Plumbing
Plumbing
Plumbing
SECTION 15
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
The standard also establishes the maximum pressure loss corresponding to the standard maximum capacities as follows:
15 lb / in2 (103 kPa) for the 58-in (15.9-mm), 34-in (19.0-mm) and 1-in (25.4mm) meter sizes
20 lb / in2 (138 kPa) for the 1.5-in (38.1-mm), 2-in (50-mm), 3-in (75-mm), 4in (100-mm), and 6-in (150-mm) meter sizes
For estimating pressure loss in displacement-type cold-water meters, Fig. 1 is provided. Pressure loss in meters for ow at less than the maximum rates for any given
size of meter can be estimated from Fig. 1.
Since the maximum ow through the meter will be 9000 gal/h (34,110 L / h),
we can convert this to gal / min by 9000 gal/h / 60 min / h 150 gal / min (568.5 L -
15.3
/ min). Referring to the listing above, we see that a 2-in (50.8-mm) water meter
will handle 160-gal/min (606.4 L / min). Since the required ow for this plant is
150 gal / min, a 2-in meter will be satisfactory.
Figure 2a shows how the 2-in water meter would be installed. Normal waterutility practice is to install two identical equal-size water meters with bypass piping
and valves to allow cleaning or repair of one meter while the other is still in service.
Where a compound meter will be installed, the piping would be laid out as shown
in Fig. 2b.
2. Choose the type of storage method for the system served
Fig. 3 shows three different arrangements for water storage at above-ground levels.
The reservoir in Fig. 3a serves only the plant and domestic water needs. It does
not have a provision for emergency water for re-protection purposes.
The constant-head elevated tank in Fig. 3b has an emergency reserve for reghting purposes. Local faire codes usually specify the reserve quantity required.
The amount is usually a function of the building size, occupancy level, materials
of construction, and other factors. Hence, the designer must consult the local applicable re-prevention code before choosing the nal capacity of the constant-head
storage tank.
A vertical cylindrical standpipe is shown in Fig. 3c. While storing more water
on the same ground area, this type of tank is sometimes thought to be visually less
attractive than the elevated tanks in Fig. 3a and 3b.
The alternative to the tanks shown in Fig. 3 is an articial lake, if space is
available at the plant site. Such a solution has its own set of requirements: (1)
Sufcient land area; (2) Suitable soil characteristics for water retention; (3) Fencing
to prevent accidents and vandalism; (4) Approval by the local zoning board for
construction of such a facility; (5) Treatment of the water prior to use to make it
suitable for process and human use. A nal decision on the choice of storage
method is usually based on both economic factors and local zoning requirements.
3. Show how the water supply would be connected to a wet-pipe
sprinkler system
The most common types of re-suppression systems rely on water as their extinguishing agent. Hence, it is essential that adequate supplies of water be available
and be maintained available for use at all times.
The minimum recommended pipe size for re protection is 6 in (152.4 mm).
Where a pipe network is used for re protection, a looped grid pattern is designed
for the plant or building, or both. It is often cost-effective to use larger pipe sizes
in a grid because the installation costs are relatively the same. Table 1 shows the
relative pipe capacity for different size pipes.
The wet sprinkler system, Fig. 4, is connected to the plant water supply which
can include a gravity tank, re pump, reservoir or pressure tank and / or connection
by underground piping to a city water main. As Fig. 4 shows, the sprinkler connection includes an alarm test valve, alarm shutoff and check valve, pressure gages
for water and air, a re-department connection to allow hookup of a pumper, and
an air compressor.
Within the building itself, Fig. 5, the main riser is hooked into cross mains to
supply each of the oors. The wet-pipe sprinkler system accounts for about 75
percent of the systems installed. Where freezing might occur in a building a drytype sprinkler system is used.
Related Calculations. Plumbing-system design begins at the water supply for
the structure served. The most important objective in sizing the water-supply system
is the satisfactory supply of potable water to all xtures, at all times, and at proper
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
FIGURE 2 (a) Dual water-service meters installed in a pit; (b) Compound water-service meter
installed in a pit. (Mueller Engineering Corp.)
pressure and ow rate for normal xture operation. This goal is achieved only if
adequate pipe sizes and xtures are provided.
Pipe sizes chosen must be large enough to prevent negative pressures in any part
of the system during peak demand. Such pipe sizes avoid the hazard of watersupply contamination caused by backow and back siphonage from potential
sources of pollution. One cause of backow can be re-engine pumpers connected
to a water main and drawing water out of it in large quantities for re-ghting use.
Pressure in the water main can decrease quickly during such emergency uses, leading to back ow from a buildings internal water system. Hence, sizing of building
15.5
FIGURE 3 (a) Elevated water-storage reservoir. (b) Constant-head elevated water-storage tank
having an emergency reserve for re-ghting use. (c) Vertical standpipe for water storage. (Mueller
Engineering Corp.)
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Load
Load
Water supply
xture units
(WSFU)
gal/min
L/s
Water supply
xture units
(WSFU)
gal/min
L/s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
400
500
750
1000
1250
1500
2000
2500
3000
4000
5000
3.0
5.0
6.5
8.0
9.4
10.7
11.8
12.8
13.7
14.6
16.9
17.0
18.0
18.8
19.6
21.5
23.3
24.9
26.3
27.7
29.1
32.0
35.0
38.0
41.0
43.5
48.0
52.5
57.0
61.0
65.0
75.0
85.0
105.0
124.0
170.0
208.0
239.0
269.0
325.0
380.0
433.0
525.0
593.0
0.19
0.32
0.41
0.51
0.59
0.68
0.74
0.81
0.86
0.92
1.01
1.07
1.14
1.19
1.24
1.36
1.47
1.57
1.66
1.76
1.84
2.02
2.21
2.40
2.59
2.74
3.03
3.31
3.60
3.85
4.10
4.73
5.36
6.62
7.82
10.73
13.12
15.08
16.97
20.50
23.97
27.32
33.12
37.41
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
400
500
750
1000
1250
1500
2000
2500
3000
4000
5000
15.0
17.4
19.8
22.2
24.6
27.0
28.6
30.2
31.8
33.4
35.0
38.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
50.0
54.0
58.0
61.2
64.3
67.5
73.0
77.0
81.0
85.5
90.0
101.0
108.0
127.0
143.0
177.0
208.0
239.0
269.0
325.0
380.0
433.0
525.0
593.0
0.95
1.10
1.25
1.40
1.55
1.70
1.80
1.91
2.01
2.11
2.21
2.40
2.65
2.78
2.90
3.03
3.15
3.41
3.66
3.86
4.06
4.26
4.61
4.86
5.11
5.39
5.68
6.37
6.81
8.01
9.02
11.17
13.12
15.08
16.97
20.50
23.97
27.32
33.12
37.41
Demand
Demand
15.7
FIGURE 4 Wet-pipe sprinkler system service piping with typical ttings and devices. (Mueller
Engineering Corp.)
water supply systems is a matter of vital concern in protecting health and is regulated by codes.
