Revision plan for Gr.

VIII
Topic 01: The Particulate Nature of Matter
Sub-topics: a) Properties of matter in the solid, liquid and gaseous states, c) Kinetic Particle Theory, d) Inter-conversion of
the states of matter,
e) Diffusion
Key words: Matter, States of matter, Change of states, Melting, Boiling, Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation,
Freezing, Heating curve, Cooling curve, Diffusion
a) Properties of matter in the solid, liquid and gaseous states:
States of Matter

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Shape

Fixed

Not fixed
Takes shape of container

Not fixed
Takes shape of container

Volume

Fixed

Fixed

Not fixed
Same as volume of container

Density

High

Moderate

Low

Compressibility

Can not be compressed

Can not be compressed

Highly compressible

b) Particulate nature:
States of Matter

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Arrangement of
particles

Orderly
Closely packed

Disorderly
Loosely packed

Random
Very far apart

Attractive forces

Very strong

Strong

Very weak

Particle motion

Vibrate about a
fixed position

Roll & slide past each other

Random motion

Move about at great speed

Random motion

Energy content

Low

Moderate

High

Kinetic Particle Theory: All matter is made up of tiny particles and that these particles are in constant, random motion.
Change of state: Solid

Liquid,

Gases

Heating Curve:
Cooling Curve:

Melting Point: The temperature at which a pure solid turns into liquid. Ice-

m.p. 0o C

Boiling Point: The temperature at which a pure liquid turns into gas. Water -

b.p. 100o C

Diffusion: is the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Factors: a) Temperature: Higher the temperature higher the diffusion, b)Molecular mass: Lighter particles diffuse faster

Topic 02: Experimental Techniques

Sub-topics: A) Experimental design, B) Identification and function of apparatus
Key Points: Time, Temperature, Mass, Volume, Apparatus, Collecting gases, Solubility, Density, Drying agent, Determining Purity
Measuring Time: Stopwatch: a) Analogue Stopwatchb) Digital Stopwatch

S.I. Unit: Second (s)

Measuring Temperature: Thermometer: a) Mercury Thermometer, b) Alcohol Thermometer, c) Digital Thermometer. S.I. Unit:
Kelvin(K)
Measuring Mass: a) Beam Balance
Measuring Volume:

b) Electronic balance.

S.I. Unit: kilogram(kg)

a) Measuring cylinder: More accurate than a beaker and Measure up to nearest cm3. Eg 99 cm3
b) Conical flask: Rough measurement
c) Beaker: Used to estimate the volume of a liquid. E.g. approximately 100 cm3
d) Pipette: Accurately measures out fixed volumes of liquids, e.g 20.0 cm3 or 25 cm3
e) Burette: Accurately measures out fixed volumes of liquids to the nearest 0.1 cm3

Collection of Gases
The method of gas collection depends on 2 properties of the gas:
(a) solubility in water
(b) density of gas compared to air

Four methods of Gas Collection:

Drying of Gases
The prepared gas is then bubbled into a drying agent in order to be dried.
A drying agent is a substance which has a great liking for water molecules.
Common examples of drying agents
(1) Concentrated H2SO4: Used to dry Chlorine, Hydrogen chloride
(2) Quck lime(CaO): Used to dry Ammonia
(3) Fused Calcium chloride: Used to dry hydrogen

Determining Purity
1.What is a pure substance?

A pure substance is a single substance not mixed with anything else.

2. What is a mixture?

A mixture contains two or more substances not chemically combined together.

3. What is purification?
It is the process of separating mixtures into pure substances.
4. State one characteristic of a pure solid.

Fixed melting point

5. How do impurities affect a solids melting point?

Impurities lower the melting point.
Impurities cause the solid to melt over a range of temperature.
6. State one characteristic of a pure liquid.
Fixed boiling point
7. How do impurities affect a liquids boiling point?
Impurities raise the boiling point.
Impurities cause the liquid to boil over a range of temperature.
8. What is the relationship between the amount of impurities in a substance and the
substances melting / boiling point?
The greater the amount of impurities, the lower the melting point.
The greater the amount of impurities, the higher the boiling point.
9. State three methods that can be used to determine whether a substance is pure.
Melting point comparison
Boiling point comparison
Chromatography

Topics 03: Elements, Compounds and Mixture

Key words: Atom, Molecule, Elements, Metal, non-metals, Alloy, Compounds and Mixtures

Atom: Smallest particle of an element

Molecule: Combination of two or more atoms of the same element
Element: Composed of only one type of atom and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical methods
Elements can be classified into
Metals and Non metals

Metals
Shiny solids
Malleable
Sonorous
Ductile
High melting points and boiling points
Good conductors of heat
Good conductors of electricity

