Pemrosesan Transaksi
Pemrosesan Transaksi
Pemrosesan Transaksi
Hall
And
Accounting Information System, 4th edition Wilkinson
Business Ethics
Why should we be concerned about ethics in
the business world?
Ethics are needed when conflicts arisethe
need to choose
In business, conflicts may arise between:
employees
management
stakeholders
Litigation
Business Ethics
Business ethics involves finding the
answers to two questions:
How do managers decide on what is right
in conducting their business?
Once managers have recognized what is
right, how do they achieve it?
Computer Ethics
concerns the social impact of computer technology
(hardware, software, and telecommunications).
What are the main computer ethics issues?
Privacy
Securityaccuracy and confidentiality
Ownership of property
Equity in access
Environmental issues
Artificial intelligence
Unemployment and displacement
Misuse of computer
Employee Fraud
Committed by non-management
personnel
Usually consists of: an employee taking
cash or other assets for personal gain by
circumventing a companys system of
internal controls
Management Fraud
Perpetrated at levels of management above the one
to which internal control structure relates
Frequently involves using financial statements to
create an illusion that an entity is more healthy and
prosperous than it actually is
Involves misappropriation of assets, it frequently is
shrouded in a maze of complex business
transactions
Fraud Schemes
Three categories of fraud schemes according to
the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners:
A. fraudulent statements
B. corruption
C. asset misappropriation
A. Fraudulent Statements
Misstating the financial statements to make the
copy appear better than it is
Usually occurs as management fraud
May be tied to focus on short-term financial
measures for success
May also be related to management bonus
packages being tied to financial statements
B. Corruption
Examples:
bribery
illegal gratuities
conflicts of interest
economic extortion
Foreign Corrupt Practice Act of 1977:
indicative of corruption in business world
impacted accounting by requiring accurate
records and internal controls
C. Asset Misappropriation
Most common type of fraud and often occurs as
employee fraud
Examples:
making charges to expense accounts to cover
theft of asset (especially cash)
lapping: using customers check from one
account to cover theft from a different account
transaction fraud: deleting, altering, or adding
false transactions to steal assets
Destruction of an asset
Theft of an asset
Corruption of information
Disruption of the information system
Preventive
Levels
of
Control
Preventive
Detective
Corrective
Preventive
Detective
Corrective
Preventive
Detective
Corrective
Internal Control
Internal Control
Control
Environment
Risk
Assessment
Control
Activities
Activities related
to Financial
Reporting
Monitoring
Activities related
to Information
Processing
General
Controls
Figure 7-1
Information
&
Communication
Application
Controls
Control Environment
Control Environment menentukan sifat dari suatu
perusahaan, mempengaruhi kesadaran kontrol para
pegawainya.
Control environment yang lemah menunjukkan
kelemahan komponen-komponen ICS lainnya.
Terdiri dari tujuh komponen, yaitu:
Management philosophy and operating style
membutuhkan tindakan manajemen yang positif,
seperti menset contoh perilaku etis yang diikuti dengan
kode etik personal, menetapkan formal corporate code
of conduct, menekankan pentingnya internal control,
memperlakukan pegawai dengan adil dan rasa hormat.
Control Environment
Integrity and ethical values, perilaku ets dan tidak etis
dari manajer dan pegawai dapat memiliki pengaruh yang
merembes ke seluruh ICS, membuat atmosfir yang
mempengaruhi validitas proses pelaporan keuangan.
Commitment to competence, perusahaan harus
merekrut pegawai yang kompeten dan dapat dipercaya
untuk mendorong inisiatif dan kreatifitas dan beraksi cepat
menghadapi kondisi yang berubah.
Highlights of CE Components - I
Management Philosophy and Operating Style
Apakah manajemen menekankan keuntungan jangka
pendek dan tujuan operasi daripada tujuan jangka
panjang?
Apakah manajemen didominasi oleh satu atau
beberapa orang?
Resiko bisnis apa yang diambil oleh manajemen dan
bagaimana resiko-resiko ini dikelola?
Apakah manajemen konservatif atau agresif untuk
memilih prinsip-prinsip akuntansi akternatif yang
tersedia?
