment that
acknowledges the potential for stress. This requires recognizing where
the potential for physical and psychological stress lies, and taking active
steps in workplace, occupation and work design so that it is eliminated
as far as possible, or else kept to a minimum. If this is not possible,
organizations and their managers must be prepared to accept that they
STRESS MANAGEMENT
CONCLUSIONS
Initially therefore, it is essential to understand the extent and prevalence
of stress. While it is clearly understood to be a problem in some
sectors, occupations, and professions, it should be recognized that
stress has the potential to exist and indeed does exist across all
sectors, industries, and national and social cultures. It is essential that
organizations, managers, and individuals understand the costs that are
attached to it, and the benefits of understanding, recognizing, and
addressing stress successfully and effectively.
10.10.02
What is Stress
Management?
Understanding stress
Stress and work
Conclusions
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Effective stress management is concerned with:
understanding stress, its sources, causes, symptoms and results;
designing the work environment and different aspects of organization
and workplace practice so that the effect of stress can be minimized;
creating the conditions in which specific issues can be dealt with
quickly when they become apparent; and
recognizing the interaction between life at work, and that outside
work; and taking steps to understand the stresses and strains thus
caused (this is currently the subject of legislation in the EU, and
certain to be a social/occupational legal issue in North America).
UNDERSTANDING STRESS
Stress is placed on anything that is given special emphasis or significance, especially where this leads to, or involves, psychological,
emotional, and physical strain or tension. A part of it is therefore
subjective, in that different reactions are produced in different individuals by the same set of circumstances. Stress is caused by a combined
physical and psychological response to stimuli (stressors) that occur or
are encountered during the course of living.
Cooper (1997)1 summarizes stress as:
everything that deprives the person of purpose and zest, that
leaves him with negative feelings about himself, with anxieties,
tensions, a sense of lostness, emptiness and futility.
Fontana (1989)2 draws the meaning of the word from the Latin stringere, meaning to draw tight, and from the French word destresse,
meaning to be placed under narrowness or oppression.
Statt (1994)3 draws attention to the physical response:
the human body is biologically programmed to react to challenges
from the environment by mobilizing its resources. We can either
confront the challenge and fight it or get away from it as fast as
possible. The choice in other words is fight or flight, whichever
we deem to be more appropriate in the situation. If our brain
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Effective stress management is concerned with:
understanding stress, its sources, causes, symptoms and results;
designing the work environment and different aspects of organization
and workplace practice so that the effect of stress can be minimized;
creating the conditions in which specific issues can be dealt with
quickly when they become apparent; and
recognizing the interaction between life at work, and that outside
work; and taking steps to understand the stresses and strains thus
caused (this is currently the subject of legislation in the EU, and
certain to be a social/occupational legal issue in North America).
UNDERSTANDING STRESS
Stress is placed on anything that is given special emphasis or significance, especially where this leads to, or involves, psychological,
emotional, and physical strain or tension. A part of it is therefore
subjective, in that different reactions are produced in different individuals by the same set of circumstances. Stress is caused by a combined
physical and psychological response to stimuli (stressors) that occur or
are encountered during the course of living.
Cooper (1997)1 summarizes stress as:
everything that deprives the person of purpose and zest, that
leaves him with negative feelings about himself, with anxieties,
tensions, a sense of lostness, emptiness and futility.
Fontana (1989)2 draws the meaning of the word from the Latin stringere, meaning to draw tight, and from the French word destresse,
meaning to be placed under narrowness or oppression.
Statt (1994)3 draws attention to the physical response:
the human body is biologically programmed to react to challenges
from the environment by mobilizing its resources. We can either
confront the challenge and fight it or get away from it as fast as
possible. The choice in other words is fight or flight, whichever
we deem to be more appropriate in the situation. If our brain
10
STRESS MANAGEMENT
11
Professional/Occupational
Parent
Child
Aunt/Uncle
Family Person
Employee
Holidaymaker
Driver
Entertainer
Individual
Sports person
Shopper
Reader
Fig. 2.1
Individual roles.
12
STRESS MANAGEMENT
13
staff groups retreat into themselves. Their loyalties become tainted and
divided. High status, professional, and expert groups identify with each
other rather than with their organization, and this leads to the formation
of canteen cultures and bunker mentalities (see Summary box 2.1).
14
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Working relations
Effective working relations are based on a fundamental openness and
transparency of organizational and managerial approach and style. This
is reinforced by a strong, positive, designed, and cohesive organization
culture capable of universal acceptance. It is also required that a known
and understood mutuality of interest, that transcends occupational and
professional groups and vested interests, is present. This must be
capable of addressing and resolving role and other conflicts whenever
they become apparent. This is referred to in Chapters 4 and 5, and
discussed fully in Chapter 6.
CONCLUSIONS
Some occupations are inherently more stressful than others, and some
organizations much more stressful places in which to work than others.
It is useful to illustrate the kinds of jobs that, all things being equal, are
more and less stressful than others (see Table 2.1).
It is clear that many of these are generic job titles, rather than specific
occupational descriptions. However, it does indicate the inherent
extent and potential for stress when individuals and groups with
different expertise are employed. The nature of work, and the context
in which it is required to be carried out, can therefore be addressed
from a much greater level of general understanding, and as a precursor
to developing specific remedies.
KEY LEARNING POINTS
Stress is an individual, as well as a predictable, reaction to stimuli
and challenges.
Stress is a combined physical and psychological reaction; and it
carries negative, rather than positive, connotations.
Stress is caused universally by fundamental affronts to humanity,
especially bullying, victimization, harassment, and discrimination.
The effective management of stress at work requires attention to
the working environment, individual roles, and functions, and
understanding the potential for conflict.
Table 2.1
15
Miner
Police
Construction worker
Journalist
Pilot (civil)
Prison officer
Advertising
Dentist
Actor
Politician
Doctor
Taxman
Film producer
Nurse, midwife
Fireman
Musician
Teacher
Personnel
Social worker
Manager (commercial)
Marketing (export)
Press officer
Professional footballer
Salesperson, shop assistant
Stockbroker
Bus driver
Psychologist
Publishing
Diplomat
8.3
7.7
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.3
7.3
7.2
7.0
6.8
6.8
6.5
6.5
6.3
6.3
6.2
6.0
6.0
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.4
5.2
5.0
4.8
Farmer
Armed Forces
Vet
Civil servant
Accountant
Engineer
Estate agent
Hairdresser
Local government officer
Secretary
Solicitor
Artist, designer
Architect
Chiropodist
Optician
Planner
Postman
Statistician
Lab technician
Banker
Computing
Occupational therapist
Linguist
Beauty therapist
Priest
Astronomer
Nursery nurse
Museum worker
Librarian
4.8
4.7
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.3
2.8
2.0
NOTES
1
2
3
4
10.10.03
Shell shock
Scientific management
Costs
Conclusions
18
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
It is apparent from social history studies that a great deal of life and occupational stress existed for centuries before it became acknowledged as
such. For example:
under the feudal system, serfs lived or died at the whim of their
landlords;
the price of failure in military campaigns, for foot-soldiers at least,
was normally death; and
the first factories of the Industrial Revolution offered a form of
Hobsons choice to work and live in the dreadful urban conditions
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or not to work (and
therefore live) at all.