Non-metals
Gases, volatile liquids or dull solids with low
melting points
Brittle
Low melting points and boiling points
Poor conductors of electricity
Poor conductors of heat

Compound: a substance containing two or more elements chemically joined together (eg NaCl)
Every compound has a unique chemical formula

The chemical formula of a compound gives information on

a) The types of atoms(elements) present in the compound
b) The ratio of different atoms present in the compounds

Mixture: consists of 2 or more substances not chemically combined together

Pure compound

Mixture

has fixed % by mass of each

element

has variable composition by mass of each

element

has a chemical formula

does not have a chemical formula

cannot be separated into its

elements by physical means

can be easily separated into its components

by physical means

has fixed melting and boiling points

no fixed melting and boiling points

Alloys

a mixture of metallic elements or metallic with non-metallic.

Pure metals are weak as the layers of atoms slide over each other easily. in alloy of 2 metals, they have different
sizes of atoms so this distrupts the orderly layer of atoms making it difficult for atoms to slide over.

Eg of alloys
o

Steel: iron and carbon

bronze: copper and tin

brass: copper and zinc

duralumin: aluminium, copper, magnesium

Uses of duralumin: it is light but strong and durable so used for aircraft parts, greenhouse frames,
overhead cables, curtain walling in high-rise buildings etc.

Topics 04: Atomic Structure

Keywords: Nucleus, Clouds of electrons, Fundamental particles, Nucleon number, Atomic number,
Electron configuration, Isotropes, Valence electrons

Nuclear model of an atom

Particle

Symbol

Relative
mass

Charge

proton

+1

neutron

electron

1/1836

-1

Proton number: number of protons in an atom

Nucleon number: number of protons + number of neutrons

Number of electrons = number of protons

Isotopes: atoms of the same element with same proton number but different number of neutrons
o

isotopes have slightly different physical properties but have identical chemical properties as they
have the same number and arrangement of electrons

Valence electrons: the electrons in the outermost shell

o

used to form chemical bonds

Electronic Configuration

Electrons are placed in orbits.

First shell contains maximum 2 electrons. Second shell and so and so for has maximum of 8 electrons.

To write electronic configuration we write as n.n.n.... where first n denotes the first shell, second the
second shell and so and so for.
o

E.g. Sulfur has electronic configuration of 2.8.6

The valence electrons is the number of electrons of the outermost shell.

o

Sulphur has 6 valence electrons.

Relation with Periodic Table

Elements in same horizontal row: Period

Elements in same vertical column: Group

Group 1 has 1 valency

Group 2 has 2 valency

Group 3 has 3 valency and so on.

Group 0 has full valency which makes it having stable electronic configuration.

Down the group the number of shells increases.

Topics 05: Chemical Bonding: The Structure of Matter

Keywords: Bonding, Formation of ions, Ionic bond, Covalent bond, Metallic bond, Lattice, Giant covalent
structure, Simple covalent structure
The joining together of atoms Is called bonding. There are three types bonding:

Ionic Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Metallic Bonding

Ionic bond

Ionic bonding is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another to become achieve an inert gas
configuration, forming ions.

Ionic bonds are formed between METALLIC and NON- METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.

Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)

Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)

The formation of ions is resulted from transfer of atoms from one atom to another atom(s), which the
ions produced are of opposite charges, and unlike charges attract, causing them to be held together
with a strong force.

Example: Formation of NaCl

Sodium atom loses an electron by transferring the electron to chlorine atom, making both stable.

The loss of electron forms cation, Na+, and the gain of electron forms anion, Cl-.

The opposite charges acquired by both ions attract to each other, forming a strong ionic bond of NaCl.

Deducing formula ionic compounds

We can know the charge of elements by looking at groups of periodic table.

o

Group I to group III elements has charge of +1, increasing to +3, going to the right.

Group V to group VII elements has charge of -3, decreasing to -1, going to the right.

E.g. Aluminium sulfate

We have to balance the charges to make a stable bond.
Ions present:
Al3+
Al3+

Total change: 6+

SO42SO42SO426-

Therefore, the formula is Al2(SO4)3

1. The symbol of metal ion should always be first, e.g. NaCl
2. Polyatomic ion should be placed in brackets, e.g. Fe(NO3)2

Structure and Properties of ionic bond

Structure

Ionic substances appear as giant lattice structures which the ions are held together by electrostatic
force between oppositely charged ions.

To find the formula of ionic bond, say sodium chloride bond, by looking at lattice structure, we count the
ratio of amount of metal ions to non-metal ions.
o

E.g. in sodium chloride, the ratio Na:Cl is 1:1, therefore the ionic formula is NaCl.