Figure 7-2
Highlights of CE Components - II
Organization Structure
Apakah grafik organisasi yang up-to-date
dipersiapkan, menunjukkan nama-nama personil
penting?
Apakah fungsi sistem informasi terpisah dari fungsifungsi yang bertentangan?
Bagaimana bagian akuntansi diorganisasi?
Apakah fungsi internal audit terpisah dan berbeda
dari akuntansi?
Apakah manajer-manajer tingkat lebih rendah
melapor ke lebih dari satu supervisor?
Highlights of CE Components - IV
Human Resource Policies and Practices
Apakah pegawai baru diindoktrinasikan dengan Internal
Controls, Ethics Policies, dan Corporate Code of Conduct?
Apakah perusahaan memenuhi ADA (American with
Disabilities Act)? EEOA (The Equal Employment Oportunity
Act)?
Apakah prosedur keluhan untuk mengatur konflik dalam
kendala?
Apakah perusahaan memelihara program relasi pegawai
yang baik?
Apakah pegawai bekerja dalam lingkungan yang aman dan
sehat?
Apakah program konseling tersedia bagi pegawai?
Apakah program pemisahan yang baik dalam kendala untuk
pegawai yang meninggalkan perusahaan?
Apakah pegawai yang kritis dikeluarkan?
Figure 7-2 Continued
Figure 7-3
Risk Assessment
Top management harus terlibat langsung
dalam Business Risk Assessment.
Hal ini melibatkan identifikasi dan analisa
resiko-resiko yang relevan yang dapat
mencegah pencapaian tujuan perusahaan
dan tujuan unit-unit organisasi dan formasi
rencana untuk menentukan bagaimana
mengelola resiko-resiko tsb.
Control Activities - I
Control Activities dihubungkan dengan Financial
Reporting dapat diklasifikasijan menurut maksud
penggunaannya dalam suatu sistem :
Preventive Controls menghalangi event-event
yang berlawanan seperti error atau kerugian.
Detective Controls menemukan kejadiankejadian dari events yang berlawanan seperti
ketidakefisienan operasional.
Corrective controls dirancang untuk
memperbaiki masalah-masalah melalui detective
controls
Security Measures dimaksudkan untuk
menyediakan perlindungan yang cukup terhadap
akses dan penggunaan aset dan data records.
Control Activities - II
Control Activities dihubungkan dengan
Information Processing juga dapat
diklasifikasikan menurut kemana control activities
tsb akan diklasifikasikan dalam sistem
General controls adalah kontrol-kontrol yang
berhubungan dengan semua aktivitas yang melibatkan
SIA dan aset perusahaan.
Application controls berhubungan dengan tugastugas akuntansi khusus atau transaksi-transaksi.
Monitoring
Tujuan Monitoring:
Memperkirakan kualitas ICS sepanjang waktu
dengan melakukan ongoing activities dan
evaluasi terpisah.
Ongoing monitoring activities seperti
mengawasi pegawai, dilakukan setiap hari.
Separate monitoring activities seperti audit
ICS dilakukan secara periodik.
Risk Exposure
Perusahaan bisnis menghadapi resiko-resiko
yang mengurangi kesempatan pencapaian
tujuan kontrol.
Risk exposures timbul dari sumber internal,
contoh: pegawai seperti juga sumber eksternal,
contohnya computer hackers.
Risk assessment terdiri dari identifikasi resikoresiko yang relevan, analisa keluasan exposure
terhadap resiko-resiko tsb, dan pengelolaan
resiko dengan mengusulkan prosedur kontrol
yang efektif.
Figure 7-4
Types of Risks
Unintentional errors
Deliberate Errors (Fraud)
Unintentional Losses of Assets
Thefts of assets
Breaches of Security
Acts of Violence and Natural Disasters
Computer Crime
Computer crime (computer abuse) adalah
penggunaan komputer untuk menipu dengan
tujuan memperoleh keuntungan pribadi.
Dengan perkembangan network dan PC,
kejahatan komputer diperkirakan akan
meningkat baik dalam frekuensi maupun
jumlah kerugian.
Ini adalah spekulasi bahwa kejahatan
komputer yang terdeteksi relatif kecil/sedikit
dan bahkan lebih sedikit lagi yang dilaporkan.