SHELL SHOCK
The first identification of stress as an occupational factor and hazard
arose during World War I (19141918). A direct relationship was
identified between prolonged exposure to military engagement and
the resulting loss of sight, hearing, orientation, and reason. This was
defined as shell shock. It was often accompanied by physical loss of
strength and sickness, and compounded by revulsion at the conditions
in the trenches.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
Also at the beginning of the twentieth century, the first stress-related
problems with production line factory work were identified. F.W.
Taylor and the Scientific Management School designed factory work
so that it consisted of a simple series of repetitive tasks in which
individuals would soon become expert and proficient. They reasoned
that so long as high levels of wages were paid, this form of work
would be satisfactory and desirable. However, they failed to realize the
levels of stress generated by excessive noise and dust, extremes of heat
and cold, and the physical monotony of the work. Moreover, because
there was no other challenge or content to the work, production
line staff began to suffer psychological as well as physical health
problems.
19
Afuent workers
This was seen again in the Affluent Worker studies of the 1950s. These
studies were carried out in the UK at car engineering and chemical
factories. They identified high collective stress levels in production
staff. This was reinforced by a lack of identity between workers and the
company, and any social interaction at the place of work. The concept
of workplace and workforce alienation was born a lack of any interest
or commitment on the part of staff to company, or vice versa, except for
the wage-work bargain. This level of stress was only sustainable so long
as wages remained high, quality and volume of output remained low,
and was not subject to managerial pressure. The management of stress
was reinforced from time to time with safety-valving by which staff,
trade unions, and managers effectively conspired to engineer strikes of
several days or even weeks duration in order to reduce stress levels
and give everyone a break from the situation.
The other contribution of scientific management and Affluent
Worker studies was to make clear that stress was suffered by everyone
placed in bad working conditions and required to work to patterns
over which they had little or no control. This has become a substantial contribution to the understanding of stress in overtly high value,
professional, and expert occupations also, and provides a key point for
organizational and managerial intervention.
Police studies
A further contribution to overall understanding was made by the
United States Police Service studies of the 1970s. These addressed
general levels of stress, as well as the specific issues of conformity,
belonging, and identity. They were carried out in New York City, Ohio,
and California.
A key finding was the pressure on police officers to conform to, or
at least connive at, criminal activities, and to take rewards from those.
This caused extreme stress to many individuals. Almost everyone had
originally come into the service to serve the community. Yet here they
were being pressured by their peers to become involved in exactly
those activities that they were supposed to be stamping out. Many staff
were driven out of the service altogether, while many others retired on
health grounds.
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
Personality types
In the 1970s and 1980s, key medical research was linking behavior
(including organizational behavior and the behavior of individuals at
work) with stress, and identified heart disease as a major output of
prolonged endurance of high levels of stress. These studies identified
two personality types, which they called Type A and Type B.
Type As were identified as being action and results oriented, and in a
hurry to complete work and move on to the next task. Type As tended
to work faster and harder than Type Bs.
Type Bs were identified as being calm and unruffled. They rarely
demonstrated high levels of emotion even in a crisis or emergency.
However, it is important to note that:
Type As tended towards work and occupational overload. They were
much more likely to take on too much work. They exhibited greater
signs of stress. They were much more likely to experience conflict
and to become sidetracked into non-essential tasks and activities.
While they overtly worked harder than Type Bs, they were not
necessarily as effective. Also, it became apparent that effort alone
did not always bring additional rewards or promotions. Moreover,
for Type As other opportunities were limited, except in terms of
expanding and extending their existing job or position.
Type Bs tended to reach the most senior positions in organizations.
This was because they were calmer, and more ordered and strategic
in approach. They did not confuse action and energy expenditure
with effectiveness. They were also found to be much less prone to
loss of reputation through open engagement in conflict; or more
seriously, occupational and other health problems such as coronary
heart disease.
The studies also found that Type A managers were much more likely to
smoke, and to have higher blood pressure and cholesterol levels than
Type Bs.
However, it is clear that both types have advantages and shortcomings. Type As tend to excel on tasks that have to be completed under
time and resource pressures, and to become impatient with those who
block them or hold them up. They exhibit ambition, drive, enthusiasm,
and commitment. They also clearly expect and anticipate promotions,
21
Fig. 3.1
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
(3.49)
3.4
3.2
(3.00)
3.0
Type B
(2.73)
2.8
(2.77)
Type A
2.6
(2.45)
(2.45)
2.4
2.2
2.0
Subordinates
Peers
Supervisors
Fig. 3.2 Conflict and the Type A behavior pattern. Source: Greenberg, J. and
Baron, R.A. (1995) Behavior in Organizations. Prentice Hall International.
23
24
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Recent studies
Recent studies have tended to concentrate on different aspects of stress
management. At both macro and micro levels they have looked at how
to reduce stress levels in working environments and also at the human
and economic costs incurred.
25
Goodness of t
Furnham and Schaeffer (1984)2 proposed the concept of goodness of
fit between individuals, their organization, and their occupation. This
reinforced the subjectivity of stress the fact that one persons stress
is anothers interest, stimulus or indifference. The key is to ensure that
individual professions and occupations provide the right amount of
stimulation, creativity, drive, reward, challenge, and progress. Where
these are out of harmony with each other, symptoms of stress such as
frustration, conflict, dispute, and other behavioral and attitudinal problems are likely to occur. This again reinforces the need to understand
stress as a key aspect of management knowledge and expertise.
Karoushi
Tubbs (1993)3 identified Karoushi or stress death during studies of
patterns of work in large corporations in Japan. The original hypothesis
was that the sheer physical and psychological demands of working
long hours every day meant that people were dying of exhaustion.
Tubbs found however that the killer the last straw was stress.
People who worked long hours felt that they had to and that they had
no control over their working lives or the demands placed on them by
their employers. Many depended on the overtime to make ends meet,
to provide for wives and children, and to ensure social standing. It was
these pressures that caused death, not the long hours themselves.
COSTS
The costs of stress to employers, as well as employees, have never been
fully or completely calculated. However, a variety of individual studies
and statistics give a clear indication.
A UK labor research department report published in 1983 stated that
there were then three million excessive drinkers in England and Wales,
and 850,000 problem and dependent drinkers. About one in twentyfive of the population in England and Wales, and possibly as high as one
in ten in Scotland, may be personally affected by severe alcohol-related
problems.
A survey by Canada Health Monitor (2000) found that 25% of workers
reported stress, psychological or emotional problems arising from work
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
(as opposed to 9% who said that they suffered from workplace injury,
and 9% who said they suffered from illness brought on by bad working
conditions, noise, dust, heat, and cold). It was estimated that the cost
of stress to Canadian industry, commerce, and public services was in
the order of Can$300,000,000,000 per annum.