Other important objectives in the design of water-supply systems are: (1) to
achieve economical sizing of piping and eliminate overdesign; (2) to provide against
potential supply failure due to gradual reduction of pipe bore with the passing of
time, such as may result from deposits of corrosion or hard-water scale in the
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
FIGURE 5 Wet-pipe sprinkler system installation on two oors of a building. (Mueller Engineering Corp.)
piping; (3) to avoid erosion-corrosion effects and potential pipe failure or leakage
conditions owing to corrosive characteristics of the water and / or to excessive design
velocities of ow; and (4) to eliminate water-hammer damage and objectional whistling noise effects in the piping due to excessive design velocities of ow.
Every designer of plumbing systems should familiarize himself / herself with the
local plumbing code before starting to design. Then there will be fewer demands
for re-design prior to nal approval.
Data in this procedure come from the National Plumbing Code, Mueller Engineering Corporation, and L. C. NelsenStandard Plumbing Engineering, McGrawHill. SI values were added by the handbook editor.
15.9
Calculation Procedure:
FIGURE 6 Pneumatic well-water system for building service. (Mueller Engineering Corp.)
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
FIGURE 7 Pneumatic water system serving city-water supply. (Mueller Engineering Corp.)
hydraulic pressure in the pressure tank falls below a level sufcient to deliver the
needed water throughout the building, the air compressor starts.
As a general rule, the minimum pressure required at ordinary faucets of plumbing xtures is 8 lb / in2 (55 kPa). At direct supply-connected ush valves (Flushometers), the minimum pressure should be 25 lb / in2 (172 kPa) for blow-out-type
water closets and 15 lb / in2 (103 kPa) for other types of xtures. For any type of
plumbing xture, domestic or process, the minimum pressure provided should be
that recommended by the xture manufacturer.
In a combined system, Fig. 7, there is a check valve in the bypass line around
the booster system. This check valve is extremely important. The valve prevents
back pressurization of the city water by the building booster system water which
is at a higher pressure than the city water. Under normal operation the city water
can only ow to the booster pump. Further, the booster pump cannot pull water
backwards out of the pressurized building water system.
In a tall building a rooftop water storage tank can replace the booster system
for the lower oors where there is sufcient head to operate the xtures at the
needed pressure. In a high-rise building the booster pump raises the water pressure
sufciently to overcome the static and friction pressure of the water-consuming
xtures on the upper oors. The booster system can also be designed to pump
water into the rooftop storage tank for delivery to the lower oors.
Related Calculations. Pneumatic water systems nd use in a variety of buildings: residential, commercial, industrial, etc. While they are more expensive than a
simple metered system supplied at a suitable pressure and ow rate, pneumatic
systems do ensure adequate water ow in buildings to which they are tted. Where
water ow is a critical concern, duplicate pumps, compressors, and tanks can be
tted.
15.11
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
FIGURE 8 (a) Storage-tank hot-water heater. (b) Gas-red hot-water heater. (Mueller Engineering
Corp.)
type and number of xtures served; (4) required water temperature(s); (5) fuel /
energy sources for heating the water.
Storage-tank hot-water heaters may be heated either directly or indirectly by the
fuel / energy source. Direct fuel-red heaters may use either gas or fuel oil. In electric units the water is heated by resistance immersion heaters.
Indirect-red storage hot-water heaters are heated by steam, hot water, or another
hot uid via a heat exchanger. This heat exchanger may be either within the water
storage shell or remote from it.
Storage-tank hot-water heaters range in size from 2 to several thousand gallons
(7.6 L to several thousand liters) capacity. The very small units are typically used
in plumbing-code jurisdictions that prohibit the use of instantaneous hot-water
heaters.
Typically, the maximum temperature for domestic hot water serving lavatories,
showers, and sinks is approximately 120F (49C) at the xture. The maximum
15.13
desired water temperature from a xture for personal use can be obtained by blending hot and cold water; mixing faucets are preferred over separate hot- and coldwater faucets. Or, thermostatic mixing valves may be installed near the point(s) of
use. For bathing, a temperature-compensated shower valve should be used. The
preferred type is a balanced-pressure model with a high-temperature limit.
ASHRAE lists hot-water utilization temperatures for various types and uses of
equipment. Facilities requiring a higher water temperature than that required for
personal use may have a separate hot-water heating system for the higher temperature water if there is a signicant load. Otherwise, a booster heater often is used,
as with a commercial dishwasher. The lowest temperature generally used is 75F
(24C) for a chemical sanitizing glass washer, while the highest temperature is
195F (91C) in commercial hood or rack-type dishwashers.
Hot-water distribution temperatures may be higher than 120F (49C) because
of the concern over Legionella pneumophila (Legionnaries Disease). This bacterium, which can cause serious illness when inhaled, can grow in domestic hot-water
systems at temperatures of 115F (46C), or less. Bacteria colonies have been found
in system components, such as shower heads, faucet aerators, and in uncirculated
sections of storage-type hot-water heaters.
A water temperature of approximately 140F (60C) is recommended to reduce
the potential of growth of this bacterium. This higher temperature, however, increases the possibility of scalding during use of the water. Scalding is of particular
concern for small children, the elderly and inrm, patients in health-care facilities,
and occupants of nursing homes.
All storage-tank hot-water heaters are required to have temperature and pressure
relief valves. Separate valves may be used, or a combination temperature / pressurerelief valve may be installed. Temperature-relief valves and combination
temperature / pressure-relief valves must be installed so that the temperature-sensing
element is located in the top 6-in (15.2-cm) of the storage tank.
The temperature-relief valve opens when the stored-water temperature exceeds
210F (99C). Its water discharge capacity should equal or exceed the heat input
rating of the heater.
A thermal expansion tank, Fig. 9, should also be provided in the cold-water line
adjacent to the heater whenever the system thermal expansion is restricted. Check
FIGURE 9 Water heater tted with thermal expansion tank. (Heating / Piping / Air
Conditioning magazine)
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
valves, pressure valves, and backow preventers, when used on the cold-water line
to the heater, restrict expansion of the water when it is heated. This results in
excessive pressure buildup and can lead to tank failure. ASME construction is
required on all heaters greater than 200,000 Btu / h (58.6 kW) gas input or 120 gal
(455 L) storage. Additional data on sizing such hot-water heaters is available in the
ASPE Data Book, published by the American Society of Plumbing Engineers. Use
the steps in this procedure to select and size storage-tank hot-water heaters for the
10 types of applications listed in step 2 above, and for similar uses.
This procedure is the work of Joseph Ficek, Plumbing Designer, McGuire Engineers, as reported in Heating / Piping / Air Conditioning magazine, October, 1996.
SI values were added by the handbook editor.
15.15
2. This rst oor is occupied for administrative and general purposes, and has the
following provisions for such occupancy: one ush-valve supplied water closet
and one lavatory in an ofce toilet room; one ush-valve supplied water closet,
one ush-valve supplied urinal and one lavatory in a mens toilet room; two
ush-valve supplied water closets and one lavatory in each of two womens toilet
rooms; a sink and domestic dishwashing machine in a demonstration kitchen;
one sink in an ofce kitchen; one sink in a craft room; and two drinking fountains in the public hall.