Pengolahan dipusatkan
Audit Trails mungkin dikurangi
Pendapat manusia dilewati
Data disimpan pada Device-Oriented dari pada HumanOriented forms
Invisible Data
Stored data are Erasable
Data are stored in a Compressed form
Stored data are relatively accessible
Peralatan komputernya Powerful tetapi rumit dan mudah
diserang.
Manual System
Characteristics
Characteristics
Risk Exposures
Compensating
Controls
Data recorded in
paper source
documents
Data sometimes
captured without
use of source
documents
Printed copies of
source documents
prepared by
computer systems
Figure 7-6
Characteristics
Risk Exposures
Compensating
Controls
Processing steps
performed by CPU
blindly in accordance
with program
instructions
Processing steps
Processing steps
among various clerks in concentrated within
separate departments
computer CPU
Processing requires
use of journals and
ledgers
Outputs reviewed by
users of computer
system; carefully
developed computer
processing programs
Restricted access to
computer facilities; clear
procedure for
authorizing changes to
programs
Printed journals and
other analyses
Processing performed
relatively slowly
Processing performed
very rapidly
Processing steps
performed by clerks
who possess judgment
Unauthorized
manipulation of data
and theft of assets can
occur on larger scale
Manual System
Characteristics
Characteristics
Data compressed
on magnetic media
(e.g., tapes, disks)
Risk Exposures
Data may be
accessed by
unauthorized
persons or stolen
Data stored in
Data are
invisible, eraseable, temporarily
computer-readable unusable by
form
humans, and might
possibly be lost
Stored data
Stored data often
Data may be
accessible on a
readily accessible
accessed by
piece-meal basis at from various
unauthorized
various locations
locations via
persons
terminals
Figure 7-6 Continued
Compensating
Controls
Security measures
at points of access
and over data
library
Data files printed
periodically; backup
of files; protection
against sudden
power losses
Security measures
at points of access
Computer-based System
Characteristics
Characteristics
Outputs
generated
laboriously and
usually in small
volumes
Outputs usually in
hard-copy form
Outputs generated
quickly and neatly,
often in large
volumes
Risk Exposures
Inaccuracies may
be buried in
impressive-looking
outputs that users
accept on faith
Outputs provided Information stored
in various forms,
on magnetic
including soft-copy media is subject to
displays and voice modification (only
responses
hard copy
provides
permanent record)
Compensating
Controls
Reviews by users
of outputs,
including the
checking of
amounts
Backup of files;
periodic printing of
stored files onto
hard-copy records
Characteristics
Risk Exposures
Compensating
Controls
Relatively simple,
inexpensive, and
mobile
Relatively
complex,
expensive, and in
fixed locations
Business
operations may be
intentionally or
unintentionally
interrupted; data
or hardware may
be destroyed;
operations may be
delayed through
inefficiencies
Backup of data
and power supply
and equipment;
preventive
maintenance of
equipment;
restrictions on
access to
computer facilities;
documentation of
equipment usage
and processing
procedures
Feasibility of Controls
Audit Considerations
Cost-Benefit Considerations
Tentukan sumber daya komputer khusus untuk kontrol
Tentukan semua Potential Threats terhadap sistem
komputer perusahaan
Perkirakan resko-resiko relevan yang diungkap oleh
perusahaan
Ukur luas tiap Risk exposure yang relevan dalam
dolar
Kalikan Estimated Effect of each Relevant Risk
Exposure dengan Estimated Frequency of Occurrence
pada periode yang layak seperti setahun.
Hitung biaya instalasi dan pemeliharaan suatu kontrol
untuk menjawab setiap Relevant Risk Exposure
Bandingkan keuntungan dengan biaya tiap kontrol
Legislation
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977
Of the Federal Legislation memerintahkan
penggunaan komputer, The Computer Fraud and
Abuse Act of 1984 (amended in 1986) barangkali
sangat penting
Tindakan ini menyebabkan federal crime untuk secara
sengaja mengakses komputer dengan tujuan seperti:
(1)memperoleh top-secret military information, pribadi,
informasi keuangan ataupun kredit
(2) melakukan penipuan
(3) mengubah atau mememusnahkan informasi federal