Electrical Units of Measure

The standard SI units used for the measurement of voltage, current

and resistance are the Volt[ V ], Ampere [ A ] and Ohm [ ] respectively.
Sometimes in electrical or electronic circuits and systems it is necessary to
use multiples or sub-multiples (fractions) of these standard units when the
quantities being measured are very large or very small.
The following table gives a list of some of the standard electrical units of
measure used in electrical formulas and component values.

Standard Electrical Units

Electrical
Parameter

Symbol

Description

Voltage

Measurin
g
Unit
Volt

V or E

Current

Ampere

I or i

Resistance

Ohm

R or

Conductan
ce
Capacitanc
e
Charge

Siemen

G or

Farad

Coulomb

Inductance

Henry

L or H

Power

Watts

Impedance

Ohm

Frequency

Hertz

Hz

Unit of Electrical Potential

V=IR
Unit of Electrical Current
I=VR
Unit of DC Resistance
R=VI
Reciprocal of Resistance
G=1R
Unit of Capacitance
C=QV
Unit of Electrical Charge
Q=CV
Unit of Inductance
VL = -L(di/dt)
Unit of Power
P = V I or I2 R
Unit of AC Resistance
Z2 = R2 + X2
Unit of Frequency
=1T

The basic electrical units and definitions are as shown below. This list is
not exhaustive but covers the terms you will encounter most of the time.
Many of the terms are somewhat inter-related, so you need to read all of
them to make sure that you understand the relationship between them.

Passive:

Capable of operating without an external power

source.

Active:

Typical passive components are resistors, capacitors,

inductors and diodes (although the latter are a special case).
Requiring a source of power to operate.

DC:

Includes transistors (all types), integrated circuits (all types),

TRIACs, SCRs, LEDs, etc.
Direct Current

AC:

The electrons flow in one direction only. Current flow is from

negative to positive, although it is often more convenient to
think of it as from positive to negative. This is sometimes
referred to as 'conventional' current as opposed to electron
flow.
Alternating Current

The electrons flow in both directions in a cyclic manner - first

one way, then the other. The rate of change of direction
determines the frequency, measured in Hertz (cycles per
second).
Frequency: Unit is Hertz, Symbol is Hz, old symbol was cps (cycles per
second)

Voltage:

A complete cycle is completed when the AC signal has gone

from zero volts to one extreme, back through zero volts to
the opposite extreme, and returned to zero. The accepted
audio range is from 20Hz to 20,000Hz. The number of times
the signal completes a complete cycle in one second is the
frequency.
Unit is Volts, Symbol is V or U, old symbol was E
Voltage is the 'pressure' of electricity, or 'electromotive force'
(hence the old term E). A 9V battery has a voltage of 9V DC,
and may be positive or negative depending on the terminal
that is used as the reference. The mains has a voltage of
220, 240 or 110V depending where you live - this is AC, and
alternates between positive and negative values. Voltage is
also commonly measured in millivolts (mV), and 1,000 mV is
1V. Microvolts (V) and nanovolts (nV) are also used.

Current:

Resistance
:

Capacitanc
e:

Unit is Amperes (Amps), Symbol is I

Current is the flow of electricity (electrons). No current flows
between the terminals of a battery or other voltage supply
unless a load is connected. The magnitude of the current is
determined by the available voltage, and the resistance (or
impedance) of the load and the power source. Current can
be AC or DC, positive or negative, depending upon the
reference. For electronics, current may also be measured in
mA (milliamps) - 1,000 mA is 1A. Nanoamps (nA) are also
used in some cases.
Unit is Ohms, Symbol is R or

Resistance is a measure of how easily (or with what

difficulty) electrons will flow through the device. Copper wire
has a very low resistance, so a small voltage will allow a
large current to flow. Conversely, the plastic insulation has a
very high resistance, and prevents current from flowing from
one wire to those adjacent. Resistors have a defined
resistance, so the current can be calculated for any voltage.
Resistance in passive devices is always positive (i.e. > 0)
Unit is Farads, Symbol is C

Capacitance is a measure of stored charge. Unlike a battery,

a capacitor stores a charge electrostatically rather than
chemically, and reacts much faster. A capacitor passes AC,
but will not pass DC (at least for all practical purposes). The
reactance or AC resistance (called impedance) of a capacitor
depends on its value and the frequency of the AC signal.
Capacitance is always a positive value.
Inductance Unit is Henrys, Symbol is H or L (depending on context)
:
Inductance occurs in any piece of conducting material, but is
wound into a coil to be useful. An inductor stores a charge
magnetically, and presents a low impedance to DC
(theoretically zero), and a higher impedance to AC
dependent on the value of inductance and the frequency. In
this respect it is the electrical opposite of a capacitor.
Inductance is always a positive value. The symbol "Hy" is

Impedance
:

Decibels:

sometimes used in (guess where :-) ... the US. There is no

such symbol.
Unit is Ohms, Symbol is or Z

Unlike resistance, impedance is a frequency dependent

value, and is specified for AC signals. Impedance is made up
of a combination of resistance, capacitance, and/ or
inductance. In many cases, impedance and resistance are
the same (a resistor for example). Impedance is most
commonly positive (like resistance), but can be negative with
some components or circuit arrangements.
Unit is Bel, but because this is large, deci-Bels (1/10th Bel)
are used), Symbol is dB
Decibels are used in audio because they are a logarithmic
measure of voltage, current or power, and correspond well to
the response of the ear. A 3dB change is half or double the
power (0.707 or 1.414 times voltage or current respectively).
Decibels will be discussed more thoroughly in a separate
section.

