International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology

Vol. 40, March, 2012

Effect of Compression Ratio and Equivalence Ratio on the Emission

Characteristics of a Hydrogen-Ethanol Fuelled Spark Ignition
Engine
Syed Yousufuddin1, K. Venkateswarlu2 and G. R. K Sastry2
1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, P.O Box#10074,

Jubail University College, Jubail Industrial City, 31961, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Mechanical engineering K.L University,
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh-India
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
This paper discusses the results obtained from experimental investigations to evaluate the
exhaust emission (i.e. CO, HC and NOX) characteristics of a hydrogen-ethanol dual fuel
combination of 80 percent hydrogen and 20 percent ethanol to a spark ignition engine at the
three different compression ratios of 7:1, 9:1 and 11:1, at varying equivalence ratios and an
engine speed of 1500 rpm. The benefit of substituting 80% of hydrogen with ethanol deriving
from the present study is a reduction of HC and CO emissions with increasing compression
ratios. This however, is accompanied by a corresponding increase in NOX emissions with
increasing compression ratios.
Keywords: Compression ratio, Emissions, Ethanol, Hydrogen, Spark ignition
Notations: CO : Carbon Monoxide; HC : Hydrocarbon; NOx : Nitrogen Oxides

1. Introduction
Alternative fuels, hydrogen and alcohols are attractive substances for many practical
applications in the energy sector. While conventional energy sources such as natural gas and
oil are non-renewable, hydrogen and alcohol can be coupled to act as renewable energy
sources [1]. The high heat of vaporization of Ethanol fuel gives rise to a reduction in the peak
temperature inside the cylinder and hence reduced the NOx emissions and increased engine
power [2]. Ethanol is a likely alternative automotive fuel in that it has properties that would
allow its use in present combustion engines with minor modifications. As a fuel for sparkignition engines, ethanol has some advantages over gasoline, such as better engine anti-knock
characteristics and reduction of
CO and UHC emissions as highlighted from the work of Bang Quan et. al. in [3]. A small
amount of hydrogen mixed with gasoline and air produces a combustible mixture, which can
be burned in a conventional spark ignition, internal combustion engine at an equivalence ratio
below the lean flammability limit of a gasoline-air mixture. The operation of engines on lean
fuel mixtures has a number of positive features. It can, in principle, provide high thermal
efficiency, low likelihood of an engine knock, reduced emissions especially of NOx and
permits use of higher compression ratios while simultaneously reducing wasteful heat transfer
away from the combustion cylinder. The resulting ultra-lean combustion of ethanol and

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gasoline produces a low flame temperature that leads directly to lower heat transfer to the
walls, higher engine efficiency and lower exhaust of CO and NOx [4].
The use of hydrogen as a primary or supplementary automotive fuel, is likely to give rise to
a reduction of emissions in a spark ignition (SI), internal combustion (IC) engine. Besides
being the cleanest burning chemical fuel, hydrogen can be produced from water (and is thus a
non-fossil fuel) and, conversely, on combustion forms water again by a closed cycle [5]. Thus
from the above literature it is clear that among the various alternative fuels, hydrogen and
alcohols are attractive substances for many practical applications in the energy sector.
As not much work has been done previously on the emission characteristics of hydrogenethanol dual fuel internal combustion engines, this study attempts to fill this gap by
investigating the variation of the emission characteristics of SI engine fuelled with an 80%
hydrogen and 20% ethanol mixture, at the three different compression ratios of 7:1, 9:1 and
11:1, for different equivalence ratios.

2. Experimental Work
The engine used in the present study was a Kirloskar AV-1, single cylinder direct injection
diesel engine modified to run at low compression ratios thus making it adaptable to run in
spark ignition (SI) mode by replacing the diesel fuel system with carburetor (Figure 1), that
was connected to the air-intake manifold of the engine inlet system and a spark plug was
located in place of the diesel injector. Also a provision was made to induct hydrogen gas in
the inlet manifold. To vary the compression ratio from 7 to 11 different spacers were placed
between the cylinder and the cylinder head thus increasing the clearance volume thereby
reducing the compression ratio. The engine was coupled to a DC dynamometer and all the
experiments were carried out at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The technical details of the
engine are given in Table 1. To facilitate operating the engine under spark timing a varying
timing arrangement is provided on the engine. By adjusting varying timing arrangement
mechanically the spark timing could be varied at will even while the engine is in operation.
For a given quantity and quality of the mixture under a given load setting the timing which
gave the maximum speed is taken as the MBT spark timing. The contact breaker points and
the condenser of the ignition circuit are fixed on a Bakelite disc. The disc is mounted on the
engine camshaft over which a small cam is made to operate the contact breaker points. The
angular position of the contact breaker points with respect to the cam decides the spark timing
and it could be altered at will by a suitably designed linkage which is provided on the engine
test rig.
Table 1. Technical Details of the Engine