3. The basement is occupied for building equipment rooms, storage, utility, laundry,
and general purposes and has the following provisions for such occupancy: one
ush-valve supplied water closet and one lavatory in a womens toilet room; one
ush-valve supplied water closet, one lavatory, and one shower stall in a mens
toilet room; one service sink and six automatic laundry washing machines in a
general laundry room; one faucet above a oor drain in the boiler room; and
one valve-controlled primary water supply connection to the building heating
system.
4. At each story and in the basement, a service sink is provided in a janitors closet
in the public hall.
5. Four outside hose bibs (only two to be used at any time) are provided for lawn
watering at appropriate locations on the exterior of the building.
Fixture arrangements are typical on the six upper oors of the building, and 24 sets
of risers are provided. Of these, 5 sets are for back-to-back bathrooms, 2 sets are
for back-to-back kitchens, 4 sets are for back-to-back kitchen and bathroom groups,
9 sets are for separate kitchens, 3 sets are for separate bathrooms, and one set is
for a service sink on each oor above the basement. Fixtures on the rst oor are
connected to adjacent risers. Basement xtures are connected to overhead mains,
which also supply directly the four outside hose bibs.
Design a suitable water-supply systems for this building. Choose pipe sizes for
each riser, uid velocity, pressure drop, and piping material.
Calculation Procedure:
FIGURE 10 Plumbing system for high-rise building designed in the accompanying procedure.
15.16
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FIGURE 10 (Continued)
15.17
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
FIGURE 10 (Continued)
3. Show hot- and cold-water loads for each section in terms of water-supply
xture units
List xture-unit values as shown unenclosed by parentheses. Obtain the xture-unit
values from tabulations as given later in this procedure.
4. List the demand in gal / min (L / s) adjacent to the xture-unit load
Use Table 1 to determine the demand in gal / min (L / s), applying the values shown
under the heading Supply Systems Predominantly for Flush Tanks for all piping
except for the short branch piping which supplies water to water closets and urinals
equipped with ush valves on the rst oor and in the basement. (This procedure
uses both ush tanks and ush valves to show how to handle both in design.
Remember: Flush tanks are still widely used in developing countries around the
world.)
5. Determine the water demands of any special xture
The special xtures in this building are the four outside hose bibs, Fig. 10. Only
two of these hose bibs will be used at the same time. Show this on the design
sheet, along with the ow in gal / min (L / s). Obtain the normal demand for these
xtures from Table 2.
6. Size the individual xture supply pipes to water outlets
Use Standard Code Regulations to size these pipes, as given in Table 11, later in
this section of the handbook. Choose the minimum sizes recommended in Table 11.
7. Using velocity limitations established for the design, size the remainder of
the system
The velocity limitations adopted for this system are 8 ft/s (2.4 m / s) for all piping,
except 4 ft/s (1.2 m / s) for branches to quick-closing valves as noted by asterisks
on Fig. 10. Size each line using the total xture units of load corresponding to the
total demand of each section. For those sections of the cold-water header in the
basement which convey both the demand of the intermittently used xtures and the
continuous demand of hose bibs, the total demand in gal / min (L / s) was converted
to equivalent water-supply xture units of load and proper pipe sizes determined
for them. Proper sizing could also have been done simply on the demand rate in
gal / min (L / s).
8. Calculate the amount of pressure available at the topmost xture
Assume conditions of no ow in the system and calculate the amount of pressure
available at the topmost xture in excess of the minimum pressure required at such
Demand
Type of outlet
Ordinary lavatory faucet
Self-closing lavatory faucet
Sink Faucet, 38 (9.52 mm) or 12 (12.7 mm)
Sink faucet, 34 (19 mm)
Bath faucet, 12 (12.7 mm)
Shower head, 12 (12.7 mm)
Laundry faucet, 12 (12.7 mm)
Ball cock in water closet ush tank
1 (25.4 mm) ush valve [25 lb/in2 (172 kPa) ow pressure]
1 (25.4 mm) ush valve [15 lb/in2 (103 kPa) ow pressure]
3
4 (19.0 mm) ush valve [15 lb/in2 (103 kPa) ow pressure]
Drinking fountain jet
Dishwashing machine (domestic)
Laundry machine [8 lb (3.6 kg) or 16 lb (7.3 kg)]
Aspirator (operating room or laboratory)
Hose bib or sill cock, 12 (12.7 mm)
gal/min
2.0
2.5
4.5
6.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
35.0
27.0
15.0
0.75
4.0
4.0
2.5
5.0
L/s
0.126
0.158
0.284
0.378
0.315
0.315
0.315
0.189
2.210
1.703
0.946
0.047
0.252
0.252
0.158
0.315
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
a xture for satisfactory supply conditions. The calculated excess pressure is the
limit to which friction losses may be permitted for ow during peak demand in the
system. Then, excess pressure 75 lb / in2 8 lb / in2 (65.67 ft to highest outlet
0.433 lb/in2 / ft of water) 38.6 lb / in2 (266 kPa). (Note: 1 ft of water column
0.433 lb/in2 and 1 m of water column 9.79 kPa pressure).
9. Determine which piping circuit of the system is the basic design circuit
(BDC)
The basic design circuit (BDC) is the most extreme run of piping through which
water ows from the public main, or other pressure source of supply, to the highest
and most distant water outlet. Heavy lines in Fig. 10 show the BDC for this structure.
There are 26 sections in the BDC in Fig. 10. For each of these sections, the
developed length is computed as shown in Fig. 10, for a total of 420 ft (128 m).
Then, using the BDC length and other data for the installation, the pressure loss in
the BDC, is found thus, as shown in Table 3.
10. Mark on the system schematic the pressure loss through any special
xtures in the system
Obtain from the special xture manufacturer(s) the rated pressure loss due to friction corresponding to the computed demand through any water meter, water softener, or instantaneous or tankless hot-water heating coil that may be provided in
the basic design circuit.
Thus, the rated pressure loss through the compound water meter selected for
this system was found from the manufacturers meter data to be 5.8 lb / in2 (40 kPa)
for the peak demand ow rate of 227.6 gal / min (862.6 L / min). Note this on the
design sheet, Fig. 10. The rated pressure loss for ow through the horizontal hot-
75.0 lb/in2
28.4 lb/in2
46.6
8.0
38.6
5.8
32.8
0.7
lb/in2
lb/in2
lb/in2
lb/in2
lb/in2
lb/in2
32.1 lb/in2
420 ft
363 ft
0.04 lb/in2 / ft
783 ft
15.21
water storage tank, i.e., entrance and exit losses, is assumed to be about 1.6 ft head
(0.49 m), 0.7 lb / in2 (4.8 kPa).
