10

Simplified Conceptual Structures and Analytical

Solutions for Groundwater Discharge
Using Reservoir Equations
Alon Rimmer1 and Andreas Hartmann2
1Israel

Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd.,

The Yigal Alon Kinneret Limnological Laboratory,
2Institute of Hydrology, Freiburg University,
1Israel
2Germany

1. Introduction
The approaches to the study of hydrological issues are generally divided into two very
different groups: (1) the physical approach; and (2) the system approach (Singh 1988). The
physical approach is motivated primarily by scientific study and understanding of the
physical phenomena, whereas the practical application of this knowledge to engineering
and water resources management is recognized but not always fully required. Unlike
detailed physical studies of each hydrological problem, the system approach is driven by
the need to establish working relationships between measured parameters for solving
practical hydrological problems. This approach simplifies the issue because it is unfeasible
to consider the entire physical system. Therefore, a logical approach consists of measuring
those variables in the hydrologic cycle, which appear significant to the problem, and
establish explicit mathematical relationships between them.
An initial step and a well-recognized part of groundwater flow analysis is the definition of a
conceptual model. It is usually a simplified perception of the dominant physical components
of the studied groundwater system. The main purpose for constructing a conceptual model
is concentrating on the parts relevant for solving the hydrological problem.
Common ways to convert a conceptual model of a groundwater system into mathematical
formulations are reservoir (or tank) type models (Dooge, 1973; Sugawara, 1995). These model
types are often used as a theoretical tool in surface and subsurface hydrology, for water
management, control of inflows and outflows in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and aquifers. The
linear reservoir concept is an important component of many widely used hydrological models
like the TOPMODEL (Beven & Kirby, 1979), HBV (Lindstrm et al., 1997) or WaSiM-ETH
(Schulla & Jasper, 2007). Reservoir type models are especially useful in karst environments,
because the essential information for physical approaches is usually not available (Jukic &
Denic-Jukic, 2009). The lack of information and the necessity to use simplified reservoir models
become evident in the high number of recently published studies on karst hydrology (Fleury
et al., 2007; Geyer et al., 2008; Hartmann et al., 2011; Jukic & Denic-Jukic, 2009; Kessler & Kafri,
2007; Le Moine et al., 2008; Rimmer & Salingar, 2006; Tritz et al., 2011).

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In this chapter, a set of typical groundwater modeling problems is described,

exemplifying the use of simple reservoir structures to model spring discharge and/or
groundwater level during time. In each example, we will explicate the use of the proposed
reservoir type system. Moreover, in each case, we will examine an analytical solution
associated with the proposed system using simple domain geometries. The advantage of
analytical solutions is that their equations offer quick answers to the proposed mechanism
based on a few basic parameters. These solutions therefore allow an immediate system
understanding and provide a meaning value for each parameter or group of parameters.
Given the differential equation that describes the groundwater system, most of the
presented analytical solutions can be found using the symbolic mathematical toolbox of
MATLAB (http://www.mathworks.com).

2. Examples
Our set of example models include: (1) the classic formation of the linear reservoir problem
for an aquifer drained by a single spring; (2) spring discharge potentially fed by two parallel
aquifers; (3) spring discharge potentially fed by two serial groundwater aquifers; (4) two
parallel aquifers with linear exchange and linear discharges; (5) the discharge from an
aquifer with two outlets; (6) the discharge from an aquifer into a lake (submerged springs);
and (7) the cases of long-term change of groundwater level and annual spring discharge.
Although in most cases the models will be applied with a given set of measured data, it is
important to clarify that these types of models are not location-specific, and can be used to
model various groundwater flow systems.
2.1 The formation of linear reservoir problem for a single spring discharge
In a traditional hydrology, a spring discharge is often conceptually described and modelled
using simple linear reservoirs. We can start the simplification of a system by examining the
spring discharge Q (L3 T-1) according to Darcys Law:

Q(t ) ki G

h(t ) H 0
x

(1)

where h (with units of length, L) represents an equivalent unknown hydraulic head in the
aquifer, H0 (L) is the head at the spring outlet (if an exact head can be evaluated) so that hH0 represents the equivalent hydraulic head difference between two points, located at x (L)
distance one from the other. The ki (units of length over time, L T-1) is the saturated
hydraulic conductivity, and G (L2) represents an equivalent cross section of the flow. For
practical purposes, it is assumed that ki, G and x are constant for a given natural aquifer,
and therefore Eq. 1 can be simplified to:
Q t h t H 0

ki G
x

(2)

considering H0=0 in Eq. 2, further simplification can be conducted by conceptualising the

drained aquifer as a reservoir (0) with storage V (L3) varying in time; constant recharge area
A (L2) and a given effective porosity n (-):

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Simplified Conceptual Structures

and Analytical Solutions for Groundwater Discharge Using Reservoir Equations

V t A n h t

219

(3)

according to Eqs. 2 and 3, in such a reservoir model, spring discharge through the outlet,
Qout, is proportional to storage.
V t KQout t

A n

(4)

where K (given in units of time, T) is known as the reservoir constant or storage,

representing the recharge area, the porosity, the saturated hydraulic conductivity, and the
equivalent path and cross section of the flow within the aquifer. Usually, changes of K in
time or from one season to another are not physically justified, and it should be independent
of both the selected period of modeling, and the boundary conditions (amount of
precipitation).
The equation for the continuous water balance in this kind of reservoir is:
dV t
dt

Qin t Qout t with Qout t 0 Q0 .

(5)

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic description of groundwater system; (b) linear reservoir model
Incorporating Eq. 4 into Eq. 5 results in the linear reservoir differential equation:
K

dQout t
dt

Qin t Qout t

t0 t 0

(6)

A well-known application in hydrology is the determination of K. This task becomes

significantly easier in the dry period that follows the rainy season, since the flow is then a
smooth, physical and unidirectional process, with no random processes (such as rainstorms)
to be taken into account. At this time Qin(t)=0 and the mathematical description of linear
reservoir model (Eq. 6) reduces to the homogeneous equation:
dQout t
dt

Eq. 7 is solved analytically by:

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Qout t
K

Qout t 0 Q0

(7)

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Water Resources Management and Modeling

t
a. Qout t Q0 exp
K

t
b. V t KQout t KQ0 exp
K

(8)

In Eq. 8, V is the volume (assume 103 m3), t is the time (day), Qout is the outflow (103 m3 day-1),
Q0 is the outflow (103 m3 day-1) at the day when Qin vanished, and K is the reservoir constant
with units identical to the units of t (day).
Analyzing spring recession in this way is known as Maillets approach (Maillet, 1905). An
application of this fundamental method is presented in Fig. 2, with measured discharge flow
from the Carcara Springs in the Western Galilee, Israel, during the dry period starting in
March 1981. The springs emerge from the aquifer of the Upper Judea Group formation,
which appears to be connected to the aquifer of the Lower Judea Group formations. In this
time of the year, the regional groundwater level is usually high. Data from 1950-1985
indicated that the spring had never dried, a situation that changed significantly since the
beginning of pumping in 1985 (These changes are discussed in section 2.5).

Qout (1000 m3day-1)

14
12
8

Model
Measured

K=117 days

10

4
2
0
0

60

120
days

180

240

Fig. 2. The discharge of Carcara Spring during the dry period starting in March1981. K was
calibrated to 117 days.
2.2 Parallel linear reservoirs

During a dry season that follows a rainy season, the discharge of a spring reduces in time.
The shape of the graph discharge vs. time corresponds to the sum of several exponential
functions (Bonacci, 1993; Grasso & Jeannin, 1994). Often, such spring discharge is
represented as a combination of two parallel linear reservoirs (Fig. 3), mathematically
represented by:

a. Qout t Qout 1 t Qout 2 t

t
t
Q01 exp Q02 exp

K1
K2
b. V t K 1Qout 1 t K 2Qout 2 t

(9)