Electrical & electronic units table

Unit Name
Ampere (amp)
Volt
Ohm
Watt
Decibel-milliwatt
Decibel-Watt
Volt-AmpereReactive
Volt-Ampere
Farad
Henry
siemens / mho

Unit Symbol
A
V

W
dBm
dBW
var
VA
F
H
S

Quantity
Electric current (I)
Voltage (V, E)
Electromotive force (E)
Potential difference ()
Resistance (R)
Electric power (P)
Electric power (P)
Electric power (P)
Reactive power (Q)
Apparent power (S)
Capacitance (C)
Inductance (L)
Conductance (G)
Admittance (Y)

Coulomb
Ampere-hour
Joule
Kilowatt-hour
Electron-volt
Ohm-meter
siemens per meter
Volts per meter
Newtons per
coulomb
Volt-meter
Tesla
Gauss
Weber
Hertz
Seconds
Meter / metre
Square-meter
Decibel
Parts per million

C
Ah
J
kWh
eV
m
S/m
V/m
N/C

Electric charge (Q)

Electric charge (Q)
Energy (E)
Energy (E)
Energy (E)
Resistivity ()
Conductivity ()
Electric field (E)
Electric field (E)

Vm
T
G
Wb
Hz
s
m
m2
dB
ppm

Electric flux (e)

Magnetic field (B)
Magnetic field (B)
Magnetic flux (m)
Frequency (f)
Time (t)
Length (l)
Area (A)

Multiples and Sub-multiples

There is a huge range of values encountered in electrical and
electronic engineering between a maximum value and a minimum value of a
standard electrical unit. For example, resistance can be lower than 0.01s
or higher than 1,000,000s. By using multiples and submultiples of the
standard unit we can avoid having to write too many zeros to define the
position of the decimal point. The table below gives their names and
abbreviations.
Prefix
Terra
Giga
Mega
kilo
none
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico

Symbol
T
G
M
k
none
c
m

n
p

Multiplier
1,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000
1,000,000
1,000
1
1/100
1/1,000
1/1,000,000
1/1,000,000,000
1/1,000,000,000,000

Power of Ten
1012
109
106
103
100
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12

So to display the units or multiples of units for either Resistance,

Current or Voltage we would use as an example:

1kV = 1 kilo-volt which is equal to 1,000 Volts.

1mA = 1 milli-amp which is equal to one thousandths (1/1000)
of an Ampere.
47k = 47 kilo-ohms which is equal to 47 thousand Ohms.
100uF = 100 micro-farads which is equal to 100 millionths
(1/1,000,000) of a Farad.
1kW = 1 kilo-watt which is equal to 1,000 Watts.
1MHz = 1 mega-hertz which is equal to one million Hertz.

To convert from one prefix to another it is necessary to either multiply

or divide by the difference between the two values. For example, convert
1MHz into kHz.
Well we know from above that 1MHz is equal to one million (1,000,000)
hertz and that 1kHz is equal to one thousand (1,000) hertz, so one 1MHz is
one thousand times bigger than 1kHz. Then to convert Mega-hertz into Kilohertz we need to multiply mega-hertz by one thousand, as 1MHz is equal to
1000 kHz.
Likewise, if we needed to convert kilo-hertz into mega-hertz we would
need to divide by one thousand. A much simpler and quicker method would
be to move the decimal point either left or right depending upon whether
you need to multiply or divide.
As well as the Standard electrical units of measure shown above,
other units are also used in electrical engineering to denote other values and
quantities such as:
Wh The Watt-Hour, The amount of electrical energy consumed by a
circuit over a period of time. Eg, a light bulb consumes one hundred
watts of electrical power for one hour. It is commonly used in the form
of: Wh (watt-hours), kWh (Kilowatt-hour) which is 1,000 watt-hours or
MWh (Megawatt-hour) which is 1,000,000 watt-hours.
dB The Decibel, The decibel is a one tenth unit of the Bel (symbol B)
and is used to represent gain either in voltage, current or power. It is a
logarithmic unit expressed in dB and is commonly used to represent
the ratio of input to output in amplifier, audio circuits or loudspeaker
systems.

For example, the dB ratio of an input voltage (Vin) to an output voltage

(Vout) is expressed as 20log10 (Vout/Vin). The value in dB can be
either positive (20dB) representing gain or negative (-20dB)
representing loss with unity, ie input = output expressed as 0dB.

Phase Angle, The Phase Angle is the difference in degrees between

the voltage waveform and the current waveform having the same
periodic time. It is a time difference or time shift and depending upon
the circuit element can have a leading or lagging value. The phase
angle of a waveform is measured in degrees or radians.
Angular Frequency, Another unit which is mainly used in a.c.
circuits to represent the Phasor Relationship between two or more
waveforms is called Angular Frequency, symbol . This is a rotational
unit of angular frequency 2 with units in radians per second, rads/s.
The complete revolution of one cycle is 360 degrees or 2, therefore,
half a revolution is given as 180 degrees or rad.
Time Constant, The Time Constant of an impedance circuit or linear
first-order system is the time it takes for the output to reach 63.7% of
its maximum or minimum output value when subjected to a Step
Response input. It is a measure of reaction time.
Voltage and Current Source
There are several voltage sources as well as current sources
encountered in our daily life. Batteries , DC generator or alternator all are
very common examples of voltage source. There are also some current
sources encountered in our everyday life, such as photo electric cells,
metadyne generator etc.
The sources can be categorized into two different types independent
source and dependent source.
Independent Voltage Source
Output of an independent source does not depend upon the voltage or
electric current of any other part of the network. When terminal voltage of a
voltage source is not affected by the current or voltage of any other part of
the network, then the source is said to be an independent voltage source.
This type of sources may be referred as constant source or time variant
source. When terminal voltage of an independent source remains constant
throughout its operation, it is referred as timeinvariant or constant
independent voltage source.