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Figure 1. Experimental Test Rig with Necessary Instrumentation

2.1 Measurement Systems
The following measurement systems are used in the engine-testing schedule.
1. Speed Measurement
On the shaft projection, a reference indicator was provided to mark the TDC, which
detected by a proximity sensor. Proximity sensor is placed very close to the flywheel.
proximity RPM sensor senses the speed and displays on the digital RPM indicator.
computer interfacing of the engine helps in easy and accurate interpretation of results.
accuracy of this sensor being one revolution per minute.

was
The
The
The

2. Pressure Measuring System

Crank-angle-resolved in-cylinder pressure was, measured. A computer interfaced
piezoelectric sensor of Range 145 bar was used to note the in-cylinder pressure. Pressure
signals were obtained at one-degree crank angle intervals using a digital data acquisition
system. The average pressure data from 100 consecutive cycles were used for calculating
combustion parameters. Special software was used to obtain combustion parameters. From
the average pressure crank angle history the net heat release rate was obtained using the first

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law of thermodynamics. The transducer is connected to the computer through a logic card that
converts the pressure signals to digital signals. The computer is programmed using MATLAB
and C language for calculating the indicated power and plot the P- curve for different loads
and hydrogen-ethanol dual fuel combinations.
3. Temperature Measurement
The test rig equipped with thermocouples in conjunction with the digital temperature
indicators. K-type of thermocouples are placed at different points to note the temperatures at
the inlet, exhaust of the engine, engine head, cooling water inlet, cooling water outlet, and
lubricating oil temperatures etc. To read directly the temperatures are displayed on the panel
board digital display system.
4. Hydrogen Flow Measurement
The hydrogen flow is measured using a specially designed hydrogen flow meter. To
dampen the pressure fluctuations in the intake line which particularly occur with large
displacement single cylinder engines a stabilizing tank is located at the inlet of the engine.
The Hydrogen gas was inducted into the intake-manifold and a thermal mass flow controller
controlled its flow rate. The maximum amount of Hydrogen supplied was limited by unstable
operation at low outputs and by rough engine running due to knock at high outputs. When the
hydrogen supply was increased the ethanol quantity was automatically decreased by the
governor mechanism of the engine to maintain the speed constant.
5. Ethanol Fuel Flow Rate Measurement
Ethanol flow rate is measured on volume basis using a burette and a stopwatch. The time
consumed for 10 cc of fuel consumption is timed using a digital stopwatch with an accuracy
of 0.1 sec.
6. Water-cooling System
The test engine is a water-cooled vertical engine. A good water circulation system is
provided to cope with the cooling requirements of the engine, transducer and the supply to the
exhaust gas calorimeter. The transducer and the engine require uninterrupted water supply for
satisfactory performance. The transducer was cooled by water for accurate readings. A
minimum of 3 litres/minute water supply has to be circulated through the transducer therefore
a water circulating system with a H.P motor and VRCS pump is provided to maintain the
water flow.
7. Emission Measurement
Engine exhausts emissions were measured using an advanced AVL five-gas analyzer
(Figure2) which is a non-dispersive infrared gas analyzer. The sample to be evaluated is
passed through a cold trap to condense the water vapors that influences the functioning of the
infrared analyzer. The exhaust gas analyzer is calibrated periodically using standard
calibration gas. The hydrocarbons and NOX are measured in terms of parts per million (ppm)
as hexane equivalent and carbon monoxide emissions are measured in terms of percentage
volume.

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Figure 2. AVL Five Gas Analyzer

8. Dynamometer
The engine is coupled to an AC alternator with a flexible tire coupling. Resistive type of
loading is used. Operation of loading switches applies the load on the alternator in steps of 0.5
kW, which in turn applies load on the engine. An electrical wattmeter, voltmeter and an
ammeter are provided to know the electrical current output.
9. Indicated Power Calculations
Special software was prepared and used to calculate the indicated power by directly
interpreting the inside cylinder pressures. This software runs a program, which constructs the
P-V plot and by the trapezoidal rule calculates the area under the curve of the P-V plot and
directly displays the indicated power values.
10. Pressure, Volume, and Combustion Data
The special software stores the data of pressures and volumes corresponding to a particular
crank angle location for plotting the P-V and P- curves. The Software also provides the
facility of analyzing the combustion data such as the Rate of Heat-Release, combustion
duration period in degrees, peak pressures and stores it separately for analysis in the data
acquisition system. The engine electronic control system provided access to all calibration
parameters allowing the user to set a desired equivalence ratio (by adjusting fuel flow rate),
combustion duration and ignition timing.
11. Hydrogen Storage System
The Hydrogen is stored in the compressed gaseous form at a pressure of 150 bars in the
commercially available cylinders with a pressure indicator to read the inside pressure. With a
pressure reduction valve its pressure reduced to atmospheric before inducting into the inlet
manifold. The outlet pressure indicated in a separate pressure gauge.
12. Flash Back Arrestor & Flame Trap
Since hydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas and burns without flame. The flame sometimes
travels along the hose, enters into the storage cylinder and proves to be hazardous. In order to
have safe operations a safety device called flash arrestor is used. This prevents the flame from
entering into the cylinder. This is installed near the gas cylinder. Along with the flash back