A simple optimization algorithm can be applied to identify the K1 and K2 constants, as well
as the initial flows Q01 and Q02 during a recession period. When K is small, the recession of

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and Analytical Solutions for Groundwater Discharge Using Reservoir Equations

221

the reservoir will be fast, and its discharge and volume will reach zero within a short time.
When K is large, the recession will be slow, and the reservoir outflow will last for a long
time. If K1 >> K2 the discharge from reservoir 2 (second component in the right hand side of
Eq. 9) decreases much faster than the discharge from reservoir 1 (first component in the
right hand side of Eq.9), which will still be active much longer.
Qin2
Qin1

H1

H2

A2

A1

K2

K1
Qout2

H0
Qout1

H0

Qout

Fig. 3. Two parallel reservoirs. The reservoirs are fed by groundwater recharge originating
from the surface and drain simultaneously to the stream.
The parallel groundwater reservoir structure is incorporated in many hydrological models,
e.g., the Vensim model (Fleury et al., 2007). Here it is exemplified by applying it to the
recession discharge of the Hermon Stream (Israel) during the year of 1996 (Fig. 4). The
stream is one of the three main tributaries of the Upper Jordan River (Rimmer and Salingar,
2006). It is fed mainly by the Banias Spring, located at the edge of the karst exposures on the
lower parts of the Hermon Mountain, at an altitude of 359 m a.s.l. The Banias annual
average discharge is ~67 M m (~2.15 m/s). The spring exhibits behaviour of pluvio-nival
regime, where discharge is mainly due to precipitation, but also slightly influenced by
snowmelt (Gilad & Bonne, 1990; Samuels et al., 2010).

Qout (1000 m3day-1)

600

Reservoir 1
Reservoir 2
Total
Measured

500
400

Parameter 1

300
200

Q0

420

145

56

300

100
0
3/30

5/29

7/28
9/26
days

11/25

1/24

Fig. 4. Stream discharge of the Hermon stream during 1996. The stream is fed by two
parallel reservoirs during the recession period: Since K2>>K1 the reservoir 1 discharge
represents most of the sharp changes following the rainy season, while reservoir 2
represents the more stable component.

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The optimization algorithm revealed that K1 = 56 days and Q01 = 420,000 m3day-1,
representing the immediate aquifer that contributes to the spring, while K2 = 300 days and
Q01 = 145,000 m3day-1, representing the discharge from a large stable aquifer, which also
drains into the Dan Spring located nearby. During the recession period, the discharge of
reservoir 1 ceases after ~170 days, while the memory of reservoir 2 remains for ~2.5 years
(Rimmer & Salingar, 2006).
2.3 Two serial linear reservoirs

Usually, the discharge recession of a karst spring is fast at the beginning of a dry season and
slows at its end (see Eqs. 8 and/or 9). However, there are cases in which the recession is
rather slow at the beginning, and increases towards the end of the dry season (Rimmer &
Salingar, 2006). Moreover, the recession is faster following a low precipitation season, than
after a high precipitation one. One reason for such behaviour can be explained by the
interplay of two systems in series, e.g., a large vadose zone on top of the phreatic zone or
two groundwater systems of which one is recharged by leakage from the other (Fig. 5a). The
pattern analysis of such measured spring discharge requires a different setup. The proposed
mechanism for examining this type of observed curve is a system with two serial linear
reservoirs (Fig. 5b).