Again independent voltage source can be timevariant type, where the

output terminal voltage of the source changes with time. Here, the terminal
voltage of the source does not vary with change of voltage or electric current
of any other part of the network but it varies with time.
Independent Current Source
Similarly, output electric current of independent current source does
not depend upon the voltage or electric current of any other part of the
network. It is also categorized as independent time-invariant and timevariant current source .
Symbolic representations of independent time-invariant and timevariant voltage and current source s are shown below.

independent voltage current sources

Now we will discuss about dependent voltage or current source.
Dependent voltage source is one that's output voltage is the function of
voltage or current of any other part of the circuit. Similarly, dependent
current source is one that's output current is the function of electric current
or voltage of any other parts of the circuit. The amplifier is an ideal example
of dependent source where the output signal depends upon the signal given
to the input circuit of the amplifier.
Dependent Voltage Source & Dependent Current Source
There are four possible dependent sources as are represented below,
1.
2.
3.
4.

Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current

dependent
dependent
dependent
dependent

voltage source .
voltage source .
current source .
current source .

Dependent voltage source s and dependent current sources can also

be time variant or time invariant. That means, when the output voltage or
current of a dependent source is varied with time, referred as time invariant

dependent current or voltage source and if not varied with time, it is referred
as time variant.

Ideal Voltage Source

In every practical voltage source , there is some electrical resistance
inside it. This resistance is called internal resistance of the source. When the
terminal of the source is open circuited, there is no current flowing through
it; hence there is no voltage drop inside the source but when load is
connected with the source, current starts flowing through the load as well as
the source itself. Due to the resistance inside the voltage source , there will
be some voltage drop across the source. Now if any one measures the
terminal voltage of the source, he or she will get the voltage between its
terminals which is reduced by the amount of internal voltage drop of the
source. So there will be always a difference between no-load (when source
terminals are open) and load voltages of a practical voltage source . But in
ideal voltage sourcethis difference is considered as zero that means there
would not be any voltage drop in it when current flows through it and this
implies that the internal resistance of an ideal source must be zero. This can
be concluded that, voltage across the source remains constant for all values
of load current.
The V-I characteristics of an ideal voltage source is shown below.

VI Characteristics of Ideal Voltage Source

There is no as such example of ideal voltage source but a lead acid

battery or a dry cell can be considered an example when the electric current
drawn is below a certain limit.
Ideal Current Source
Ideal current source s are those sources that supply constant electric
current to the load irrespective of their impedance. That means, whatever
may be the load impedance; ideal current source always gives same electric
current through it. Even if the load has infinite impedance or load, is open
circuited to the ideal current sourcethat gives the same electric current

through it. So naturally from definition, it is clear that this type of current
source is not practically possible.
Current Source to Voltage Source Conversion
All sources of electrical energy give both electric current as well as
voltage. This is not practically possible to distinguish between voltage source
and current source . Any electrical source can be represented as voltage
source as well as current source . It merely depends upon the operating
condition. If the load impedance is much higher than internal impedance of
the source, then it is preferable to consider the source as a voltage source on
the other hand if the load impedance is much lower than internal impedance
of the source; it is preferable to consider the source as a current source .
Current source to voltage source conversion or voltage source to current
source conversion is always possible.
Now we will discuss how to convert a current source into voltage
source and vice-versa.
Let us consider a voltage source which has no load terminal voltage or
source voltage V and internal resistance r. Now we have to convert this to an
equivalent current source . For that, first we have to calculate the electric
current which might be flowing through the source if the terminal A and B of
the voltage source were short circuited. That would be nothing but I = V / r.
This electric current will be supplied by the equivalent current source and
that source will have the same resistance connected across it.

Voltage to Current source conversion

Similarly a current source of output electric current I in parallel with
resistance r can be converted into an equivalent voltage source of voltage V
= Ir and resistance r connected in series with it.

Ohms Law
The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC
electrical circuit was firstly discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm.

Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing

through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage
applied across it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance. This
relationship between the Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the bases of
Ohms Law and is shown below.
Ohms Law Relationship

By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance

quantities we can use Ohms Law to find the third missing value. Ohms Law is
used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations so it is very
important to understand and accurately remember these formulas.
To find the Voltage, ( V )
[V=IxR]
V (volts) = I (amps) x R ()
To find the Current, ( I )
[I=VR]
I (amps) = V (volts) R ()
To find the Resistance, ( R )
[R=VI]
R () = V (volts) I (amps)
It is sometimes easier to remember Ohms law relationship by using
pictures. Here the three quantities of V, I and R have been superimposed into
a triangle (affectionately called the Ohms Law Triangle) giving voltage at
the top with current and resistance at the bottom. This arrangement
represents the actual position of each quantity in the Ohms law formulas.
Ohms Law Triangle

and transposing the above Ohms Law equation gives us the following
combinations of the same equation:

Then by using Ohms Law we can see that a voltage of 1V applied to a

resistor of 1 will cause a current of 1A to flow and the greater the
resistance, the less current will flow for any applied voltage. Any Electrical
device or component that obeys Ohms Law that is, the current flowing
through it is proportional to the voltage across it ( I V ), such as resistors or
cables, are said to be Ohmic in nature, and devices that do not, such as
transistors or diodes, are said to be Non-ohmic devices.
Electrical Power in Circuits
Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the amount of energy that is
absorbed or produced within the circuit. A source of energy such as a voltage
will produce or deliver power while the connected load absorbs it. Light bulbs
and heaters for example, absorb power and convert it into heat or light and
the higher their value or rating in watts the more power they will consume.
The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage
multiplied by the current with the unit of measurement being the Watt ( W )
with prefixes used to denote milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or kilowatts (kW =
103W).
Then by using Ohms law and substituting for V, I and
R the formula for electrical power can be found as:
To find the Power (P)
[P=VxI]
Also,
[ P = V2 R ]
Also,
[ P = I2 x R ]

P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)

P (watts) = V2 (volts) R ()
P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R ()

Again, the three quantities have been superimposed into a triangle this
time called the Power Triangle with power at the top and current and
voltage at the bottom. Again, this arrangement represents the actual
position of each quantity in the Ohms law power formulas.
The Power Triangle

and again, transposing the basic Ohms Law equation above for power gives
us the following combinations of the same equation to find the various
individual quantities:

So we can see that there are three possible formulas for calculating
electrical power in a circuit. If the calculated power is positive, (+P) in value
for any formula the component absorbs the power, that is it is consuming or
using power. But if the calculated power is negative, (-P) in value the
component produces or generates power, in other words it is a source of
electrical power such as batteries and generators.

Power Rating
Electrical components are given a power rating in watts that
indicates the maximum rate at which the component converts the electrical
power into other forms of energy such as heat, light or motion. For example,
a 1/4W resistor, a 100W light bulb etc.
Electrical devices convert one form of power into another so for
example, an electrical motor will covert electrical energy into a mechanical
force, while an electrical generator converts mechanical force into electrical
energy and a light bulb converts electrical energy into both light and heat.
Also, we now know that the unit of power is the WATT, but some
electrical devices such as electric motors have a power rating in the old
measurement of Horsepower or hp. The relationship between horsepower
and watts is given as: 1hp = 746W. So for example, a two-horsepower motor
has a rating of 1492W, (2 x 746) or 1.5kW.

Series Circuits

Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chaincoupled. The current in a series circuit goes through every component in the
circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the
same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in which the current
can flow.
A series circuit's main disadvantage or advantage, depending on its
intended role in a product's overall design, is that because there is only one
path in which its current can flow, opening or breaking a series circuit at any
point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop operating. For example, if
even one of the light bulbs in an older-style string of Christmas tree
lights burns out or is removed, the entire string becomes inoperable until the
bulb is replaced.
Current
In a series circuit the current is the same for all elements.
Resistors
The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their
individual resistances:

Electrical conductance presents a reciprocal quantity to resistance.

Total conductance of a series circuits of pure resistors, therefore, can be
calculated from the following expression:

.
For a special case of two resistors in series, the total conductance is equal to:

Inductors
Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of noncoupled inductors in series is equal to the sum of their individual
inductances:

However, in some situations it is difficult to prevent adjacent inductors

from influencing each other, as the magnetic field of one device couples with
the windings of its neighbours. This influence is defined by the mutual
inductance M. For example, if two inductors are in series, there are two
possible equivalent inductances depending on how the magnetic fields of
both inductors influence each other.
When there are more than two inductors, the mutual inductance
between each of them and the way the coils influence each other
complicates the calculation. For a larger number of coils the total combined
inductance is given by the sum of all mutual inductances between the
various coils including the mutual inductance of each given coil with itself,
which we term self-inductance or simply inductance. For three coils, there
are six mutual inductances
,
,
and
,
and
. There are
also the three self-inductances of the three coils:
,
and
.
Therefore

By reciprocity
=
so that the last two groups can be combined.
The first three terms represent the sum of the self-inductances of the various
coils. The formula is easily extended to any number of series coils with
mutual coupling. The method can be used to find the self-inductance of large
coils of wire of any cross-sectional shape by computing the sum of the
mutual inductance of each turn of wire in the coil with every other turn since
in such a coil all turns are in series.
Capacitors
Capacitors follow
the
same
law
using
the
reciprocals.
The
total capacitance of capacitors in series is equal to the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of their individual capacitances:

.
Switches
Two or more switches in series form a logical AND; the circuit only
carries current if all switches are 'on'. See AND gate.

Cells and batteries

A battery is a collection of electrochemical cells. If the cells are
connected in series, the voltage of the battery will be the sum of the cell
voltages. For example, a 12 volt car battery contains six 2-volt cells
connected in series. Some vehicles, such as trucks, have two 12 volt
batteries in series to feed the 24 volt system.

Parallel circuits
If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the
same potential difference (voltage) across their ends. The potential
differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they also
have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit
components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the
currents through the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoffs
current law.
Voltage
In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.
Resistors
The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring
out the voltage gives
.
To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of
the resistances
of each component and take the reciprocal of the sum.
Total resistance will always be less than the value of the smallest resistance:

.
For only two resistors, the unreciprocated expression is reasonably simple:

This sometimes goes by the mnemonic "product over sum".

For N equal resistors in parallel, the reciprocal sum expression simplifies to:
.
and therefore to:
.
To find the current in a component with resistance

, use Ohm's law again:

.
The components divide the current according to their reciprocal resistances,
so, in the case of two resistors,
.
An old term for devices connected in parallel is multiple, such as a
multiple connection for arc lamps.
Since electrical conductance
is reciprocal to resistance, the expression for
total conductance of a parallel circuit of resistors reads:
.
The relations for total conductance and resistance stand in a
complementary relationship: the expression for a series connection of
resistances is the same as for parallel connection of conductances, and vice
versa.