11. Calculate the amount of pressure remaining
We must now calculate the amount of pressure remaining and available for dissipation as friction loss during peak demand through the piping, valves, and ttings
in the basic design circuit. Deduct from the excess static pressure available at the
topmost xture (determined in step 8) the rated friction losses for any water meters,
water softeners, or water heating coils provided in the basic design circuit, as determined in step 10.
Thus, the amount of pressure available for dissipation as friction loss during
peak demand through the piping, valves, and ttings in the BDC is: 38.6 5.8
0.7 32.1 lb / in2 (221 kPa).
12. Compute the total equivalent length of the basic design circuit
Pipe sizes established on the basis of velocity limitations in step 7 for main lines
and risers must be considered just tentative at this stage, but may be deemed appropriate for determining the corresponding equivalent lengths of ttings and valves
in this step. Using the tentative sizes for the BDC, compute corresponding equivalent lengths for valves and ttings. Add the values obtained to the developed length
to obtain the total equivalent length of the circuit.
The equivalent length of valves and ttings, using the methods given elsewhere
in this handbook, is 363.2 ft (110.7 m). When added to the developed length, we
have a total equivalent length of the BDC of 420 363.6 783.2 ft (238.7 m).
13. Calculate the permissible uniform pressure loss for friction in the piping
of the BDC
The amount of pressure available for dissipation as friction loss due to pipe, ttings,
and valves, determined in step 11, should be divided by the total equivalent length
of the circuit, determined in step 12. This establishes the pipe friction limit for the
circuit in terms of pressure loss, in lb/in2 / ft (Pa / m) for the total equivalent pipe
length. Multiply this value by 100 to express the pipe friction in terms of lb / in2
per 100 ft (Pa / 100 m).
Thus, the maximum uniform pressure loss for friction in the basic design circuit
is: 32.1 / 783.2 ft 0.04 lb/in2 / ft, or 4.0 lb/in2 / 100 ft (0.9 kPa / 100 m). This is the
pipe friction for the BDC. Apply it for sizing all the main lines and risers supplying
water to xtures on the upper oors of the building.
14. Set up a pipe sizing table showing the rates of ow for the system
Set up the sizing table showing the rates of ow based on the permissible uniform
pressure loss for the pipe friction calculated for the basic design circuit determined
in step 13. In Table 4, the ow rates have been tabulated for various sizes of brass
pipe of standard internal diameter that correspond to the velocity limit of 4 and 8
ft/s (1.2 and 2.4 m / s), and to the friction limit of 4.0 lb/in2 / 100 ft (0.9 kPa / 100
m) of total equivalent piping length. The values shown for various velocity limitations were taken from the data cited in step 7. Values shown for friction limitations
were taken directly from Fig. 11. This chart is suitable, in view of the water-supply
conditions and a fairly smooth surface condition.
15. Adjust the chosen pipe sizes, as necessary
All the main lines and risers on the design sheet have been sized in accordance
with the friction limitation for the basic design circuit. Where sizes determined in
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
WSFU
(col. A)
gal/min
WSFU
(col. A)
gal/min
Friction limit
ow rate at 4.0
lb/in2 / 100 ft,
gal/min
2
3
4
1
114
112
2
212
3
4
1.5
3.0
6.3
16.8
36.3
92.0
181.0
335.0
685.0
3.8
6.6
11.1
18.3
25.2
41.6
61.2
92.0
158.0
3.7
8.4
26.4
75.0
130.0
291.0
492.0
842.0
1920.0
7.6
13.2
22.0
36.6
50.4
83.2
122.4
184.0
316.0
2.8
5.8
11.7
22.5
33.0
66.0
112.0
288.0
380.0
V 4 ft/s
V 8 fps
Note: Apply the column headed Velocity limit, l 4 ft/s, to size branches to quick-closing valves. Apply the
column headed Velocity limit, l 8 ft/s, to all piping other than individual xture supplies. Apply the column
headed Friction limit, just for sizing piping that conveys water to top oor outlets. Where two columns apply
and two different sizes are indicated, select the larger size.
15.23
this step were larger than previously determined in step 7, based on velocity limitation, the increased size was noted directly on the design sheet. Increased sizes
were made in all risers and in some parts of the main lines in this system. For
example, in the BDC, sections J-K, K-L, and L-M were increased from 2-in (50.8mm) to 2.5-in (63.6-mm); sections O-P and P-Q were increased from 1.5-in (38.1mm) to 2-in (50.8-mm); sections Q-R, R-S, and S-T were increased from 1.25-in
to 1.5-in (31.8-mm to 38.1-mm); T-U, U-V, and V-W were increased from 1-in to
1.25-in (25.4-mm to 31.8-mm); section W-X was increased from 0.75-in to 1.25in (19-mm to 31.8-mm); and section X-Y was increased from 0.75-in to 1-in (19mm to 25.4-mm).
16. Determine if the water supply is such that pipe sizing must be changed
From the characteristics of the water supply given by the municipal authority, it is
recognized that the water is relatively noncorrosive and nonscaling. Hence, there is
no need for additional allowance in sizing in this case.
Related Calculations. The method given here is valid for a variety of watersupply designs for apartment houses, hotels, commercial and industrial buildings,
clubhouses, schools, hospitals, retirement homes, nursing homes, and residences of
all sizes. As a designer, you should be certain to follow all applicable plumbing
codes so the system meets every requirement of the locality.
This procedure is the work of L. C. Nielsen, as given in his Standard Plumbing
Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill. SI values were added by the handbook editor.
Plumbing-System Design
DETERMINATION OF PLUMBING-SYSTEM
PIPE SIZES
A two-story industrial plant has the following plumbing xtures: rst oorsix
wall-lip urinals, three valve-operated water closets, three large-size lavatories, and
six showers, each with a separate head; second oorthree wall-lip urinals, three
valve-operated water closets, three large-size lavatories, and three showers, each
with a separate head. Size the waste and vent stacks and the building house drain
for this system. Use the National Plumbing Code (NPC) as the governing code for
the plant locality. The branch piping and house drain will be pitched 14 in (6.4
mm) per ft (m) of length.
Calculation Procedure:
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
15.25
branch pipe must be used for branch drain 1 because no more than 20 xture units
can be connected to the next smaller, or 3-in (76-mm) pipe. Hence, branch drain 1
will use a 4-in (102-mm) pipe because it serves 42 xture units, step 2.
Branch drain 2 serves 9 xture units, step 2. Hence, a 212-in (64-mm) branch
pipe will be suitable because it can serve 12 xture units or less (Table
7).
4. Size the upper-oor stack
The two horizontal branch drains are sloped toward a vertical stack pipe that conducts the waste and water from the upper oors to the sewer. Use Table 7 to size
the stack, which is three stories high, including the basement. The total number of
second-oor xture units the stack must serve is 42 9 51. Hence, for a 4-in
(102-mm) stack, Table 7 must be used.