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arrestor a Flame trap is also used in the hydrogen supply line. It consists of two interconnected stainless steel cylinders half filled with water. The hydrogen has to pass through
these traps before reaching the engine manifold. In case of any accidental flame generation in
the supply hose, once it reaches the flame trap the flame is put off by the trap water and in
case if the flame survives in the trap and tries to reach the cylinder the flashback arrestor
(Figure3) in the supply line near the cylinder disconnects the hydrogen supply. The flash back
arrestor senses the high-pressure pulse that gets generated upon the fire and immediately
disconnects the hydrogen supply by closing its inner passage which is pressure sensitive.

Figure 3. Flame Trap with Flow Controller

(1. Flow controller; 2.Flame trap; 3. Supply connection to engine from flame trap;
4. Supply connection from hydrogen cylinder; 5. Flow meter)
2.2 Lay-out of the Experimental Setup
The photographic view of the experimental setup is shown in Figures 4 and 5.

Figure 4: Experimental Setup

(1. Pressure transducer ; 2. Water supply to pressure transducer; 3. CNG injector;
4. Hydrogen supply to engine; 5. Arrangement for Bio-fuel heating; 6. Cable
connections to computer)

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Figure 5. Computer Interfaced VCR with Control Panel

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 6. Variation of HC emissions with equivalence ratio for 80% hydrogen

substitution at 7:1, 9:1, 11:1 compression ratios
Figure 6 demonstrates the various HC emission levels for 80% hydrogen enrichment of
ethanol. It can be observed that the minimum HC emission for the three compression ratios

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used in testing occurred at an equivalence ratio of about 0.7 and for a compression ratio of
11:1, and further increase of the equivalence ratio beyond this value resulted in a continuous
increase of the HC emitted. As seen from the figure, the highest HC emission for the three
compression ratios used in testing occurred at an equivalence ratio of about 1.2 for a
compression ratio of 7:1. At equivalence ratio of 1.0, the percentage reduction in HC
emission noticed when the compression ratio was increased from 7 to 11 was around 22.4%.

Figure 7. Variation of CO emissions with equivalence ratio for 80% hydrogen

enrichment of ethanol at 7:1, 9:1, 11:1 compression ratios
Figure 7 shows the variation of various CO emission levels with equivalence ratio for 80%
hydrogen enrichment of ethanol. It can be observed that the lowest CO emission for the three
compression ratios used in testing occurred at an equivalence ratio of about 0.6 at a CR of
11:1, and that further increase in the CR beyond this value resulted in sustained increase of
CO emission. As seen from the figure the highest CO emission for the three CRs used in
testing occurred at an equivalence ratio of about 1.2 and for a compression ratio of 7:1. At an
equivalence ratio of 1.0 the percentage reduction in CO emissions when the compression ratio
was increased from 7:1 to 11:1 was around 32.58%. It is seen from Figure 7 that the CO
emission increased steadily with increasing equivalence ratio, for all three CRs. With fuel
lean mixtures CO emission varies little with equivalence ratio: It is interesting to note that at
an equivalence ratio 0.8 the CO level is increased. This is the consequence of low
temperatures freezing the oxidation. One other observation is that, the CO levels were nearly
independent of the fuel used and depended almost exclusively on the equivalence ratio. This
is to be expected if nearly complete combustion takes place. Alcohols are expected to produce
a slightly lower CO level in combustion, when compared to petrol, because of a lower ratio of
carbon in their fuel molecules, and their more favorable dissociation properties. The HC and
CO emissions seen in the Figures 6 and 7 are extremely low as expected in an engine using
hydrogen-ethanol as a fuel. This is because the hydrogen fuel has no hydrocarbons, and the
fact that HC emissions arise mainly from unburned fuels. The absence of hydrocarbons in
hydrogen fuel also keeps the CO emissions very low. Ideally, all of the carbon in the
hydrocarbons should be converted to CO2 in complete combustion. Incomplete combustion
on the other hand leads to the generation of some CO. The reason for the presence of some
CO and HC emissions in the engine fuelled with hydrogen-ethanol is due to combustion of
the lubricating oil in the engine. The oil is not intended for combustion, and there are ways of
minimizing its ingress into the combustion chamber. The oil can make its way into the
combustion chamber past the piston rings, through leakage at the intake valve guide, or
through the crankcase ventilation system. Some solutions to minimize these highlighted

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problems include: ensuring a smaller piston ring gap, ensuring the sustenance of a higher
piston ring to cylinder wall pressure; improving the valve guide seals to prevent oil from
getting past the guides; and improving the oil trap for the crankcase ventilation system. Using
synthetic engine lubricating oils has been said to decrease the emissions. These oils are not
made with hydrocarbons, and therefore do not contribute to those emissions. They also are
slicker, decreasing the internal friction in the engine.