Inductors
Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of noncoupled inductors in parallel is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of their individual inductances:

.
If the inductors are situated in each other's magnetic fields, this
approach is invalid due to mutual inductance. If the mutual inductance
between two coils in parallel is M, the equivalent inductor is:

If

The sign of
depends on how the magnetic fields influence each
other. For two equal tightly coupled coils the total inductance is close to that
of each single coil. If the polarity of one coil is reversed so that M is negative,
then the parallel inductance is nearly zero or the combination is almost noninductive. It is assumed in the "tightly coupled" case M is very nearly equal
to L. However, if the inductances are not equal and the coils are tightly
coupled there can be near short circuit conditions and high circulating
currents for both positive and negative values of M, which can cause
problems.
More than three inductors becomes more complex and the mutual
inductance of each inductor on each other inductor and their influence on
each other must be considered. For three coils, there are three mutual
inductances
,
and
. This is best handled by matrix methods and
summing the terms of the inverse of the matrix (3 by 3 in this case).
The pertinent equations are of the form:
Capacitors
The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum of
their individual capacitances:

.
The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is always
limited by the smallest working voltage of an individual capacitor
Switches
Two or more switches in parallel form a logical OR; the circuit carries
current if at least one switch is 'on'. See OR gate.
Cells and batteries
If the cells of a battery are connected in parallel, the battery voltage
will be the same as the cell voltage but the current supplied by each cell will
be a fraction of the total current. For example, if a battery contains four cells
connected in parallel and delivers a current of 1 ampere, the current supplied
by each cell will be 0.25 ampere. Parallel-connected batteries were widely
used to power the valve filaments in portable radios but they are now rare.
Some solar electric systems have batteries in parallel to increase the storage

capacity; a close approximation of total amp-hours is the sum of all batteries

in parallel.

Application of Resistive Circuits

Bridge circuit
A bridge circuit is a type of electrical circuit in which two circuit
branches (usually in parallel with each other) are "bridged" by a third branch
connected between the first two branches at some intermediate point along
them. The bridge was originally developed for laboratory measurement
purposes and one of the intermediate bridging points is often adjustable
when so used. Bridge circuits now find many applications, both linear and
non-linear, including in instrumentation, filteringand power conversion.
The best-known bridge circuit, the Wheatstone bridge, was invented
by Samuel Hunter Christie and popularized by Charles Wheatstone, and is
used for measuringresistance. It is constructed from four resistors, two of
known values R1 and R3 (see diagram), one whose resistance is to be
determined Rx, and one which is variable and calibrated R2. Two opposite
vertices are connected to a source of electric current, such as a battery, and
a galvanometer is connected across the other two vertices. The variable
resistor is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. It is then known that
the ratio between the variable resistor and its neighbour R1 is equal to the
ratio between the unknown resistor and its neighbour R3, which enables the
value of the unknown resistor to be calculated.
The
Wheatstone
bridge
has
also
been
generalised
to
measure impedance in
AC
circuits,
and
to
measure
resistance,inductance, capacitance, and dissipation factor separately. Various
arrangements are known as the Wien bridge, Maxwell bridge and Heaviside
bridge.[3] All are based on the same principle, which is to compare the
output of two potentiometerssharing a common source.
In power supply design, a bridge circuit or bridge rectifier is an arrangement
of diodes or similar devices used to rectify an electric current, i.e. to convert
it from an unknown or alternating polarity to a direct current of known
polarity.
In some motor controllers, a H-bridge is used to control the direction
the motor turns.

Schematic of a Wheatstone bridge

In the figure,
is the unknown resistance to be measured; ,
and
are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of
is
adjustable. If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg
is equal
to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg
, then the voltage between
the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no current will flow through
the galvanometer . If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current
indicates whether
is too high or too low. is varied until there is no
current through the galvanometer, which then reads zero.
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely
high accuracy. Therefore, if ,
and
are known to high precision, then
can be measured to high precision. Very small changes in
disrupt the
balance and are readily detected.
At the point of balance, the ratio of

Alternatively, if , , and
are known, but
is not adjustable, the
voltage difference across or current flow through the meter can be used to
calculate the value of , using Kirchhoff's circuit laws (also known as
Kirchhoff's rules). This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance
thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off
a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.

Voltage Divider

Figure 1: A simple voltage divider

a voltage divider also known as a potential divider is a passive linear
circuit that produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input
voltage (Vin). Voltage division is the result of distributing the input voltage
among the components of the divider. A simple example of a voltage divider
is two resistors connected in series, with the input voltage applied across the
resistor pair and the output voltage emerging from the connection between
them.
Resistor voltage dividers are commonly used to create reference
voltages, or to reduce the magnitude of a voltage so it can be measured, and

may also be used as signal attenuatorsat low frequencies. For direct current
and relatively low frequencies, a voltage divider may be sufficiently accurate
if made only of resistors; where frequency response over a wide range is
required (such as in an oscilloscope probe), a voltage divider may have
capacitive elements added to compensate load capacitance. In electric
power transmission, a capacitive voltage divider is used for measurement of
high voltage.
General case
A voltage divider referenced to ground is created by connecting
two electrical impedances in series, as shown in Figure 1. The input voltage
is applied across the series impedances Z1 and Z2 and the output is the
voltage across Z2. Z1 and Z2 may be composed of any combination of
elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors.
If the current in the output wire is zero then the relationship between
the input voltage, Vin, and the output voltage, Vout, is:

Proof (using Ohm's Law):

The transfer function (also known as the divider's voltage ratio) of this circuit
is:

In general this transfer function is a complex, rational function of frequency.