5. Size the upper-story vent pipe
Each branch drain on the upper oor must be vented. However, the stack can be
extended upward and each branch vent connected to it, if desired. Use the NPC,
or Table 8, to determine the vent size.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
15.27
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
15.29
this does not occur in every installation of ULF units, it is being studied to determine possible remedies.
Building owners in one large city are currently receiving a bonus of $240 for
each ULF water closet installed in an existing structure. This is leading to widescale replacement of existing water closets which use excessive amounts of water,
in view of todays new environmental laws and regulations.
A further benet of the ULF units is the smaller amount of water that must be
treated for each ush. The reduced water ow allows the central sewage treatment
plant to handle more buildings and their water closets, showers, sinks, and other
xtures. As cities grow, it is important that sewage-treatment plants be able to
handle and process the increased waste ow. Thus, the ULF unit saves water during
usage and reduces the post-usage need for waste-water treatment. It is for these
two reasons that large cities are urging building owners to install ULF units.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
The wall of the machinery room facing the main roof will also collect rain to
some extent. This must be taken into consideration when the roof leaders are sized.
Do this by computing the area of the wall facing the main roof and adding onehalf this area to the main roof area. Thus, wall area 80 100 8000 ft2 (743.2
m2). Adding half this area to the main roof area gives 25,000 8000 / 2 29,000
ft2 (2694 m2).
3. Select the leader size for each roof
Decide whether the small roof area, i.e., the machinery room roof, will be drained
by separate leaders to the ground or to the main roof area. If the small roof area
is drained separately, treat it as a building unto itself. Where the small roof drains
onto the main roof, add the two roof areas to determine the leader size.
By treating the two roofs as separate units, Table 9 shows that a 5-in (127-mm)
leader is needed for the 5000-ft2 (464.5-m2) machinery room roof. This same table
shows that an 8-in (203-mm) leader is needed for the 29,000-ft2 (2694-m2) main
roof, including the machinery room wall.
15.31
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
from 4 in (102 mm), apply the conversion ratio discussed in the previous paragraph.
Note that the ow capacity of oor and roof drains must equal, or exceed, the ow
capacity of the leader to which either unit is connected.
15.33
FIGURE 14 (a) Plan of industrial-plant water piping; (b) elevation of building water-supply risers.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
TABLE 11 Rate of Flow and Required Pressure during Flow for Different Fixtures
15.35
FIGURE 15 (a) Domestic water demand for various xtures; (b) enlargement of lowdemand portion of (a).
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
alent length of cold-water piping, ft. Or, F 100(15) / 210 7.14 lb / in2 per 100
ft (1.62 kPa / m); use 7.0 lb / in2 per 100 ft (1.58 kPa / m) for design purposes.
By the same procedure for the hot-water pipe, F 100(15) / 255 5.88 lb / in2
per 100 ft (1.33 kPa / m); use 5.75 lb / in2 per 100 ft (1.30 kPa / m). Reducing the
design pressure loss for the cold- and hot-water piping design pressure loss to the
next lower convenient pressure is done only to save time. If desired, the actual
computed valve can be used. Never round off to the next higher convenient pressure
loss because this can lead to undersized pipes and reduced ow from the xture.
6. Size the water main
Step 3 shows that the total building water demand is 372 gal / min (23.5 L / s). Using
the cold-water friction loss of 7.0 lb / in2 per 100 ft (1.58 kPa), enter Fig. 17 at the
bottom at 7.0 and project vertically upward to 372 gal / min (23.5 L / s). Read the
main size as 4 in (102 mm). This size would be run to the water heater (Fig. 14)
unless the run were extremely long. With a long run, the main size would be
reduced after each branch takeoff to the risers to reduce the cost of the piping.
7. Compute the water ow in each riser
List the risers in Fig. 14 as shown in Table 14. Next to the letter identifying a riser,
list the water it handles (hot or cold), the number of xture units served by the
riser, and the ow. Find the ow by entering Fig. 15 with the number of xture
units served by the riser and projecting up to the ush-valve curve. Read the gallons
per minute (liters per second) at the left of Fig. 15.
8. Choose the riser size
Enter the pressure loss, lb / in2 per 100 ft (kPa per 30.5 m), found in step 5 next to
each riser (Table 14). Using Fig. 15 and the appropriate pressure loss, size each
riser and enter the chosen size in Table 14. Thus, riser A conveys 70 gal / min (4.4
L / s) with a pressure loss of 7.0 lb / in2 per 100 ft (1.58 kPa / m). Figure 15 shows
that a 2-in (50.8-mm) riser is suitable. When Fig. 15 indicate a pipe size that is
between two standard pipe sizes, use the next larger pipe size.
15.37
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
demand is 162 gal / min (10.2 L / s), or 162(60) 9720 gal / h (10.2 L / s). Therefore,
this hot-water heater must have a heating coil capable of heating at least
0.4(9720) 3888 gal / h, say 3900 gal / h (4.1 L / s).
TABLE 16 Hot-Water Demand per Fixture for Various Building Types
15.39
The storage capacity should equal the product of hourly water demand and the
storage factor from Table 16. Thus, storage capacity 9720(1.0) 9720 gal
(36,790 L). Table 17 shows the usual hot-water temperature used for various services in different types of structures.
Related Calculations. Size the risers serving each oor, using the same procedure as in steps 6 and 7. Thus, risers C and D are each 3 in (76 mm) up to the
rst-oor branch. Between this and the second-oor branch, a 212-in (64-mm) riser
is needed. Between the second and third oors, a 2-in (51-mm) cold-water riser
and a 212-in (64-mm) hot-water riser are needed.
In a downfeed water-supply system, an elevated roof tank generally supplies
cold water to the xtures. To provide a 15-lb / in2 (103.4-kPa) inlet pressure to the
highest xtures, the bottom of the tank must be (15 lb / in2)(2.31 ft in2 / lb of water)
34.6 ft (10.6 m) above the xture inlet. Where this height cannot be obtained
because the building design prohibits it, tank-type xtures requiring only a 3 lb /
in2 (20.7 kPa) or (3 / b / in2)(2.31) 6.93-ft (2.1-m) elevation at the xture inlet
may be used on the upper oors. Valve-type xtures are used on the lower oors
where the tank elevation provides the required 15-lb / in2 (103.4 kPa) inlet pressure.
To design a downfeed system: (a) Compute the pressure available at the highest
xture resulting from the tank elevation from lb / in2 0.434 (tank elevation above
inlet to highest xture, ft) (9.8 kPa / m). (b) Subtract the required inlet pressure to
the highest xture from the pressure obtained in a. (c) Compute the pressure available to overcome the friction in 100 ft (30.5 m) of piping, using the method of
step 5 of the upfeed design procedure and substituting the value found in item b.
(d) Size the main from the tank so it is large enough to provide the needed ow
to all the upper- and lower-oor xtures. (e) Note that the pressure in each supply
main increases as the distance from the tank bottom becomes greater. Thus, the
hydraulic pressure increases 0.43 lb / in2 ft) (9.8 kPa / m) of distance from the tank
bottom. Usual design practice allows a 15-lb / in2 (103.4-kPa) drop through the ttings and valves in the main. The remaining pressure produced by the tank elevation
is then available for overcoming pipe friction.