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear that key contributions to understanding what stress is, and its
effects on people at work, have been made from many different sources.
The body of knowledge and experience on which effective stress
management is based addresses the outputs, costs, and consequences,
as well as understanding the physical, behavioral, and psychological
aspects. It is essential that managers take time to understand and
become aware of the subject from the broadest possible point of view.
Then, whether or not the problem is institutionally recognized, at least
individual managers and those who work for them have a much greater
understanding of what is likely to occur in their own domain, and can
begin to take effective steps to address the issues.
KEY LEARNING POINTS
The identification of stress in many different environments.
The relationship between personality and stress.
Problems and issues in personality management.
Problems and issues in the management of promotion and
opportunity.
The relationship between stress and different patterns of work.
The costs of stress.
NOTES
1 Baron, R.A. (1987) Behavior in Organizations. Allyn and Bacon.
2 Furnham, A. & Schaeffer, R. (1984) Job satisfaction and mental
health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 57, 295305.
3 Tubbs, W. (1993) Stress death. Journal of Business Ethics, 12,
85977.
10.10.04
The E-Dimension
28
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
The Internet, e-business and e-communications have implications for
the management of stress in the following areas:
THE E-DIMENSION
29
30
STRESS MANAGEMENT
THE E-DIMENSION
31
32
STRESS MANAGEMENT
THE E-DIMENSION
33
Security
The security of electronic mail and information systems is a problem
when it is known, believed or perceived that personal data may be
available to people other than those who have a legitimate interest and
access to it. Of especial importance are:
problems surrounding personnel and human resource management
information held on organizational databases that may be accessed
for non-legitimate reasons and/or by those who have no legitimate
business doing so; and
financial problems caused by known and perceived capabilities in
accessing personal banking and financial information, and credit card
details.
It is therefore essential to understand that those responsible for securing
the quality and confidentiality of information may have to be able to
demonstrate this from time to time. In the EU, employees have statutory
34
STRESS MANAGEMENT
THE E-DIMENSION
35
36
STRESS MANAGEMENT
THE E-DIMENSION
37
38
STRESS MANAGEMENT
THE E-DIMENSION
39
40
STRESS MANAGEMENT
10.10.05
42
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
It is clear that lessons on identifying and managing stress can be
learned from anywhere in the world (see Chapter 3). It is also apparent
from this that it is a universal problem and therefore certain to be a
management and human concern in every sector and location.
The key points are:
understanding and accepting that there is a problem;
understanding the cultural, social, and ethical constraints within
which activities have to take place; and
devising managerial and supervisory styles and expertise capable
of managing across cultures so that the problems of stress can be
addressed and resolved wherever they occur, and whatever the
circumstances.
ACCEPTANCE OF STRESS AS A PROBLEM
Barriers to the acceptance of stress as a problem are social, cultural,
and prejudicial, and these are compounded by the inability to observe
the physical symptoms in the same way as physical illness and injury.
These are often reinforced by social, professional, and occupational
groups because they themselves do not wish to be perceived as weak
or inadequate. Where this is reinforced politically and operationally,
the pressure to refuse to address the problem can be overwhelming
(see Summary box 5.1).
SUMMARY BOX 5.1: JUNIOR DOCTORS IN
THE UK
A junior doctor on his first placement was working at a large city
hospital in south-west England. He had worked for 114 of the past
144 hours. Finally, he finished his last round and went to bed.
A short time later his bleeper went off. There was an emergency.
He struggled back to the wards. He arrived, carried out the job,
and returned to bed.
He was woken some time later by his supervisor who demanded
to know why he had gone naked on to the wards. The junior could
only stare. He had no knowledge or recollection of having got out
43
44
STRESS MANAGEMENT
45
46
STRESS MANAGEMENT
47
48
STRESS MANAGEMENT
to prevailing customs and habits, religious beliefs, and strong social and
cultural histories and traditions. This requires the following.
Acknowledging the range of pressures and priorities that exist in
the lives of everyone, including health, family, social, ethical, and
religious pressures, as well as those related to work. The outcome of
this is understanding rather than interference or imposition.
Acknowledgement of extreme human concerns. This refers to
personal crises: serious illness, death, bereavement and divorce,
as well as drink and drug problems. The concern is to ensure that
organizations give every possible support to people facing these
issues so that a productive and profitable relationship is maintained
in the long term. Problems related to drug or alcohol use or addiction always fall into the category of legitimate organizational concern.
Organizations must set absolute standards of handling and managing
these, and give support through rehabilitation where required.
Confidentiality and integrity in all dealings with staff. This is the
cornerstone on which all effective staff relationships are built.
Where confidences are not kept or where sensitive personal and
occupational information becomes public property, the relationship is tainted and often destroyed. Confidentiality also encourages
people to be frank, open, and honest themselves, and this leads to
a genuine understanding of issues, and a reduction in stress, much
more quickly.
Support for individuals when either they or the workplace identify
problems. This is to ensure that people are not penalized as the result
of these pressures and strains. This reinforces the integrity of the
relationship between the organization and its staff. Again, it reinforces
the point that conditions must be created in which individuals are
able to confront issues knowing that help and support are available
and that they are not to be penalized.
The traditional or adversarial view of this approach to responsibilities
and obligations was that it was soft and unproductive, and diverted
attention away from production and output. Organizations could not
afford to be nice to their employees while there was a job to be
done.
49
50
STRESS MANAGEMENT
do things their way in return for removing all the others such as
job insecurity, low levels of pay, rewards and achievement, lack of
opportunities, alienation, and absence of mutual identity and respect.
Staff induction, orientation, and job training is high level and continuous. Multiskilling, full flexibility of working, and all-round capability
and commitment are required. In return for this, Japanese car, electrical goods (and lately financial services companies also), and other
manufacturers provide the best levels of pay and rewards available in
their sectors. This, together with job security, trade union recognition,
and commitments to retrain and redeploy, rather than lay off or make
redundant, has ensured that a largely stress-free environment is created
and maintained.
In the UK, US and newly independent States (the former communist
bloc), the companies originally made a point of locating in areas of
high unemployment. They effectively came to live in these areas as
corporate citizens, bringing benefits and comfort as well as work and
prosperity. This is achieved through extensive and long-term investment that combines respect for local history, customs, and traditions
with long-term provision of high quality work, working environment,
salaries, and security of employment.
It is important to recognize that the pressure to conform referred
to above has brought with it isolated causes of individual stress, and
this is symptomatic of the need to pay constant attention to this aspect
of management. For example, Nissan UK had to pay compensation
to one female employee when the company tried to insist that she
turned up for evening and weekend social functions as a condition of
employment. So, even the overtly best employers have to be constantly
vigilant.