Fig. 5. (a) schematic description of the proposed groundwater system; (b) the system
represented by two serial reservoirs. Excess saturation flow from the earth surface feed the
upper reservoir (1), which recharges the lower reservoir (2).
In this example, the simplified system is described by an upper linear reservoir, contributing
to a lower reservoir, draining through a spring outlet. Similarly to the previous case, we are
particularly interested in determining the system storage coefficients K1 and K2, and the
initial conditions (flow at the beginning of the dry season) Q01 and Q02. By defining the input
to the upper reservoir (1) during the dry season as zero, the input to the lower reservoir (2)
is an exponential recession with time, typical to a linear reservoir system (Section 2.1; see
also Nash 1957; Huggins & Burney, 1982). We therefore write the differential equation for
the lower reservoir (2) for a single dry season as follows:
dQout 2 t

Qout 2 t

Qout 1 t

with 1. Qout 1 t 0 Q01

dt

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K2

K2

; t0

2. Qout 2 t 0 Q02 ;

(10)

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223

where Q01 and Q02 are the initial conditions, yet to be determined from the measured data of
each season. In Eq. 10 the contribution from the upper to the lower groundwater reservoir
and the upper reservoir volume are determined by:
t
Qout 1 t Q01 exp
K1
V1 t K 1Qout 1

(11)

and Eq. 10 can be solved analytically so that the discharge from the lower groundwater
reservoir and its volume are determined by:
Qout 2 t Qout 2/1 Qout 2/2
Qout 2/1

t
t
Q01K 1
exp
exp

K
1
K 2

K1 K 2

t
Qout 2/2 Q02 exp

K2
V2 t K 2Qout 2

(12)

Here, the outflow from the lower reservoir is combined of the contribution from the upper
reservoir Qout2/1 and the self-discharge of the lower reservoir Qout2/2. With an optimization
algorithm, Eq. 12 may be used to evaluate K1, K2, Q01 and Q02 for each season, so that it

Fig. 6. Illustration of the terms in Eq. 12- the upper reservoir contribution Qout2/1 and the
self-discharge of the lower reservoir Qout2/2 combine the total outflow Qout2. The K1 = 70 days
and K2 =300 days are identical for both rainy (1993) and dry (1990) years, while the two
initial conditions Q01 and Q02 are different. (a, b): 1993; (c, d): 1990. (a, c): spring discharge;
(b, d): Aquifer volume.

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Water Resources Management and Modeling

would match the measured spring discharge. Two restrictions should be imposed on the
calibration procedure in order to take into account the physical conditions of the entire
system. First, the same K1 and K2 must be used for all seasons, and second, there should be a
good correlation between Q01 and Q02 and the annual precipitation during the years, since
the entire system is driven by the same precipitation.
Fig. 6 illustrates the curve fitting of Eq. 12 to the discharge of the Dan Spring, Israel, during
the dry season that followed two different rainy seasons. The K1 = 70 days and K2 = 300 days
were evaluated as the best fit. The initial conditions of Q01=1900 m3 day-1 and Q02 =800 m3
day-1 were valid following a very rainy season (1992-1993), while Q01=16 m3 day-1 and Q02
=580 m3 day-1 were valid for extremely dry season (1989-1990). Following the rainy season,
both reservoirs were partly filled according to the amount of precipitation. However, while
the recession of the lower reservoir follows the same rate (exp(-t/K2)) under any initial
condition, the additional recharge from the upper reservoir changes significantly the Qout2(t)
curve during the dry season. Consequently, the flow rate of the spring may increase first,
following a very rainy year (1992-1993) or reduce immediately following a very dry year
(1989-1990). Similar applications can be found in Kiraly, (2003) or Rimmer & Salingar,
(2006).
2.4 Two reservoirs with linear exchange

The karst environment is often described as a system with dual porosity (Goldscheider &
Drew, 2007), including the fast flow component within the preferential flow paths (karstic
conduits), and the slower Darcian groundwater flow within the fissure matrix (Fig. 7a). This
process can be conceptualized by dividing the groundwater system in two reservoirs, one
representing the conduits and the other representing the fissure matrix (Fig. 7b). Similar to
section 2.2, the water exchange between the reservoirs is controlled by the difference in their
levels and with similar considerations as in Eqs. 1-4 the spring discharge Q1 (LT-1) (or the
conduit outflow) may be derived by:

Q1 t

V1 t

(13)

K1

Applying the same procedure to the exchange flow between the fissure matrix and the
conduit reservoir (reservoirs 2 and 1 in in Fig. 7), and aggregating all constant parameters in
a single exchange constant KE(T), the exchange flow QE (L3T-1) can be described as a simple
linear relation between water level differences (Fig. 7),

QE t k12G12
Where:

h2 t

V2 t
An2

h2 t h1 t
x12

V2 t f PV1 t

1
k G
12 12
K E An2 x 12

KE
fP

n2
n1

(14)

(15)

Similar to Eqs. 1-4, h2 (L) is the water table elevation of the fissure matrix, k12 (L T-1) is a
representative saturated hydraulic conductivity, G12 (L2) is an equivalent cross-section, and

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225

x12 (L) an average flow distance; all are parameters representing the interface between
conduits and fissure matrix.
(b)

(a)
A

h1

QIN2

QIN1

A2

A1

V2

h2

K1

KE , f P

Qout

V1

Q1

QE

impermeable

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic description of the groundwater system with karstic conduits and fissure
matrix; (b) the system represented by a reservoir combination with a fissure matrix reservoir
(left, 2) and conduit reservoir (right, 1).
With the effective porosity of the fissure matrix n2, and the area A2, the relation between
water level and stored water volume V2 (L3) can be established. Note that in Eqs. 13-15 the
same area A is used because the simplification approach assumes that the conduits section is
embedded within the fissure matrix (double porosity approach) and that the porosity
differences between the conduits and fissure matrix were taken into account by the porosity
factor fP. With it A, A1 and A2 in Fig. 7 are related to each other as follows:
A A1 A2 A1 1 f P

(16)

Having defined the flow processes of the conduit and the fissure matrix, water balance for
both reservoirs can be established:
dV1 t

dV2 t
dt

dt

QIN 1
QIN 2

V2 t f PV1 t

V2 t f PV1 t
KE

V1 t
K1

(17)

KE

Rearranging Eq. (17) results in a linear system of inhomogeneous differential equations:

fP
1

D K K
E
1

fP

KE

1
V t Q
K E 1 IN 1

1
D
V2 t QIN 2
KE

(18)

Hereby, D is the differential operator d/dt. Assuming constant inflows QIN1 and QIN2, Eq.
(18) can be solved analytically with standard methods (Kramer's rule, variation of constants;
e.g. Boyce and DiPrima, 2000) and yield:
V1 t B1 exp A1t B2 exp A2t C 1
V2 (t ) B3 exp A1t B4 exp A2 t C 2

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(19)

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With the constants

1 1 1 fP
1 1 1 fP
1
A1,2

2 K1
4 K1
KE
K E K 1K E
2

A2V10 A2C 1
V10
A1 A2
A2V20 A2C 2
V20
B3
A1 A2

B1

(20)

B2 V10 B1 C 1
B4 V20 B3 C 2

C 1 K 1 QIN 1 QIN 2

C 2 K EQIN 2 K 1 f P QIN 1 QIN 2

(21)

(22)

and V20
the storage change at t= 0.
Where V10 and V20 are the reservoir volumes and V10
and V20
can be obtained by Eq. 18):
V10

V10

V20

dV1 t 0

dV2 t 0
dt

dt

QIN 1
QIN 2

V20 f PV10 V10

KE
K1

V f PV10
20
KE

(23)

Except for A1,2, the constants, as well as the initial conditions refer to a single time step, and
have to be calculated each time step again. For instance at time step t V10 would be equal to
V1(t-1) and V20 equal to V2(t-2), respectively.
Methods that consider the exchange between fissure matrix and conduits can be found in
Cornaton & Perrochet (2002) and Sauter (1992). In Fig. 8, the exchange reservoirs solution
was applied to the last recharge event and the dry season recession in 1998 at the Banias
Spring (see section 2.2). The exchange between the conduit and the fissure matrix reservoir
resulted in a buffering of the recharge signal and a slow increase in fissure matrix storage.
Exchange flow was negative, indicating flow towards the fissure matrix. Around the end of