Applications
Voltage dividers are used for adjusting the level of a signal, for bias of
active devices in amplifiers, and for measurement of voltages. A Wheatstone
bridge and a multimeter both include voltage dividers. A potentiometer is
used as a variable voltage divider in the volume control of many radios.
Sensor measurement
Voltage dividers can be used to allow a microcontroller to measure the
resistance of a sensor. The sensor is wired in series with a known resistance
to form a voltage divider and a known voltage is applied across the divider.
The microcontroller's analog-to-digital converter is connected to the center
tap of the divider so that it can measure the tap voltage and, by using the

measured voltage and the known resistance and voltage, compute the
sensor resistance.
High voltage measurement
A voltage divider can be used to scale down a very high voltage so that
it can be measured by a volt meter. The high voltage is applied across the
divider and the divider outputwhich has a lower voltage that is within the
meter's input rangeis measured by the meter. High voltage resistor divider
probes designed specifically for this purpose can be used to measure
voltages up to 100 kV. Special high-voltage resistors are used in such probes
as they must be able to tolerate high input voltages and, to produce
accurate results, must have matched temperature coefficients and very low
voltage coefficients. Capacitive divider probes are typically used for voltages
above 100 kV, as the heat caused by power losses in resistor divider probes
at such high voltages could be excessive.

Nodal Analysis
In electric circuits analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis, or
the branch current method is a method of determining the voltage (potential
difference) between "nodes" (points where elements or branches connect) in
an electrical circuit in terms of the branch currents.
In analysing a circuit using Kirchhoff's circuit laws, one can either do
nodal analysis using Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) or mesh analysis using
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL). Nodal analysis writes an equation at each
electrical node, requiring that the branch currents incident at a node must
sum to zero. The branch currents are written in terms of the circuit node
voltages. As a consequence, each branch constitutive relation must give
current as a function of voltage; an admittance representation. For instance,
for a resistor, Ibranch = Vbranch * G, where G (=1/R) is the admittance
(conductance) of the resistor.
Nodal analysis is possible when all the circuit elements' branch
constitutive relations have an admittance representation. Nodal analysis
produces a compact set of equations for the network, which can be solved by
hand if small, or can be quickly solved using linear algebra by computer.
Because of the compact system of equations, many circuit simulation
programs (e.g. SPICE) use nodal analysis as a basis. When elements do not
have admittance representations, a more general extension of nodal
analysis, modified nodal analysis, can be used.
Nodal Method
Note all connected wire segments in the circuit. These are the nodes of nodal
analysis.

1. Select one node as the ground reference. The choice does not affect
the result and is just a matter of convention. Choosing the node with
the most connections can simplify the analysis.
2. Assign a variable for each node whose voltage is unknown. If the
voltage is already known, it is not necessary to assign a variable.
3. For each unknown voltage, form an equation based on Kirchhoff's
current law. Basically, add together all currents leaving from the node
and mark the sum equal to zero. Finding the current between two
nodes is nothing more than "the node you're on, minus the node you're
going to, divided by the resistance between the two nodes."
4. If there are voltage sources between two unknown voltages, join the
two nodes as a supernode. The currents of the two nodes are combined
in a single equation, and a new equation for the voltages is formed.
5. Solve the system of simultaneous equations for each unknown voltage.
Basic case example:
The only unknown voltage in this circuit is V1. There are three connections to
this node and consequently three currents to consider. The direction of the
currents in calculations is chosen to be away from the node.

1. Current through resistor R1: (V1 - VS) /

R1
2. Current through resistor R2: V1 / R2
3. Current through current source IS: -IS
Basic example circuit with one unknown voltage, V1.
With Kirchhoff's current law, we get:

This equation can be solved in respect to V1:

Finally, the unknown voltage can be solved by substituting numerical values

for the symbols. Any unknown currents are easy to calculate after all the
voltages in the circuit are known.

Nodal Voltage Analysis

As well as using Mesh Analysis to solve the currents flowing around
complex circuits it is also possible to use nodal analysis methods too. Nodal
Voltage Analysis complements the previous mesh analysis in that it is
equally powerful and based on the same concepts of matrix analysis. As its
name implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the Nodal equations of
Kirchoffs first law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.
So by adding together all these Nodal Voltages the net result will be
equal to zero. Then, if there are n nodes in the circuit there will be n-1
independent nodal equations and these alone are sufficient to describe and
hence solve the circuit.
At each node point write down Kirchoffs first law equation, that is:
the currents entering a node are exactly equal in value to the currents
leaving the node then express each current in terms of the voltage across
the branch. For n nodes, one node will be used as the reference node and
all the other voltages will be referenced or measured with respect to this
common node.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other
three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to
node D. For example;

As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:

again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoffs Circuit
Law in the previous tutorial.
From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far,
this is the simplest method of solving this particular circuit. Generally, nodal
voltage analysis is more appropriate when there are a larger number of
current sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [ Y ] [ V ]
where [ I ] are the driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal voltages to be
found and [ Y ] is the admittance matrix of the network which operates on
[ V ] to give [ I ].
.

The Supernodes
In this circuit, we initially have two unknown voltages, V 1 and V2. The
voltage at V3 is already known to be VB because the other terminal of the
voltage source is at ground potential.