CONCLUSIONS
These lessons apply to all multinational and transnational companies
and large, complex, and sophisticated organizations whatever their
country of origin. The keys to removing stress and resolving the
problems that it causes are in recognizing potential problem areas,
and in setting enduring standards of culture, attitude, shared valued,
behavior, and performance to which everyone can aspire, and which
accommodate and transcend local, cultural, and social pressures.
51
52
STRESS MANAGEMENT
53
10.10.06
56
STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Understanding of the causes and effects of stress at work is sufficiently well advanced for it to be a major organizational and managerial
concern. There are in all situations a wide variety of issues and symptoms that require constant and active scrutiny. Direct strategic and
operational interventions can be made. Their effectiveness in addressing
particular problems, removing and reducing the institutional causes and
effects of stress is dependent upon the collective organizational attitudes, specific expertise of individual managers, and the support given
for particular stress management activities.
COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL ATTITUDES
Strategic approaches to the management of stress depend on the
collective view initially taken. This can be seen from the following
points of view.
Roots in Theory X and Y (McGregor, 1960)1
Theory X exists where organizations take the view that their staff
have to be bullied, bribed or threatened if any productive work is to
be gained from them. This almost prescribes a stressful organization
and environment as a precondition of doing anything constructive
at all.
Theory Y states that organizations take the view that effective
and productive work is dependent on creating conditions in which
achievement will then follow; that staff have the need and desire to
achieve and gain intrinsic, as well as extrinsic, rewards.
This looks overtly simple. However, it does not tell the full story as
witness many overtly high value, highly satisfying, and high achieving
organizations, occupations, professions, and individuals who also
experience high levels of stress. The collective attitude is therefore
a starting point only. If an adversarial or confrontational approach is
taken to staff, stress will be present. If a non-adversarial approach is
taken, stress may nevertheless be present.
This is reinforced by understanding and attending to environmental
factors, role and occupation content, and management style.
57
Change
A major cause of stress is change. This is for two reasons. The
change itself may either be collectively or individually desirable, or
not; and secondly change means moving from the known, understood, and familiar to the uncertain and unknown. The latter problem
is compounded when no clear end is in sight. The protagonists of
creating organizations that are in a constant state of change, and
therefore flexible and responsive to every market, technological, and
occupational development, very often fail to realize that those involved
do at least need to be able to see mileposts, signs, and badges of
achievement along the way. Otherwise, everything is perceived to be
simply chaotic and uncertain and this, in itself, is extremely stressful.
Even where change is known and understood to be desirable,
it still causes stress and therefore has to be managed effectively.
Stress management requires that the aims and objectives of what is
proposed are stated clearly and unambiguously together with dates
and deadlines. Collective and individual effects on staff, occupations,
work, and behavior patterns have also to be stated. Mechanisms are
required in which individual and collective concerns can be addressed
and remedied.
This must include addressing wider attitudes and beliefs. The
management of change has come to be more or less synonymous
with downsizing, resizing, rightsizing, and re-engineering, all of which
are perceived to lead to redundancies, job losses, and lay-offs. If this
is the case then people need to know. This causes stress, which can
then be managed on the basis that people do at least understand the
situation. If this is not the case, then this too should be stated clearly
so that peoples minds are set at rest.
If the organization is not yet sure what the outcomes will be,
then stress caused by uncertainty will occur. Organizations and their
managers need to understand that staff assume that no news is bad
news, and should take steps to ensure that effective communications
are in place on an open and regular basis. As soon as it becomes
clear one way or the other, people must be told. This part of stress
management can be addressed effectively whatever the circumstances.
Language used must be clear and direct. It is much better to communicate along the lines of: We will issue an update on Friday even if
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59
and frontline staff suffer more for the same offence than senior,
managerial, administrative or support staff.
Where punishments do not fit the offence. Great stress is caused
where people are punished for:
events outside their control (and one form of this is junior staff job
losses as a result of senior management blunders);
breaches of rules relating to ordinary common decency and
humanity (e.g. going to the toilet or washroom); and
minor breaches of dress code.
Where punishments do not reinforce absolute standards. Bullying,
victimization, harassment, and discrimination are revolting acts that
are universally reviled, and great stress is caused to those who suffer
these. The penalty for each, including e-bullying and e-harassment,
where demonstrated or proven, must always be dismissal. Each
is overwhelmingly based on misuse and abuse of power and is
morally repugnant. A major positive stress management intervention
is effected when perpetrators are always dismissed.
Problems are perpetrated and these patterns of behavior are effectively encouraged when alternative action is taken. Common remedies
include resisting claims, refusal to acknowledge or investigate, and
promoting perpetrators away from the scene of their offence. The
affront is compounded when managers use I must be seen to be
impartial as an excuse for inertia or an alternative to proper action.
SUMMARY BOX 6.1: SIEMENS AG
Siemens AG, the German engineering multinational corporation,
sent 10 of its middle management staff on an outward-bound
development course. The event was based on a sailing ship and
took place in the Fjords of Norway.
Each of the 10 was to be individually assessed for attitude,
stamina, durability, courage in the face of adversity and hardship,
response to stress, and contribution to the overall effectiveness
of the event. The exercise was part of the companys rigorous
process of pre-selecting middle managers for development into
key corporate positions.
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Managing alienation
Workforce alienation is a key cause of stress (see Chapter 3). Its
potential for existence is more or less universal, and it can be managed
into, or out of, all situations. The problem of alienation is therefore
organizational. It is not a necessary condition of certain types of
standardized industrial production activities (see Summary box 6.2).
61
Isolation: which may be either physical or psychological. Physical isolation may be remoteness of location, or caused by
extremes of noise, heat or cold. Psychological factors include
psychological distance from supervisors, management, and the
rest of the organization.
Feelings of low self-esteem and self-worth: arising from
the lack of value placed on staff by the organization and its
managers.
Loss of identity: with the organization and its work.
Feelings of being trapped: arising from lack of prospects,
variety or advancement for the future; feelings of being stuck in
a situation purely for economic gain.
General rejection: based on adversarial, managerial, and supervisory styles.
Lack of equality: of treatment and of opportunity, especially
where the organization is known, believed or perceived to
differentiate between different types and grades of staff to the
benefit of some and detriment of others.
Effective interventions are possible to address each point. The
European Union has legislated for the provision of works councils
in all organizations of 20 or more staff. A by-product of this is that
it is now possible for specific causes of stress to be addressed on
a formalized basis. It also creates the conditions by which more
general feelings of powerlessness and helplessness can be brought
out and addressed.
Conversely, loyalty to profession or occupation rather than to
the employing organization is a more or less universal response
where alienation is present. In these situations, people say:
I am a surgeon, rather than I work for the National Health
Service.
I am a journalist, rather than I work for Reuters.
I am a pilot, rather than I work for QANTAS.