Fig. 8. Left: stored water in the conduit reservoir V1, the fissure matrix reservoir V2 and total
storage V1+V2; Middle: total recharge QIN, spring discharge Q1 and exchange flow QE vs.
observed spring flow; Right: conduit and matrix water SO4 concentrations, CConduits and
CMatrix, discharge concentrations C1 vs. observed SO4 concentrations

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227

April, it changed its direction, which means that parts of the stored water in the fissure
matrix were released again to the springs. This switch of direction of the exchange flow was
nearly insignificant in terms of flow rates but had immense impact on the water quality.
This is exemplified by the SO4 variations observed at the same spring during the same time:
by simply attributing constant SO4 concentrations to the conduit and matrix flows their
mixing at the spring outlet resulted in an acceptable agreement with the observations.
2.5 The linear reservoir with two outlets

In this section, the case of the effect of additional outlet is discussed. Consider the case of a
spring discharge, which differs from the basic case (section 2.1) in two important elements:
(1) the spring may dry out completely, so that the exponential recession (Eq. 8) is not valid
for low flow rates; and (2) From the water mass balance calculations, it is assumed that the
groundwater recharge is larger than the spring discharge, and therefore part of the water
continues to flow downstream the aquifer to deeper layers. When these two conditions are
valid, the linear reservoir with upper and lower outlets (Fig. 9) may represent the system
rather well.
With similar considerations, we can handle the problem in Eq. 5 with two outlets, and no
recharge, described as follows:
dV t
dt

Qout 1
Q
out 0
Q
out 0 ;

; 0 t t1
t t1

(24)

where t1 is the time in which the upper outlet (Qout1) is drying, leaving only the flow in the
lower outlet (Qout0).
h

Qin

Qin
A

(b)

(a)
h0

h0
H1

K1, n1

H1

Qout1

h
K2, n2

A
K1, n1

Qout1

K2, n2

Qout0

H0

H0

Qout0

impermeable

Fig. 9. Linear reservoir with two outlets at different levels

If it is assumed that outlet (1) changes the pressure field only locally, we can consider each
outflow separately as a linear function of the head above it, so that:

Qout 1 t 1 h t H 1

Qout 0 t 2 h t H 0

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(25)

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With Eq. 25 incorporated into Eq. 24, assuming no inflow and H0=0 the problem is defined
as follows:

1
1

; 0 t t1
H1

h t
dh t K 1 K 2
K

1
; with h t 0 h0

dt
1 h t
; t1 t
K
2

(26)

The analytical solution to the problem in Eq. 26 is:

h t

C
C
h0 exp qt
q
q

where
H
C 1
K1
and

; 0 t t1

1
1

K1 K2

h t C exp
t t1 ;
K

(27)

t t1

In order to keep continuous recession curve, the head at time t1 should be equal to H1, and
identical for the two problems, therefore:

h t1

C
C
h0 exp qt1 H 1
q
q

(28)

From Eq. 28 we can define the time t1 in which the flow from the upper outlet vanishes. It is
a function of h0 , H 1 , K 1 and K 2 .

H C q
t1 t h H ln 1
q
1
h0 C q

(29)

That type of groundwater reservoir is also included in the HBV model (Lindstrm et al.,
1997). An application of the proposed mechanism is presented in Fig. 10, with measured
discharge flow from the Carcara Springs in the Western Galilee, Israel, during the dry
period starting in March 2002. Note that this spring is similar to the one presented in section
2.1 and therefore K1 was calibrated to 117 days. However, there is a major difference
between section 2.1 and 2.5; since the beginning of pumping in 1985, water levels have been
dropping significantly, so that the spring has been drying completely almost every dry
season since 1995. The drying requires analysing the spring discharge with Eq. 26 rather
than with Eq. 7, and additional calibration of K2=100 days, which, as expected, turned to be
nearly similar to K1. On the regular scale (Fig. 10a) the difference between a drying and not
drying spring is not easily perceived, but it becomes clear, and the value of t1 = 161 days is
obvious when plotted on a logarithmic scale (Fig. 10b).