Note that both cold and hot water can be supplied from separate overhead tanks.
However, hot water is usually supplied from the building basement by a pump. In
exceptionally high buildings, water tanks may be located on several intermediate
oors as well as the roof. Hot-water heaters may also be located on intermediate
oors, although the usual location is in the basement.
In a zoned system, one water tank and one set of hot-water heaters serve several
oors or one or more wings of a building. The piping in each zone is designed as
described above, using the appropriate method for an upfeed or downfeed system.
To provide hot water as soon as possible after a xture is opened, the water
may be continuously recirculated to the xtures (Fig. 18). Recirculation is used
with both upfeed and downfeed systems. To determine the required hot-water temperature in a system, use Table 13, which shows the usual hot-water temperatures
used for various services in buildings of different types. Hot-water piping is generally insulated to reduce heat loss.
TABLE 17 Hot-Water Temperatures for Various Services, F
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Calculation Procedure:
15.41
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
15.43
Sprinkler Installations
serve the system. Local codes usually specify the minimum pressure and capacity
acceptable for sprinklers serving various occupancies.
The secondary supply is often a motor-driven, automatically controlled re pump
supplied from a water main or taking its suction under pressure from a storage
system having sufcient capacity to meet the water requirements of the structure
protected.
For light-hazard occupancy, the pump should have a capacity of at least 250
gal / min (15.8 L / s); when the pump supplies both sprinklers and hydrants, the
capacity should be at least 500 gal / min (31.5 L / s). Where the occupancy is classed
as an ordinary hazard, as this warehouse is, the capacity of the pump should be at
least 500 gal / min (31.6 L / s) or 750 gal / min (47.3 L / s), depending on whether
hydrants are supplied in addition to sprinklers. For extra-hazard occupancy, consult
the underwriter and local re-protection authorities.
Related Calculations. For re-resistive construction and light-hazard occupancy, the area protected by each sprinkler should not exceed 196 ft2 (18.2 m2),
and the center-to-center distance of the sprinkler pipes and sprinklers themselves
should not exceed 14 ft (4.3 m). For extra-hazard occupancy, the area protected by
each sprinkler should not exceed 90 ft2 (8.4 m2); the distance between pipes and
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
between sprinklers should not be more than 10 ft (3.05 m). Local re-protection
codes and underwriters requirements cover other types of construction, including
mill, semimill, open-joist, and joist-type with a sheathed or plastered ceiling.
For protection of structures against exposure to res, outside sprinklers may be
used. They can be arranged to protect cornices, windows, side walls, ridge poles,
mansard roofs, etc. They are also governed by underwriters requirements. Figure
20 shows the pipe sizes used for sprinklers protecting outside areas of buildings,
including cornices, windows, side walls, etc.
Four common types of automatic sprinkler systems are in use today: wet pipe,
dry pipe, preaction, and deluge. The type of system used depends on a number of
factors, including occupancy classication, local code requirements, and the requirements of the building re underwriters. Since the requirements vary from one
area to another, no attempt is made here to list those of each locality or underwriter.
The Standards of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, as recommended by the
National Fire Protection Association, are excerpted instead because they are so
widely used that they are applicable for the majority of buildings. In general, the
type of sprinkler chosen does not change the design procedure given above. Figure
21 shows a typical layout of the water-supply piping for an industrial-plant sprinkler
system. Figure 22 shows how sprinklers are positioned with respect to a building
ceiling.
Use the same general design procedure presented here for sprinklers in other
types of buildingshotels, ofce buildings, schools, churches, dormitories, colleges, museums, libraries, clubhouses, hospitals, and asylums.
Note: Do not nalize a sprinkler system design until after it is approved by local
re authorities and the re underwriters insuring the building.
15.45
consumption must be provided for if carbureted water gas is used as the fuel?
Determine the pressure in the longest run of gas pipe in this building if the total
equivalent length of pipe in the longest run is 150 ft (45.7 m) and the specic
gravity of the gas is 0.60 relative to air. What would the pressure loss of a 0.35gravity gas be?
Calculation Procedure:
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
TABLE 21 Capacities of Gas Pipes [Losses of pressure are shown in inches of water per
100 ft (millimeters per 30.4 m) of pipe, due to the ow of gas with a specic gravity of 0.6
with respect to air]
To determine head losses for othe rlengths of pipe, multiply the head losses in this table by thelength of
the pipe and divide by 100 ft. (30.4 m). For head losses due to ow of gases with specic gravity other
than 0.6, use the gures given in Table 22.
15.47
TABLE 22 Factors by Which Flows in Table 21 Must be Multiplied for Gases of Other
Specicity Gravity
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
the building, a pressure-reducing valve can be installed near the point where the
line enters the building. The valve is usually supplied by the gas company.
Besides municipal codes governing the design and installation of gas piping and
devices, the gas company serving the area will usually have a number of regulations
that must be followed. In general, gas piping should be run in such a manner that
it is unnecessary to locate the meter near a boiler, under a window or steps, or in
any other area where it may be easily damaged. Where multiple-meter installations
are used, the piping must be plainly marked by means of a metal tag showing
which part of the building is served by the particular pipe. When two or more
meters are used in a building to supply separate consumers, there should be no
interconnection on the outlet side of the meters.
Materials used for gas piping include black iron, steel, and wrought iron. Copper
tubing is also nding some use, and the values listed in Table 21 apply to it as
well as schedule 40 (standard weight) pipe made of the materials listed above. Use
the procedure given here to size gas pipes for industrial, commercial, and residential
installations.
15.49
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Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
The pool will have a capacity of 155,600 gal (588,946 L) of water (Table 24).
If installed indoors, the pool would probably be faced with tile or glazed brick. An
outdoor pool of this size is usually constructed of concrete, and the walls are a
smooth nish.
3. Determine the pump capacity required
To keep the pool water as pure as possible, three turnovers (i.e., the number of
times the water in the pool is changed each day) are generally used. This means
that the water will be changed once each 24 h / 3 changes 8 h. The water is
changed by recirculating it through lters, a chlorinator, strainer, and heater. Thus,
the pump must handle water at the rate of pool capacity, gal / 8 h 155,600 / 8
19,450 gal / h (73,626 L / h), or 19,450 / 60 min / h 324.1 gal / min (1266.9 L / min);
say 325 gal / min (1230.3 L / min).
4. Choose the pump discharge head
Motor-driven centrifugal pumps nd almost universal application for swimming
pools. Reciprocating pumps are seldom suitable because they produce pulsations in
the delivery pipe and pool lters. Either single- or double-suction single-stage centrifugal pumps can be used. The double-suction design is usually preferred because
the balance impeller causes less wear.
The discharge head that a swimming pool circulating pump must develop is a
function of the resistance of the piping, ttings, heater, and lters. Of these four,
the heater and lters produce the largest head loss.