This is to be contrasted with the approach taken by Japanese
organizations (see Chapter 5) where it is considered that the basic
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63
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65
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
Burnout
Physical exhaustion
(fatigue, lack of energy)
Intense and
prolonged
work-related
stress
Emotional exhaustion
(depression, feelings of
hopelessness)
Reduced performance;
other negative effects
Attitudinal exhaustion
Lcynicism, negative views of
others, of ones own work)
Feelings of low personal
accomplishment
Fig. 6.1
(1995).
causes and volumes of grievance and dispute. Less fixed cost expenditure is required in creating labor and industrial relations support
functions to deal with stress. Staff spend a greater proportion of their
time at work being productive rather than off sick with stress-related
illnesses, or using excuses and alternatives to mask the real problems.
Organizations that take active steps to manage stress are much less
likely to face lawsuits, potentially crippling damages, loss of internal
and external reputation, and respect. They have greater attraction
to potential employees. There is also the belief and perception that
organizations which take active and positive steps in the management
of stress are much more likely to place higher levels of general respect
and value on employees.
Each of these aspects can be clearly quantified. Extensive public relations activities are required and have to be paid for by bad employers
to counter the effects of negative reputation. Such employers also have
to commit greater resources more often to recruitment advertising,
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69
therefore a likely feature of unconnected, unintegrated role and hierarchical cultures and structures. Those who work in these organizations
are much more susceptible to stress-related illnesses, and those who
manage in these consequently need much greater overall awareness,
understanding, capability, and willingness to address it.
Whether authoritarian, participative or democratic, stress management is certain to be much more effective if managers and supervisors
are visible, and therefore physically aware on a regular basis of the
activities of their departments, divisions, and functions. Problems are
raised earlier, and are therefore easier to address and resolve. Serious
problems such as bullying, victimization, harassment, and discrimination are nipped in the bud rather than allowed to fester. Overall, general
confidence is also raised, both in this aspect of management and in
terms of enhanced mutual respect.
CONCLUSIONS
Stress management is not conducted in isolation. A key part of managerial and supervisory skill and expertise is the ability to recognize and
address stress wherever it occurs or becomes apparent. As with every
aspect of managerial performance, the quicker stress-related problems
are recognized, the less long-term damage is caused to organizations
and individual behavior, performance, and output.
The priority lies in accepting and understanding rather than denial.
Once this hurdle is jumped, specific attention can then be paid to each
of the elements indicated above. Individual and institutional problems
can then be addressed and resolved. Each time this is successful, major
benefits accrue and these are quantifiable in both financial and human
terms. A derived benefit is the development of ever-greater levels of
mutuality of interest, confidence, trust, respect, and value, and these
are critical elements in ensuring long-term successful and profitable
organizational performance.
KEY LEARNING POINTS
The importance of collective positive organizational attitudes.
The importance of understanding the specific aspects of change,
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NOTE
1 McGregor, D. (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise. McGraw Hill.
10.10.07
Stress Management in
Practice
Nike
Sony
Broadmoor Hospital (UK)
Semco
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of each of these case studies is to illustrate how organizations from different sectors and various parts of the world have
successfully created the conditions for tackling specific aspects of stress
that were potentially present in each of their situations.
The cases are:
Nike Inc., the US sports, fashion, and leisurewear organization;
Sony Inc., the Japanese electrical goods manufacturer, and music and
entertainment producer;
Broadmoor Hospital, the UK hospital that treats mental, behavioral,
and psychological illness; and which also provides a secure unit for
those who have committed crimes as the result of mental, behavioral,
and psychological disorders; and
Semco Inc., the Brazilian white goods and engineering and manufacturing organization.
NIKE: CORPORATE STRESS MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Nike was founded in 1969 by Phil Knight and Bob Bowerman to
manufacture and sell sports and leisurewear. The companys first
product was running shoes and from there it diversified into a full range
of apparel. Originally targeted at the US athletics boom of the mid to
late 1970s, the company subsequently diversified into production of
all sports goods, initially in the US, and then later around the world.
The company now produces a full range of equipment and apparel
for football, baseball, basketball, soccer, rugby, and cricket, as well as
athletics; and alongside this is a wide range of perceived high quality,
premium price leisurewear.
Dividing up the work
Originally the business fundamentals at Nike were organized along
functional lines. As the company expanded rapidly this structure began
to shift towards product line organization. The apparel and international businesses emerged as separate divisions. Domestic footwear
73
R&D
Innovative product
Product development
Materials research
Technical services
Sports research lab
ADMINISTRATION
Support services
Distribution
Personnel
Accounting
MIS
PRODUCTION
MARKETING
Economical sourcing
Aggressive
marketing
Liaison with
contract
factories
Far East quotes
Production
scheduling and
inventory
control
Product line
management
Promotion,
advertising
Sales
FINANCE
Innovative financing
Nissho - Iwai
Banks
Equity
Fig. 7.1
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75
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Table 7.1
What we were
77
Corporate health
Those responsible for the direction of the company recognized the
need for the total management of corporate health. Recognizing the
potential for corporate, collective, and individual stresses and strains
as the company evolved, the need for management development as a
total expertise for the present and future became a priority.
Involvement
The issue of involvement affected all layers of the company. Middle
managers expressed worries about the impact of financial success on
top management. How much longer asked one, will they continue
to work so hard and deal with all the hassles?
One critical internal observer noted: We want everybody to be on
the Nike team and have the Nike esprit de corps that many of the
old-timers feel. But I worry that a lot of employees dont have a clue
what it really is.
Another stated: Unless new employees are capable of assimilating
Nike expectations of centered hard work and caring, creative thought,
Nike will stagger under the weight of a jet-setting, self-centered, arrogant and average middle management who aggrandize themselves on a
past they were not a part of instead of striving for future successes in
which they can share.
Finally, another stated: Each layer is a little more insulated from the
rays coming down from the top.
KEY INSIGHTS
The relationship between organizational growth and the potential for corporate (and therefore collective and individual) stress.
The identification of key areas where imperfections are present,
as the precursor to attacking corporate stress.
The need to identify specific areas where things are not working
as a precursor to tackling corporate and individual stress.
Hierarchies as potential sources and causes of stress.
Collective agreement on the main areas to be tackled.
Concentration on key priorities. If a corporate and strategic
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81
that they are their own presidents. The only difference between
cleaners and the real company president is that the cleaner sweeps
the floors and the president steers the company. Both functions
are equally important.
Education and development
That is not to say that someone should remain a sweeper forever.
I am convinced that true education consists in educating the
whole person, which includes work. So from an early stage we
established a work-study system at our plant. This culminated in
the foundation of a Sony Atsugi high school.
I could not hold back my tears as I stood on the platform during
the ceremony that marked the occasion of its official opening. In
fact, I was speechless with emotion. What magnificent specimens
the students were.
We at Sony wanted to contribute to the advancement of
education on a national basis. For the place of work is a place
of education as well. So we needed to provide opportunities and
facilities to enable our workers to continue studying as long as
they wished. We also had to create jobs that take human beings
into consideration and to build an environment throughout every
plant in which no job will be despised and all useful work will be
respected.