In this circuit, VA is between two unknown voltages, and is therefore a

supernode.
The current going through voltage source V A cannot be directly
calculated. Therefore we can not write the current equations for either V 1 or
V2. However, we know that the same current leaving node V 2 must enter
node V1. Even though the nodes can not be individually solved, we know that
the combined current of these two nodes is zero. This combining of the two
nodes is called the supernode technique, and it requires one additional
equation: V1 = V2 + VA.
The complete set of equations for this circuit is:

By substituting V1 to the first equation and solving in respect to V2, we get:

Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis the mesh current method is a method that is used to
solve planar circuits for the currents and indirectly the voltages at any place
in the circuit. Planar circuits are circuits that can be drawn on a plane surface
with no wires crossing each other. A more general technique, called loop
analysis (with the corresponding network variables called loop currents) can
be applied to any circuit, planar or not. Mesh analysis and loop analysis both
make use of Kirchhoffs voltage law to arrive at a set of equations

guaranteed to be solvable if the circuit has a solution. Mesh analysis is

usually easier to use when the circuit is planar, compared to loop analysis.
By applying KVL V = 0 in every closed loop in a circuit. That means,
arithmetic sum of total voltage gains and drops in a closed loop in a circuit is
zero.
Let's consider a network having a voltage source (here it is battery ) of
6 V across which two series combinations resistors of R1 = 4 , R2 = 2 and
R3 = 1 , R4 = 5 respectively are connected as shown in the figure - 1.
Now we will discuss the mesh technique in step by step manner for the
example given in the figure - 1 for better understanding the method.

Step 1
As we have explained earlier that every complete network is mesh network,
so for mesh analysis first we have to identify the possible meshes in that
network. There are two meshes i.e. mesh -1 formed by R1, R2, V and mesh 2 formed by V, R3, R4.

Step 2
Now choose two mesh currents one for mesh - 1 and say it is I 1 and
other is for mesh - 2 and say it is I 2. The direction of these two currents may
be taken as arbitrary but it is better convention to choice both electric
current in same direction. Here we have chosen both currents I 1 and I2 are in
clockwise direction.

Step - 3
Next step is to identify the polarities of each element connected in the
mesh. The polarities of voltage drops must be positive at upstream end and
negative at downstream end of a resistor. Generally we mark + at terminal
where current enters in the resistor. The battery polarities should be as
orientations given in the diagram.

Step 4
Now for mesh analysis we will apply Kirchoff's voltage law and
generate voltage equation for each mesh in that mesh network.
Here the mesh equations are-

After putting the values of R1, R2, R3, R4 and V in the equations (i) and (ii) we
get,

The value of current I1 becomes negative which implies that the actual
direction of electric current in the circuit was opposite of our assumption of
mesh electric current for mesh - 1. As the value of electric current I2 is

positive, that means the direction of actual current and assumed mesh
electric current match.

Superposition Theorem
This theorem is a very simple one. Suppose a branch of an electrical
circuit is connected to numbers of voltage and current source s. As we can
consider electrical electric current as electrical quantity, it can be easily
assumed that total electric current flows through the branch is nothing but
the summation of all individual currents, contributed by the each individual
voltage or current source . This simple conception mathematically represents
the Superposition theorem.
If there are several sources acting simultaneously in an electrical
circuit, then the electric current through any branch of the circuit is
summation of currents which would flow through the branch for each source
keeping all other sources dead. Suppose there are n number of sources
acting in a circuit due to which I electric current flows through a particular
branch of the circuit. If someone replaces all the sources from the circuit by
their internal resistance except first source which is now acting along in the
circuit and giving electric current I1 through the said branch, then he or she
reconnects the second source and replaces the first source by its internal
resistance. Now the electric current through that said branch for this second
source alone can be assumed I2. Similarly if he or she reconnects the third
source and replaces the second source by its internal resistance. Now the
electric current through that said branch for this third source, alone is
assumed I3. Similarly when nth source acts alone in the circuit and all other
sources are replaced by their internal electrical resistances, then said
Inelectric current flows through the said branch of the circuit. Now according
to Superposition theorem, electric current through the branch when all the
sources are acting on the circuit simultaneously, is nothing but summation of
these individual electric current caused by individual sources acting alone on
the circuit.

Electrical sources may be of two kinds mainly, one is voltage source

and other is current source . When we remove the voltage source from a
circuit, the voltage, was contributed to the circuit becomes zero. So for
getting zero electric potential difference between the points where the
removed voltage source was connected, these two points must be short
circuited by zero resistance path. For more accuracy, one can replace the

voltage source by its internal resistance. Now if we remove a current source

from the circuit, electric current is contributed by this source will become
zero. Zero electric current implies open circuit. So when we remove current
source from a circuit, we just disconnect the source from the circuit terminals
and keep both terminals open circuited. As the ideal internal resistance of a
current source is infinitely large, removing a current source from a circuit can
be alternatively referred as replacing the current source by its internal
resistance. So for superposition theorem, the voltage source s are replaced
by short circuits and current source s are replaced by open circuits.
The process of using Superposition Theorem on a circuit:
To solve a circuit with the help of Superposition theorem follow the following
steps:
1. First of all make sure the circuit is a linear circuit; or a circuit where
Ohms law implies, because Superposition theorem is applicable only
to linear circuits and responses.
2. Replace all the voltage and current sources on the circuit except for
one of them. While replacing a Voltage source or Current Source
replace it with their internal resistance or impedance. If the Source is
an Ideal source or internal impedance is not given then replace a
Voltage source with a short ; so as to maintain a 0 V potential
difference between two terminals of the voltage source. And replace a
Current source with an Open ; so as to maintain a 0 Amps Current
between two terminals of the current source.
3. Determine the branch responses or voltage drop and current on every
branches simply by using KCL , KVL or Ohms Law.
4. Repeat step 2 and 3 for every source the circuit have.
5. Now algebraically add the responses due to each source on a branch to
find the response on the branch due to the combined effect of all the
sources.
Superposition Theorem in Action:
In the following circuit:

Superposition Theorem

We can use Superposition Theorem to solve the circuit as following:

Let us first Find Responses on the branches due to the Voltage source:
To Remove the Current source it is opened , which converts the circuit into a
simple voltage divider circuit and the responses can be calculated simply by
using ohms law as following:

Superposition Theorem
Thus The responses due to The voltage source are:
On R1 ; Voltage Drop = 6V , Current = 0.5 Amps
On R2 ; Voltage Drop = 0V , Current = 0 Amps
On R3 ; Voltage Drop = 6V , Current = 0.5 Amps
Now let us find the responses on various branches due to the current source:
To remove the Voltage source it is shorted which converts the circuit into a
simple network of parallel and series connection of resistors ; and the
responses can be easily calculated using ohms law as following:

Superposition Theorem
Thus The responses due to the current source are:
On R1 ; Voltage Drop = 3V , Current = 0.25 Amps
On R2 ; Voltage Drop = 3V , Current = 0.5 Amps
n R3 ; Voltage Drop = 3V , Current = 0.25 Amps

Now finally to find the responses on each branch due to the combined effect
of both current source and voltage source we add the individual responses.

Superposition Theorem
So,
On R1 ; Voltage Drop = (6+3)V = 9V , Current = (0.5+0.25) Amps = 0.75
Amps
On R2 ; Voltage Drop = (0+3)V = 3V , Current = (0+0.5) Amps = 0.5 Amps
On R3 ; Voltage Drop = (6+3)V = 9V , Current = (0.5+0.25) Amps = 0.75
Amps

Thevenin Theorem
This theorem is very conceptual. If we think deeply about an electrical
circuit, we can visualize the statements made in Thevenin theorem.
Suppose we have to calculate the electric current through any particular
branch in a circuit. This branch is connected with rest of the circuits at its two
terminal. Due to active sources in the circuit, there is one electric potential
difference between the points where the said branch is connected. The
current through the said branch is caused by this electric potential difference
that appears across the terminals. So rest of the circuit can be considered as
a single voltage source, that's voltage is nothing but the open circuit voltage
between the terminals where the said branch is connected and the internal
resistance of the source is nothing but the equivalent resistance of the circuit
looking back into the terminals where, the branch is connected.
So the Thevenin theorem can be stated as follows,
1. When a particular branch is removed from a circuit, the open circuit
voltage appears across the terminals of the circuit, is Thevenin
equivalent voltage and,
2. The equivalent resistance of the circuit network looking back into the
terminals, is Thevenin equivalent resistance.
3. If we replace the rest of the circuit network by a single voltage source ,
then the voltage of the source would be Thevenin equivalent

voltage and internal resistanceof the voltage source would be

Thevenin equivalent resistance which would be connected in series
with the source as shown in the figure below.
To make Thevenin theorem easy to understand, we have shown the circuit
below,
Here two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series and this series
combination is connected across one voltage source of emf E with internal
resistance Ri as shown. One resistive branch of RL is connected across the
resistance R2 as shown. Now we have to calculate the current through RL.

First, we have to remove the resistor RL from the terminals A and B.

Second, we have to calculate the open circuit voltage or Thevenin equivalent
voltage VT across the terminals A and B.

The electric current through resistance R2,

Hence voltage appears across the terminals A and B i.e.

Third, for applying Thevenin theorem, we have to determine the

Thevenin equivalent electrical resistance of the circuit, and for that; first we

have to replace the voltage source from the circuit, leaving behind only its
internal resistance Ri. Now view the circuit inwards from the open terminals A
and B. It is found the circuits now consist of two parallel paths - one
consisting of resistance R2 only and the other consisting of resistance R 1 and
Ri in series.

Thus the Thevenin equivalent resistance RT is viewed from the open

terminals A and B is given as. As per Thevenin theorem, when resistance RL
is connected across terminals A and B, the network behaves as a source of
voltage VT and internal resistance RT and this is called Thevenin equivalent
circuit. The electric current through RL is given as,

Thevenins equivalent circuit.

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any one-port network

consisting of resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced
by one single equivalent resistance Rs and equivalent voltage Vs, where Rs
is the source resistance value looking back into the circuit and Vs is the open
circuit voltage at the terminals.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

Firstly, we have to remove the centre 40 resistor and short out (not
physically as this would be dangerous) all the emfs connected to the circuit,
or open circuit any current sources. The value of resistor Rs is found by
calculating the total resistance at the terminals A and B with all the emfs
removed, and the value of the voltage required Vs is the total voltage across
terminals A and B with an open circuit and no load resistor Rs connected.
Then, we get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and
as VS = VAB the current flowing around the loop is calculated as:

so the voltage drop across the 20 resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = 20 (20 x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

Then the Thevenins Equivalent circuit is shown below with the 40 resistor
connected.

and from this the current flowing in the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoffs
circuit law in the previous tutorial.
Thevenins theorem can be used as a Circuit Analysis method and is
particularly useful if the load is to take a series of different values. It is not as
powerful as Mesh or Nodal analysis in larger networks because the use of
Mesh or Nodal analysis is usually necessary in any Thevenin exercise, so it
might as well be used from the start. However, Thevenins equivalent circuits
of Transistors, Voltage Sources such as batteries etc, are very useful in circuit
design.