Figure 8. Variation of NOx with equivalence ratio for 80% hydrogen enrichment
of ethanol at 7:1, 9:1 and 11:1 compression ratios
As shown in Figure 8, NOx emission reaches maximum values at equivalence ratios of 1.0,
0.9, and 0.8 for 7:1, 9:1, and 11:1 compression ratios, respectively. In the lower equivalence
ratio range, NOx concentration is negligibly small. These trends can be explained by the fact
that NO formation reactions depend upon temperature in the combustion chamber, mixture
strength, and available oxygen, and they occur primarily in the post flame gases. The type of
the fuel used affects the flame temperatures and the sufficiency of the available oxygen is
affected by the stoichiometry, which is in turn a function of the type of fuels used. As the
mixture air-fuel ratio gets leaner, the temperature prevalent in the combustion chamber drops
thus leading to a weakening of the NOx formation kinetics. As the compression ratio
increases, it is observed in Figure 8 that the peak NOx emission occurs at equivalence ratios
that are leaner. At higher compression ratios, the charge condition at the start of combustion
would be more homogeneous and this helps in shifting the peak NOx occurrence points to the
leaner side. At equivalence ratio of 1.0 the percentage increase in NOx emissions noted when
the compression ratio was increased from 7 to 11 was around 27.8%. For equivalence ratios
below 0.8, NO formation is restricted due to thermal quenching during the formation process.
For mixtures richer than 0.8, thermal dissociation of NO is the limiting factor. As seen from
Figure 8, variation in NOx concentration levels was a function of the equivalence ratio for all
compression ratios. It increased for all compression ratios initially with increasing
equivalence ratios, reached a peak value, and declined with increasing equivalence ratio
thereafter. As seen in Figure 8, peak NOx emissions were produced at equivalence ratios that
were less than unity, dropping off on either side of this peak. For the same mixture strength,
NOx emission is expected to be slightly higher for higher engine speed because of reduced
effective heat loss. Therefore, it is apparent that the chemical interactions controlling
formation of oxides of nitrogen in hydrogen-ethanol fuelled engine are the same as in other
combustion processes. Thus, engines operated on hydrogen-ethanol dual fuel using near
stoichiometric mixtures can be expected to produce substantial NOx, emissions quite similar
to those obtained with other fuels. Well-known control techniques such as spark retardation,
exhaust gas recirculation, and water addition are effective in controlling NO x, emissions and

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are recommended for use in the Hydrogen/ethanol fuelled Internal combustion SI engine. In
addition, the extremely low value of the lean flammability limit of hydrogen-air mixtures can
be used to reduce NOx, emissions to almost negligible amounts by restricting operation to
equivalence ratios less than 0.7. Direct cylinder fuel injection may be employed to boost
power without sacrificing emissions control at these lean mixtures. Ethanol contains an
oxygen atom in its basic form; it therefore can be treated as a partially oxidized hydrocarbon.
When ethanol is added to the hydrogen fuel, it can provide more oxygen for the combustion
process and leads to the so-called leaning effect. Owing to the leaning effect, CO and HC
emissions are expected to decrease tremendously; and so NOx emission, under the operating
conditions mentioned above.

4. Conclusion
The important conclusions, which emerged from the experimental investigations conducted
in this work to evaluate the exhaust emissions (i.e. CO, HC and NOx) characteristics of a
single cylinder internal combustion diesel engine modified into an SI internal combustion
engine, fuelled with 80% of hydrogen enrichment of ethanol include:
1. At an equivalence ratio of 1.0 the percentage reduction in HC emission when the
compression ratio was increased from 7:1 to 11:1 was around 22.4%.
2. At an equivalence ratio of 1.0 the percentage reduction in CO emission when the
compression ratio was increased from 7:1 to 11:1 was around 32.58%.
3. As the compression ratio increased, the peak NOx emission occurred at lower
equivalence ratios and therefore leaner mixtures.
4. At an equivalence ratio of 1.0 the percentage increase in NOx emission when the
compression ratio was increased from 7:1 to 11:1 was around 27.8%.
5. The important improvement of 80% hydrogen enrichment of ethanol is the reduction of
the HC and CO emissions with a slight increase in NOx emissions, while increasing the
higher useful compression ratio of a hydrogen supplemented fuel engine.

Acknowledgement
The authors sincerely acknowledge The All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India for the financial support in carrying out this research work.

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