As managing director, this was my responsibility. Only in this
way could I kindle a sense of mission in each of them and make
them feel that they had something to live for in their work. Only in
this way could I get them to display creativity and cooperation and
to ensure that they contributed, not only to their own well-being,
but to the development of the company.
Finding dignity and worth
This philosophy of mine, I want to emphasize, had nothing to
do with paternalism. Many intellectuals have heads full of labor
regulations and laws, rather than their own thoughts and feelings.
The reason why I feel so grateful for being at Sony is that I have
been assigned a job here in which I can find dignity and worth,
and that I am being paid on that basis. I have been assigned work
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to which I can devote all I have and from which I am able to derive
the supreme reward.
We must try our best to give others what we want for ourselves;
that is, give them something to live for in their jobs, give them
stability from day to day and from year to year. Managers who
think that it is their prerogative to let people who are different do
jobs which the managers themselves would not like to do have no
place at Sony.
Other guiding principles
In support of the philosophy of the companys founders and top
management, Sony instigated the following.
Cellular organization: in which the company and its departments,
divisions, and functions were subdivided into small integrated work
teams or cells, which were each given total responsibility for the
ways in which work was carried out, subject only to meeting the
company requirements.
The joy of work: Western production line organization was
rejected by the company in favor of an attitude that enabled everybody to become proficient in the full range of tasks required in their
own particular cell or function, and which provided opportunities
for development.
Teamwork and partnership: this extended into all functions and
had the additional benefit of ensuring that the cells regulated themselves, rather than having to rely on time clocks; people would turn
up to work on time because their colleagues required it, not because
the time clock did.
Mutual trust: reflected in the abolition of the time clocks and other
controls to ensure that a fundamental basis of respect and honesty
was established.
KEY INSIGHTS
The distinctive approach and attitude of the companys founding
fathers and top management as a precursor to establishing a
largely stress-free environment.
83
It should also be noted that Morita and Ibuka have both died and that
Kobayashi no longer has executive responsibility. In order to maintain
the overall philosophy and distinctive quality of working life, it is
essential that the next generation of senior managers is developed into
the Sony way of doing things, including maintaining those conditions
in which the presence of organizational and occupational stress is kept
to a minimum.
This also illustrates the relationship between high, distinctive, and
positive qualities of staff management in general as a precursor to
the effective management of stress. A key lesson from Sony is the
recognition that, while the potential for stress and conflict is endemic,
they need not become realities.
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its own specific needs and demands. Evidence based guidelines have
to date been developed for the management of diabetic patients,
and protocols are to be developed to ensure that the prescribing of
newer anti-psychotic drugs is based upon good practice and known
and understood outcomes.
Learning from complaints and incidents. A complaints analysis panel
has been convened which is to monitor complaints and trends, and
check that actions are taken to follow up deficiencies in the hospitals
care and procedures. Serious adverse incidents continue to be subject
to extensive investigations. Recommendations arising from such
inquiries are incorporated into action plans by the hospitals top
management team.
Developing staff management
In common with the rest of the UK National Health Service, the
hospital has institutionalized difficulties in attracting, recruiting, and
retaining top quality staff. To address this the following initiatives are
in place.
The development of labor relations policies to streamline working
practices and provide speedier and more effective procedures for
the resolution of disputes and grievances. The hospitals disciplinary
system has also been the subject of extensive overhaul. This part of
the process has been carried out in spite of extensive opposition
from the hospitals recognized trade unions the Prison Officers
Association, the Royal College of Nursing, and UNISON (the generic
public services trade union).
Recruitment drives. The hospital has scoured the English-speaking
world, as well as other parts, in order to try to provide steady
sources of expert, committed, and motivated staff. A successful
nursing recruitment campaign is in place in South Africa; introduced
in 1999, this continues to provide a major source of effective staff.
The hospital has also established some flexibility in pay and rewards,
and other terms and conditions of employment. It has been able
to develop an extended career structure, including the ability to
appoint nurse consultants as a career opportunity for those who
work within the hospital.
87
KEY INSIGHTS
The importance of recognizing organizations in their environment as a precursor to the identification of the potential for
stress.
The relationship between stress management and the nature of
the working environment.
The relationship between stress management and the employment of specialist staff.
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NOTES
1 Lessem, R. (1989) Global Business. Prentice Hall International.
2 Extract from the chairmans statement in the Broadmoor Annual
Report 2000/01.
10.10.08
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GLOSSARY
Acceptance individual and collective psychological and behavioral
relationships with organizational standards and activities.
Alienation the negative psychological (and physical) outcome of a
lack of identity between individuals, groups, and their organization.
Attitude the psychological, moral, and ethical dispositions adopted
by individuals to others and organizations.
Bullying the relationship that exists between two or more individuals
based on the illegitimate use of power by one or more.
Burnout the result of prolonged exposure to stress; consisting of
physical, psychological, and emotional exhaustion.
Conflict a state of antagonism or warfare existing between two
or more individuals, groups or departments; conflict may also exist
between organizations and different staff groups and their representatives (e.g. trade unions).
Confrontational approach the attitude adopted by many organizations in labor relations management.
Culture the amalgam and summary of the ways in which activities
are conducted, standards and values adopted, and the patterns of
behavior present.
Harassment unwanted physical or behavioral contact; sexual harassment is unwanted contact or communication of a sexual nature.
Institutionalization the physical and psychological acceptance of
patterns of activities and behavior as normal.
Management development a series of learning and training events
directed at recognizing and managing stressors at places of work.
Organization development the institutionalization of high quality
and integrated learning and development activities, a by-product of
which is the reduction of stress levels.
Post traumatic stress disorder physiological and psychological
responses to the after effects of stress, or as the result of being
involved in a major crisis, trauma or disaster.
Role conflict incompatible demands made on individuals by different
groups or persons.
Role culture the establishment of organizational attitudes, values,
and norms on the basis of clearly prescribed job descriptions, and
rank and hierarchical relationships.
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Individual conflict in which individuals experience internal conflict between themselves, the work that they are required to
carry out, and the ways in which it is expected. This can lead to
frustration in terms of the ability to use expertise to the full, and
the lack of scope for professional and occupational development
and advancement. It is also extremely stressful for individuals to
come into conflict with their organization for example, while
grievances and disputes are present.
It is also necessary to address the extent, prevalence, and nature of the
particular issues in dispute and the strength of feelings that the parties
involved have concerning them. Conflicts also bring their own sources
of energy and effective management must address these, as well as the
precise issues.
Source: Handy, C.B. (1975; 1997) Understanding Organizations.
Penguin.