The usual swimming pool heater causes a head loss of up to 10 ft (3.05 m) of
water. Sand lters cause a head loss of about 50 ft (15.2 m) of water, whereas
diatomaceous earth lters cause a head loss of about 90 ft (27.4 m) of water. To
choose the pump discharge head, nd the sum of the pump suction lift, piping and
tting head loss, and heater and lter head loss. Add a 10 percent allowance for
overload. The result is the required pump discharge head in feet of water.
Most pools are equipped with two identical circulating pumps. The spare pump
ensures constant operation of the pool should one pump fail. Also, the spare pump
permits regular maintenance of the other pump.
5. Compute the quantity of makeup water required
Swimmers splash water over the gutter line of the pool. This water is drained away
to the sewer in some pools; in others the water is treated and returned to the pool
for reuse. Gutter drains are usually spaced at 15-ft (4.6-m) intervals.
Since the pool waterline is level with the gutter, every swimmer who enters the
pool displaces some water, which enters the gutter and is drained away. This drainage must be made up by the pool recirculating system.
The water displaced by a swimmer is approximately equal to his or her weight.
Assuming each swimmer weighs 160 lb (72.7 kg) this weight of water will be
displaced into the gutter. Since 1 gal (3.79 L) of water weighs 8.33 lb (3.75 kg),
each swimmer will displace 160 lb / (8.33 lb / gal) 19.2 gal (72.7 L). With a
maximum of 140 swimmers in the pool, the total quantity of water displaced is
(140)(19.2) 2695 gal / h (10,201.7 L / h), or 2695 / (60 min / h) 44.9 gal / min
(169.9 L / min), say 45 gal / min (170.3 L / min).
Thus, to keep this pool operating, the water-supply system must be capable of
delivering at least 45 gal / min (170.3 L / min). This quantity of water can come from
a city water system, a well, or recirculation of the gutter water after purication.
15.51
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
cumulated backwash is then pumped to the sewer by a sump pump mounted in the
sump.
The sump should be large enough to store sufcient backwash to prevent overowing. Assuming that either of the 130-ft2 (12.1-m2) lter beds is backwashed
with a ow of 12.5 gal / (min ft2) [509.3 L / (min m2)] of lter-bed area, the quantity of water entering the sump will be (12.5)(130) 1725 gal / min. If there is
room for a 5-ft deep, 8-ft wide, and 5-ft long (1.5-m deep, 2.4-m wide, and
1.5-m long) sump, its capacity will be 5 8 5 7.5 gal / ft3 1500 gal (5678
L). The difference, of 1625 1500 125 gal / min (473.2 L / min), must be discharged by the pump to prevent overow of the sump. A 150-gal / min (567.8-L /
min) sump pump should probably be chosen to provide a margin of safety. Further,
it is usual practice to install duplicate sump pumps to ensure pool operation in the
event one pump fails. Where water is collected from other drains and discharged
to the sump, the pump capacity may have to be increased accordingly.
Related Calculations. Use the general procedure given here to choose swimming pools and their related equipment for schools, recreation centers, hotels, motels, cities, towns, etc. Wherever possible, follow the recommendations of local
codes and of the Joint Committee on Swimming Pools.
Calculation Procedures:
SI Values
1 ft
2 ft
3 in.
6 in.
(0.3 m)
(0.6 m)
(7.6 cm)
(15.2 cm)
to ensure this; however, basin diameters are generally as shown in Table 25. (2) A
drawdown ratio of 3:1, or a storage capacity of three times the pump capacity or
incoming ow rate, between the high-water level and the low-water level should
be maintained. The reason for this is that with lower amounts, the pump will short
cycle and will be operating too often for too short a time. This could cause pump
damage or shorten the life of the pump.
For example, with a sewage ow of 110 gal / min (6.9 L / s), choose duplex pumps
rate at 67 percent of total ow, or 0.67 110 74 gal / min (4.7 L / s) per pump.
Total ow 2 74 148 gal / min (9.3 L / s). Then, the drawdown 3 148
Pump
capacity,
gal/min
50 to 125
125 to 200
200 to 300
350 to 500
Larger
Two pumps
One pump
(simplex) basin (duplex) basin
diameter, in
diameter, in
30
36 to 42
36 to 42
36 to 48
Consult
manufacturer
36
42 to 48
48 to 60
48 to 60
SI Values
L/s
cm
3.2 to 7.9
7.9 to 12.6
12.6 to 18.9
22.1 to 31.6
76.2
91.4 to 106.7
91.4 to 106.7
91.4 to 121.9
Consult
manufacturer
cm
91.4 to 121.9
121.9 to 152.4
121.9 to 152.4
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
444 gal (1683 L). From Table 25, 444 gal would require a 48 to 60 in (122 to 152
cm) diameter basin for duplex pumps.
A minimum depth at the bottom of the basin should be maintained as required
by the pump manufacturer. However, a rule of thumb is 1 ft (0.3 m) minimum
depth. This ensures that the pumps will maintain their prime, constantly sealed by
water. A dry pump that has lost its prime will fail to operate or run out of control.
A 3- to 6-in. (7.6- to 15.2-cm) difference between elevations of the inlet and the
high-water level should be maintained for alarm purposes. If the pumps fail to
operate or become overloaded and cannot keep up with the incoming ow, a simple
oat-operated switch will active an alarm.
Now that the basin diameter parameters, the inlet depth, and the drawdown are
known, various combinations of basin depths can be used to nish sizing the basin.
Using the basin capacities shown in Table 26, divide the determined drawdown by
the capacities listed. For example, 48-in (122-cm) diameter 444 gal drawdown /
95 gal 4 ft 8 in (1.4 m), and 60-in diameter 444 gal drawdown / 150 gal 3
ft (0.9 m).
Either tank size will work for this building. The design engineer or contractor
must choose the basin that best ts the installation. Both sizes will be economically
the same. However, the 48-in (122-cm) size, which requires less oor space, will
be deeper. Location of the sewage ejector in the building may dictate which size
should be used, depending on the constraints of the building conguration or structure.
Figure 24 shows the basin that could be selected for this installation. The basin
could be 48-in (122-cm) in diameter by 8 ft deep (2.4 m), or 60-in (152-cm) in
diameter by 6.5 ft (2 m) deep. Note that 4 in (10 cm) were added to the 48-in
basin and 6 in (15 cm) to the 60-in basin to round them off to standard manufactured depths, which are in 6-in (15-cm) increments. The difference will be used in
setting the controls and is where the 3- and 6-in (7.6- to 15-cm) difference occurs
between the inlet and high-water level.
3. Find the total dynamic head on the ejector
Determining the total dynamic head (TDH) is a means for solving for how much
force the pump must produce to send the incoming sewage ow to its destination.
The TDH is a summation of the vertical lift (static head), the resistance of pipe
and ttings to ow (friction loss), and the backpressure found in a sewer that is
owing.
Static head is determined by measuring the vertical distance between the lowwater level in the basin and the highest point of discharge, Fig. 24.