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Simplified Conceptual Structures

and Analytical Solutions for Groundwater Discharge Using Reservoir Equations

Qout1 (m3sec-1)

50

Qout1
Qout1,exp
Measured

40
30
20
10

(a)
0

60

Log[Qout1 (m3sec-1)]

100.00

60

229

10.00
1.00
0.10
0.01

120

180

240

300

360

(b)
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

days

days

Fig. 10. The outflows through the upper outlet in a linear reservoir with two outlets in
different level Qout1 and, for comparison, the outflow from a regular linear reservoir without
lower outlet Qout1,exp . (a) regular scale; (b) logarithmic scale.
2.6 Aquifer drainage to submerged springs

The same physical factors were considered in modelling the process of groundwater
discharge into springs onshore and offshore a lake, or a river (Fig. 11). Unlike in previous
cases, here, the analytical solution was applied to the entire annual cycle, in order to
exemplify the case where the spring outflows are dictated by the downstream head at the
lake or river.
Observation
well

(a)

(b)
h
z1

On shore
spring
Qin

lake

Qin

Qout1
HL
Qout0

K1, n1

Confined aquifer
K0, n0
impermeable

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic description of groundwater system that discharges simultaneously
from confined aquifer into springs onshore and offshore a lake. (b) A model where the
reservoir drains through a constant level (z1) onshore spring Qout1(t), and a time varying
boundary HL(t) representing offshore spring Qout0(t). The hydraulic head within a short
distance (up to several hundred meters) from the lake is h(t).
The proposed simplified model aims to link the time-dependent spring discharge to the
hydraulic heads in the contributing aquifer under the fluctuations of the lake level. These
fluctuations are independent of the aquifer system, and affect the spring flow as a close
boundary condition. Here we assume constant recharge Qin, and time dependent discharge
from the aquifer to the onshore Qout1(t) and offshore Qout0(t) springs:

Qout 1 t 1 h t z1

Qout 0 t 0 h t H L t

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(30)

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We regard the elevation of the onshore spring z1=0, and lake HL level fluctuating as a sin
function around an average level. Under these conditions:

Qout 1 t 1 h t

Qout 0 t 0 h t b0 b1 sin 1t

(31)

Here b0 (m) is the average lake level below the spring outlet (b0 is negative); b1 (m) is the
lake fluctuations amplitude; is the angular frequency in radians which for yearly rotations
has a set value of 1 2 365.25 ; and is the phase shift (radians). With similar
considerations as in earlier problems, we can handle the reservoir mass balance with two
outlets, and constant recharge:
dV t
dt

Qin Qout 0 Qout 1

(32)

Incorporating Eq. 31 into Eq. 32 and rearranging using Eqs. 2, 3 and 4 results in:

dh t

1
Qin
b
b
1

0 1 sin 1t
h t
dt
A n K0 K0
K1 K0
with :
h t 0 H0

(33)

This equation is solved analytically by:

h t H 0 exp( qt )
1
1
q

K0 K1

cos 1t q sin 1t
b0
Qin

b1
K0q A n q
K 0 12 q 2

(34)

An initial test of this solution reveals that if t , the lake level assumed to be steady with
no fluctuations (b1=0), and the inflow Qin=0, then:
h t

b0
b0

K0q
K0
1

K1

(35)

From Eq. 35 it can be concluded that if the connection between the aquifer and the lake is
significantly stronger than the connection to the onshore spring (K0<<K1), then the aquifer
hydraulic head assumes the level of the lake h t b0 , but if K0>>K1 the aquifer hydraulic
head adapts to the level of the spring outlet h t 0 . If Qin>0 then h(t) increases by Qin
resulting higher discharge through the spring outlets. Discharge of an onshore spring
Qout1(t) is straight forward to measure. Therefore, we can evaluate it according to Eq. 31 and
calibrate 1. However the offshore spring discharge Qout2(t) is usually difficult to measure
resulting in infinite possibilities to evaluate it since 0 is also unknown.