Realpolitik
Realpolitik is the art of survival in a particular organization, occupation
or situation. This requires knowledge and understanding of the ways
in which everything operates, and of the different pressures and
influences that are brought to bear. Above all, all organizations have
their own internal politics the means by which influence and rewards
are gained or lost. Individuals and groups have to survive long enough
to become successful and effective within their environment. They
have to be able to make use of systems, procedures, practices, and
support mechanisms. People have therefore to develop their own
format for the roles and functions that they carry out in order to
maximize their chances of being effective and successful within the
working environment. What is normally required is therefore:
developing approaches based on a combination of role, functions,
and personality; adding a personal strand to the occupational and
professional;
developing approaches based on individual influence involving
recognizing the nature of the influence of particular individuals;
developing networks of professional, occupational, personal, and
individual contacts and using these as means of gaining fresh insights
and approaches to issues and problems;
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97
The more successfully managers carry out the work, the greater the
integrity required. While it is possible to generate short-term results
as matters of expediency, long-term survival is assured only through
fundamentally acceptable levels of integrity and conduct. Attention
therefore is required to the following.
Common standards of equity, equality, and honesty.
Relationships between organization standards, the carrying out of
performance, and the distribution of rewards.
Relationships between means and ends.
Relationships between actions and motives.
Reconciliation of conflicts of interest.
The first duty is therefore to staff and customers in order to ensure longterm permanence. This occurs only where there exists a fundamental
quality of relationships and activities, and where this extends to all
dealings with everyone who comes into contact with the organization.
From this arises the confidence and ability to conduct activities over
extended periods of time. Ethics therefore pervades all aspects of
organization activity and performance. The absence of these absolute
standards is stressful to both individuals and groups. In some cases,
those with technical or professional qualifications may be able to
retreat from organizational into professional comfort. In the long term,
however, the inability to carry out activities on the basis of honesty and
integrity is damaging to those involved.
Source: Sternberg, E. (1995) Just Business. Warner.
General Adaptation Syndrome
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) offers a healthcare perspective on
the identification and management of stress. It was originally defined
as the sick syndrome whereby those with a variety of diseases
had similar signs and symptoms including weight loss, appetite loss,
decreased muscular strength, and no ambition. A variety of dissimilar
situations, such as arousal, grief, pain, fear, unexpected success or loss
of blood, are all capable of producing similar physiological responses.
Although people may face quite different stressors, in some respects
their bodies respond in predictable fashions.
Three stages are identified: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
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99
Fig. 8.1 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). Source: Selye, H. (1976) The
Stress of Life. McGraw Hill.
10.10.09
Resources
Cooper, C. & Payne, R. (1995) Causes, Coping and Consequences
of Stress at Work
Goldthorpe, J.H. et al (1968) The Affluent Worker
Kornhauser, A. (1965) Mental Health of the Industrial Worker: A
Detroit Study
Gratton, L. (2000) Living Strategy
Simon, S.B. (1992) Change Your Life Right Now
Owen, H. (1985) Myth, Transformation and Change
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
The authorities summarized below have each produced seminal research, analyses, interpretations, and recommendations on sources,
causes, and the management of stress. Each approaches the subject
from a distinctive point of view.
The conclusions arrived at, however, are more or less universal. The
key is that there are no easy answers or quick fixes. It is essential
to understand stress as a medical and psychological condition that
requires diagnosis, understanding, and treatment; and to understand
the life and work conditions that prevent it or minimize the chances of
it arising.
COOPER, C. & PAYNE, R. (1995) CAUSES, COPING
AND CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS AT WORK. WILEY
This is an extensively researched academic approach to understanding
the causes and effects of stress at work. It identifies the conditions that
create the physiological and psychological reactions that, in turn, cause
stress-related injuries and illnesses. It tackles the issues from the point
of view of:
blue collar and factory work;
role, relationships, and responsibilities;
white collar, administrative, and managerial situations and occupations;
computer and information technology activities; and
changing environments.
The relationship between stress and functional activities, especially
labor relations, human resource management, and management and
supervisory styles, is considered and attention is drawn to the nature
of individual and subjective stress responses. The study proposes
organizational, managerial, and individual approaches to coping with
these reactions. It also draws attention to the critical importance of
organizational responses and attitudes to occupational health, and
proposes a series of workplace interventions that are available and
possible in different conditions.
RESOURCES
103
Contributions to the study come from the US, the UK, Canada,
Australia, South Africa, and Germany. What is offered is therefore a
comprehensive, substantial, and truly global perspective on the subject.
GOLDTHORPE, J.H. ET AL (1968) THE AFFLUENT
WORKER (VOLS. 1 3). CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS
These studies were carried out in the UK in the late 1950s and early
1960s. They came to be known as the Affluent Worker studies.
There were three companies studied in detail: Vauxhall (GM) cars, La
Porte Chemicals, and Skefco Engineering. The stated purpose was to
give an account of the attitudes and behavior of a sample of perceived
affluent workers high wage earners at mass or flow production companies and to attempt to explain them. Both the firms, and the area,
were considered highly profitable and prosperous.
The main findings were as follows.
As far as the job itself was concerned, it was overwhelmingly a means
to an end on the part of the workforce, the capability of earning
enough to support a good quality of life away from the company.
Affluent workers had little or no identity with the place of work
or with their colleagues. This was especially true of those doing
unskilled jobs.
Some skilled workers would discuss work issues and problems with
colleagues. The unskilled would not. Workforces felt no involvement with the company, their colleagues, or the work. Generally
positive attitudes towards the company prevailed, but these were
related to the instrumental approaches to employment adopted. The
companies were expected both to increase in prosperity and to
provide increased wages and standards of living, as well as security
of occupation.
Matters that caused stress, and to which affluent workers were
found to be actively hostile, were those concerning supervision. The
preferred style of supervision was described as non-intrusive and
hands-off. More active supervision was perceived to be intrusive,
and a cause of stress and conflict. Work-study and efficiency drives
were also opposed.
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RESOURCES
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Jobs in which workload and discretion are low require little mental
or physical activity. Jobs with high workload and discretion are challenging and provide opportunities to develop competence. Jobs with
high discretion and low workload may be frustrating and create some
stress. Karasek argued that the most stressful jobs were those that
combined high workload and low discretion. This argument was
confirmed by both the American and Swedish data. Examples of high
stress jobs in America included assembly workers, garment stitchers,
goods and materials handlers, all those in nursing and hospital activities,
and telephone operators.
Karasek concluded that the two main symptoms of stress that could,
and should, be observed by managers and supervisors were:
exhaustion, including problems waking up in the morning and
extreme fatigue in the evening; and
depression, including nervousness, anxiety, and sleeping difficulties.
There was also a strong link demonstrated between high-stress work
and the consumption of alcohol, drugs, tranquilizers, and sleeping pills.
Karasek argued that it was not normally stressful to use mental
ability, exercise judgment, and make decisions. Stress can therefore
be managed and reduced by increasing discretion in how work is
performed. Discretion can be altered without changing workload,
targets or deadlines, so mental health can be improved without affecting
productivity.
References
Karasek, R.A. (1979) Job demands, job decision latitude and mental
strain: implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 2.
Huczynski, A. and Buchanan, D. (1998) Organizational Behavior.
Prentice Hall.