TABLE 26 Circular Basin Capacities
Diameter,
in
Capacity per ft
depth, gal
18
24
30
36
42
48
60
72
14
24
38
53
77
95
150
212
SI values
cm
L/m
45.7
60.9
76.2
91.4
106.7
121.9
152.4
182.9
174
298
473
659
957
1181
1865
2636
SI Values
2 ft
3 in.
6 in.
4 ft 8 in.
3 ft
48 in.
60 in.
8 ft
6 ft 6 in.
1 ft
15.55
(0.6 m)
(7.6 cm)
(15.2 cm)
(1.4 m)
(0.9 m)
(1.2 m)
(1.5 m)
(2.4 m)
(1.98 m)
(0.3 m)
To determine the friction losses in the discharge line, one must know the discharge pipe size. Generally, a velocity of 2 fps (0.6 m / s) is acceptable. This velocity
allows sufcient ow to ensure carrying solids. Table 27 is based on that ow
velocity. Accepted solid sizes are generally 2 in (5 cm), and piping smaller than 2
in (5 cm) diameter should be veried with local plumbing code. Note that this table
is for both plastic and steel piping. Since the acceptable materials can vary from
one locality to another, the local plumbing code must be consulted before making
a nal materials choice.
For this installation, with a pipe length of 10 ft (3 m), a 2-in pipe is beyond the
listed friction heads for 148 gal / min (9.3 L / s) in Table 27. Hence, the next larger
size, 2.5 in (6.4-cm) will have to be used. Then the friction loss for a ow rate of
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Pipe size, in
Flow,
gal/min
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
125
150
175
114
112
Plastic
Steel
0.34
0.71
1.19
1.78
2.48
3.29
4.21
5.25
6.42
10.39
13.60
19.20
0.35
0.72
1.20
1.74
2.45
3.24
4.15
5.17
6.31
9.61
13.00
18.20
212
Plastic
Steel
0.33
0.56
0.83
1.16
1.54
1.97
2.41
2.96
4.80
6.27
8.82
10.70
14.00
16.50
0.34
0.57
0.85
1.18
1.51
1.93
2.40
2.92
4.80
1.81
8.82
10.80
14.00
16.50
Plastic
Steel
0.34
0.45
0.58
0.72
0.88
1.38
1.82
2.40
3.12
3.80
4.70
6.50
8.60
11.10
13.80
16.80
0.35
0.46
0.59
0.73
0.88
1.39
0.75
2.40
3.10
3.80
4.70
6.60
8.80
11.40
14.30
17.50
Plastic
Steel
0.77
1.01
1.28
1.50
1.90
2.70
3.70
4.70
5.80
7.10
10.90
15.90
0.99
1.30
1.60
1.90
2.70
3.60
4.60
5.80
7.10
10.90
15.90
Plastic
Steel
0.55
0.66
0.94
1.20
1.60
2.00
2.40
3.70
5.20
6.90
0.56
0.68
0.91
1.20
1.60
2.00
2.40
3.60
5.10
6.90
148 gpm using the loss for 150 gal / min from Table 27 is for 10 ft of 2.5-in
pipe (10 ft 15.9 ft) / 100 ft 1.59 ft (0.48 m) of head.
Using Table 28 for determining the friction losses in the discharge piping and
ttings, we have: check valve 20.6 ft; gate valve 1.7 ft; 90-degree elbow
6.2 ft; total 20.6 1.7 6.2 28.5 ft (8.7 m). The head loss through these
ttings will be, as computed for the straight pipe: (28.5 15.9 ft) / 100 4.53 ft
(1.38 m) of head.
TABLE 28 Friction Factors for Pipe Fittings in Terms of Equivalent Feet of Straight Pipe.*
Nominal
pipe
size, in
90 deg
elbow
45 deg
elbow
Tee (throughow)
Tee (branch
ow)
Swing check
valve
Gate
valve
114
112
2
212
3
3.5
4.0
5.2
6.2
7.7
1.8
2.2
2.8
3.3
4.1
2.3
2.7
3.5
4.1
5.1
6.9
8.1
10.3
12.3
15.3
11.5
13.4
17.2
20.6
25.5
0.9
1.1
1.4
1.7
2.0
15.57
15.59
FIGURE 26 Typical manufacturers curves for sewage-ejection pumps. See text for SI values.
(HPAC magazine)
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
All pumps have one feature in common: they are most efcient when operating
at their peak performance load. A pump that is oversized or undersized and is not
operating at is peak performance for the greatest amount of its running time will
either consume more energy than is necessary or burn itself out prematurely. Try
to select a pump that has its highest efciency at the TDH and gal / min (L / s) the
job requires. Following this guideline, choose the 1750-rpm pump, which is usually
the choice with smaller ows and shorter running times.
7. Determine which controls to use
Controls are manufactured in many different forms. There are simple oat controls
like those found in tank-type water closets. Then there are pressure-sensitive electronic devices with no moving parts.
All controls turn the pump on and off. Depending on the relative importance of
controlling the pump, deciding on the right controls can be a matter of economics.
The more sophisticated the controls, in general, the more expensive they are. In the
case of duplex pumps, the controls should also alternate the lead pump so that the
pumps wear evenly.
15.61
Setting the locations of the controls is a matter of dening predetermined locations from the water levels (step 2, above), Fig. 27. The rst or lead pump turns
on when about two-thirds of the total draindown depth is lled. Next, the second
pump turns on when the level continues to rise to half the depth left to the highwater level. The high-water alarm activates when half the depth from the highwater level to the inlet remains.
Related Calculations. Sewage ejectors are highly reliable. When selected, installed, and engineered correctly, they can survive the life of the building. Inexpensive steps that can minimize problems with sewage ejectors are: (1) Use a
precast or concrete slab under the basin when installing it. Set the slab on undisturbed earth, sand, or compacted backll. This will prevent the basin from settling.
(2). When using a glass ber basin in poor soil conditions, set the basin inside a
larger corrugated metal pipe or concrete bell preset in concrete and ll the voids
between them with concrete or mortar to set up a concrete envelope. This will keep
the glass ber basin from being lifted by surrounding groundwater. (3) Consider
connecting the sewage ejector to a second source of powereither an emergency
generator or a dual-feed from the power source. (4) Always vent the basin to
atmosphere through the roof to prevent odors. Most local plumbing codes require
such ventilation anyway.
Keep in mind the following considerations when designing any sewage-ejection
system. (1) Sewage ejectors are pumping systems designed specically to lift emulsied solids in liquid from a buildings interior or clear liquid from drainage elds
to a preferred destination. (2) Such a pumping system usually consists of a driver
(either a motor or engine), an impeller, a containment tank, and control devices to
operate the driver automatically. (3) Be certain to consult equipment manufacturers
when designing systems for special applications or uses not commonly found in
handling raw, untreated sewage.
This procedure is the work of Larry Robertson, CIPE, Perkins and Will, as
reported in Heating / Piping / Air Conditioning magazine, August, 1990. SI values
were added by the handbook editor.