Properties
o

Contain ions

High melting and boiling points

Non-volatile

Usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent

Conduct electricity when molten or when dissolved in water

Covalent bond

Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic configuration of an inert gas,
usually for molecules.

Covalent bonds occur between NON-METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.

In covalent bond, we try to substitute the short of electrons of two or more atoms between each other to
form the 2 or 8 valence electrons.

The shared electrons appear in pairs

Example: H2 molecule

Hydrogen atom has one valency.

To become stable with hydrogen atom, it needs one more electron, just like helium which has 2 valency.

When 2 hydrogen atoms join, they share their electrons, on which, the share becomes 2 electrons,
which is now a noble gas configuration, being shared between these 2 atoms.

We write the bond as H H single bond, which means they share an electron pair (2 electrons).

Example: Cl2 molecule

Cl atom has 7 valency and needs one electron, each, to form a noble gas configuration between two Cl
atoms.

Hence they share an electron EACH to hence share 2 electrons between the atoms.

Hence, each Cl atom now has 8 valency which is a noble gas configuration.

Example: O2 molecule

An O atom has 6 valency and needs 2 electrons, each, to form a noble gas configuration.

Hence, EACH SHARE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRONS EACH SHORT OF, in this case 2 electrons,
to form stable molecule.

The contribution hence now become 4 electrons and what left on each oxygen atom is 4 electrons.

We combine each 4 electrons on oxygen atom with the 4 electrons shared and hence we get 8 valency
for each oxygen atom a noble gas configuration!

Example: H2O molecule

Apart from oxygen sharing between oxygen atoms, it can have electrons with other atoms.

Oxygen needs 2 electrons and when bonded with hydrogen, which need an atom each, they combine
to provide 2 electrons on both sides of oxygen bonded with hydrogen atoms.

Each hydrogen with oxygen atom form a single bond: O H.

Example: CO2 molecule

Carbon needs 4, oxygen needs 2.

We share two from oxygen part, WHICH HAS THE SMALLEST NUMBER OF SHORT ELECTRONS,
TO SHARE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRONS THAT ATOM NEEDS, to form 4 shared atoms.

Now oxygen is stable but carbon needs 2 more, which we now know they can get from another oxygen
atom.

The atoms are now stable and since each bond has 2 pairs of electrons, we call this double bond: C =
O.

Structure and Properties of covalent bond

Structure
a. Giant Covalent Bond

Diamond
o

Silicon Dioxide
o

Diamond has carbon atoms bonded with another carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement
which each carbon atom uses all its valence electrons to form 4 single covalent bonds with
other 4 carbon atoms.

Silicon dioxide, SiO2, has silicon atoms bonded with another oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement which each silicon atom uses all its valence electrons to form 4 single covalent
bonds with other 4 oxygen atoms.

Graphite
o

Graphite has flat layers of carbon atoms bonded strongly in hexagonal arrangement in which
the layers are bonded to each other weakly.

Properties

It is a hard solid because it consists of many strong covalent bonds between atoms. This property
makes it suitable as abrasives.

It has very high melting and boiling points.

It does not conduct electricity (except graphite) because there are no free electrons in covalent bonds
since they are used to form bonds; hence electrons are in fixed positions. To conduct electricity, there
must be free electrons.

All covalent structures are insoluble in water.

Metallic bond

Metallic bonding is bonding within atoms of metals caused by attractive force between positively
charged metal ions and negatively charged free electrons.

The atoms are packed closely together in giant lattice structures.

BOND FORMING

Each atom in metal gives up valence electrons to form positive ions.

There are free electrons moving between the spaces and positive metal ions are attracted to the sea of
electrons which hold the atoms together.

Structure and Properties of metallic bond

Metals can be bent (ductile) and can be stretched (malleable) because the layers of atoms in metals
slide over each other when force is applied but will not break due to attractive force between electrons
and metal ions.

Metals conduct electricity as it has free electrons which carries current.

Metals conduct heat as it has free electrons which gains energy when heated and moves faster to
collide with metal atoms, releasing heat in collisions.

Metals have high melting and boiling points because the bonds between metals is very strong. Hence
very high heat energy needed to break the bonds.

Simple Molecular Substances

Simple molecular substances are usually liquids/gases at r.t.p. because the molecules are not tightly
bonded like in solids, hence free to move.

They have low melting and boiling points because the force of attraction is weak that they can be easily
broken by heat.

Since they have low boiling points, they evaporate easily.

They dont conduct electricity because they dont have free electrons/ions which helps to conduct
electricity.

Most of these are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.

Noble gases
- Noble Gases like helium and argon are unreactive.
- do not form chemical bonds with other atoms as they have a stable electronic configuration.
- Atoms of other elements form chemical bonds so that they attain the electronic configuration of a noble gas