GRATTON, L. (2000) LIVING STRATEGY.
FT PEARSON
The approach taken here is to identify the direct relationship between
the quality of working life, levels of expertise and commitment,
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organization direction, and enduring success, effectiveness, profitability, and viability. Gratton takes the view that once corporate purpose
and priorities are established, a living strategy is to be created in
which the conditions that cause stress are recognized and addressed in
advance so that they cannot possibly occur.
The approach is called a journey. In this, there are steps along
the way the need for a guiding coalition of directors at the helm,
able to steer effectively only with the active support and identity of
the rest of the staff. Strategic purpose is referred to as imagining the
future, requiring a human vision rather than one-dimensional aims
and objectives, or something that is purely defined by production and
output targets. The gap between current capability and organizational
requirements a major cause of workplace pressure, and therefore
stress is covered from the point of view of recognizing the difficulties
and addressing these in advance, so that the resourcing of performance gaps, problem-solving and organization development become
integrated, rather than separate or dysfunctional.
The accent is consequently on stress recognition, avoidance and
removal from the most positive point of view. Understanding the
universal potential for the existence of stress requires the creation
and maintenance of the conditions in which it is kept to an absolute
minimum.
SIMON, S.B. (1992) CHANGE YOUR LIFE RIGHT
NOW. WILEY
The view taken here is that stress is best managed by identifying and
attending to all those aspects of life and work that cause pressures,
blockages, barriers, and dysfunction. Each of these may be physical or
psychological. The approach requires that individual responsibility is
taken for stress management if the job is bad or stressful then leave;
if the job is good but the organization and management style are poor,
then change employer.
Individuals need to recognize where their priorities lie and adjust
their work and non-work lives accordingly. This is so that the achievement of priorities in the wider context of life is possible. A key part of the
Simon approach is that stress is only manageable when people recognize and understand what they want from life, and take steps to integrate
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these elements with each other. They must take active individual
responsibility for removing the stressors by identifying the places in life
and work where something has to give. In order to be contented,
satisfied, and fulfilled, areas of life and work where people are stuck
have to be changed, and the consequences managed whether this
affects income, lifestyle, family or social relations.
The book is also very strong on the relationship between organizational, institutional, occupational, and lifestyle change and stress, and
especially the sudden perceived comfort of the present that becomes
apparent once it is clear that, for whatever reason, change has to take
place.
OWEN, H. (1985) MYTH, TRANSFORMATION AND
CHANGE. PRENTICE HALL
Owen takes the view that there is great potential for stress in the
management of change and the uncertainties of the future. In order
to address these issues and smooth the path of change, there is a
distinctive role of myth and ritual in organizational transformation.
Owen argues that:
profound change in the environment which requires equally
sweeping organizational change cannot be accomplished by tinkering with structure and technology alone. One must look to the
depths of an organization that supports the technology and structure in order to facilitate the emergence of new organizational
forms.
Myths are the stories of group cultures that describe their beginning,
continuance, and ultimate goals. These stories are a key part of institutional and organizational fabric. To know the myths and legends is to
know the institution much more deeply than those who simply study
balance sheets and organizational charts.
Organizational myths and legends are good stories that create human,
interesting, vital, and dynamic views of the world. Working within
particular myths and legends is like living within a good story or film.
The difference is you cannot put the myth down. A myth not only
reflects life, it becomes life.
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Effective stress management is therefore dependent upon understanding the human responses and attitudes to their perceptions of the
ways in which the organization functions, and the pattern of feelings,
as well as behavior, that they adopt.
10.10.10
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INTRODUCTION
Stress management is substantially about recognizing and understanding the following.
The universal potential for stress in all human situations including
work and organizations.
The range of sources and causes of stress and pressure.
The need to respond either by taking effective action to address the
problems and issues when they arise, and developing the organization, environment, practices, and processes so that these effects are
minimized, or recognizing the full range of issues in advance and
creating the conditions in which stress cannot occur, or in which its
effects are kept to a minimum.
The following steps are therefore essential.
1. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ANALYSIS
Effective organization and environmental analysis depends on a collective and individual willingness to recognize the potential for, and reality
of, the existence of stress in all places of work. This means transcending
and overcoming collective occupational, professional, and individual
prejudices and preconceptions. Once this is achieved, corporate attitudes, patterns of work, inter-group and intra-group relations, and rank,
status, and hierarchical structures can be assessed for:
the likely presence of stress;
the reality of particular problems; and
recognizing the drives and restraints, and where necessary, ensuring
that the emphasis is given to the drives.
One means of doing this was proposed by Peters and Waterman (1982)
(see Figure 10.1).
The approach in the case of stress management is to identify actual
and potential problems within each area as follows.
Structure: role conflicts; stresses and conflict based on rank, status,
and hierarchy.
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STRUCTURE
SYSTEMS
STRATEGY
SHARED
VALUES
STYLE
SKILLS
STAFF
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115
3. CULTURAL ISSUES
Stress management is concerned with the following.
Addressing particular cultural and attitudinal concerns that employees have as the result of their knowledge and understanding of
the history and traditions of the particular sector, organization, and
location in which they work.
Addressing knowledge and understanding when individuals are to
come to work in a new and unfamiliar environment or location. This
may be as the result of the following.
The takeover of the existing organization by another which has
lost its own distinctive and desired ways of doing things. In this
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119
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121
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ADDITIONAL READING
Adair, J. (1986) Effective Teams. Routledge.
Ash, M.K. (1982) On People Management. Sage.
Biddle, D. & Evenden, C. (1986) The Human Side of Enterprise.
Fontana.
Clancy, J. & McVicar, A. (1995) Physiology and Anatomy: A Homeostatic Approach. Edward Arnold.
Drucker, P.F. (2000) Management Challenges for the 21st Century.
HarperCollins.
Fontana, D. (1989) Managing Stress. Routledge.
Hofstede, G. (1980; 1998) Cultures Consequences. Sage.
Huczynski, A. & Buchanan, D. (1998) Organizational Behaviour.
Prentice Hall.
Lessem, R.S. (1986) The Global Business. Prentice Hall International.
Payne, R. & Cooper, C. (1996) Stress in Health Professionals. Wiley.
Pettinger, R. (1996) Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. Macmillan.
Statt, D. (1998) Psychology and the World of Work. Macmillan.
Vroom, V. (1964; 1984; 1997) Work and Motivation. Wiley.
Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What exactly is stress?
A: See Chapters 2, 8, and 9.
Q2: Stress is one of those things suffered by scroungers, weaklings, and people with no backbone, isnt
it?
A: See Chapters 2, 6, and 9.
Q3: Stress was never suffered by people in the good
old days why then do people suffer from it now?
A: See Chapters 3, 6, 9, and 10.
Q4: What is the legal position? What are our liabilities? What if we get sued?
A: See Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 6.
Q5: How do we identify real stress? How do we know
that the staff are not just having us on?
A: See Chapters 3, 6, 7, and 10.
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