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As an example, the analytical solution is applied to the Fuliya Springs (Fig. 12) onshore and
offshore lake Kinneret Israel. The case of the Fuliya saline springs was classified as confined
carbonate aquifer, interacting with the lake through fractures and faults (Goldshmidt et al.,
1967; Gvirtzman et al., 1997; Bergelson et al., 1998). The carbonate aquifer system of these
springs overlays deep-seated brine, from which saline flux mixes with the fresh
groundwater. Diluted saline water drains through fracture springs to both onshore and
offshore springs (Rimmer et al., 1999, Abbo et al., 2003). Hydrogeological studies of this
natural group of springs, as well as their intensive monitoring (Rimmer et al., 1999) allow us
to analyze the simultaneous discharge processes of both onshore and offshore springs in
more detail. The observations show that the measured hydraulic head of the aquifer and the
discharge to the onshore springs follows the fluctuations (increase or decrease) of the
measured lake level (Fig. 12). Discharge to offshore springs could not be measured directly.
There is however clear evidence (Simon & Eizik, 1991) that it behaves as a mirror picture of
the lake level. These results were previously verified by a partial analytical solution proposed
by Rimmer et al., (1999) and later by a detailed numerical model (Abbo et al., 2003). With the
current analytical solution in Eq. 34 we can test the offshore and the total discharge in time by
changing 0 (Fig. 13). The real value of Qout2(t) remain however unknown.
Head in aquifer (model)
Head in aquifer (measured)
Lake Level model
Lake Level (measured)

1.5

35
30

0.5
0.0

-0.5

60

120

180
days

240

300

360

-1.0
-1.5

25
20

Mesured

15

Model

10

-2.0
-2.5

Qout m3 hour-1

level (m)

1.0

(a)

-3.0

(b)
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

days

Q m3 hour-1

Fig. 12. Application of the analytical solution (Eq. 34) to a. the measured Lake Kinneret level
and the measured hydraulic head in the aquifer ~100 m from the lake, and to b. Fuliya
Spring discharge through onshore spring. Discharge to the onshore spring vanishes when
the hydraulic head drops below the level of the spring outlet.
35

45

70

30

40
35

60

Measured
onshore outlet
offshore outlet
total outflow
Inflow

25
20

50

30
25

40

20
15

15
10

(a)

30

20

(b)

10
5
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

(c)

10
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

60

120

180

240

300

360

days

Fig. 13. Application of the analytical solution (Eq. 34 and 31) to Fuliya Spring discharge
through both onshore and offshore springs, with three different values of 0 (a: 0=-2, b: 0=10, c: 0=-20).

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Water Resources Management and Modeling

2.7 Long term reduction of groundwater level and spring discharge

The same physical considerations may be used to examine the process of long-term changes
of groundwater level and annual spring discharge (Fig. 14). Unlike previous cases, the time
scale here is much larger than a daily scale. The analytical solution is applied here for multi
annual changes of hydrological variables such as groundwater level and spring discharge,
to test whether the aquifer storage is affected by the initiation of large changes upstream.
Such changes are for example the initiation of pumping wells, or construction of large water
storage reservoirs, which started at a certain point in time.
We consider an average constant annual inflow Qin0 to the reservoir that represents the
aquifer storage. The outflow is similar to Eq. 2, where elevation of the spring outlet is set to
H0=0. A constant flow Qp represents an outflow from the reservoir in addition to the spring
outlet, such as pumping wells or reduction of inflows due to significant land use changes.
Under these definitions:

Qin t Qin0

Qout t 0 h t H 0

(36)

Qp (t ) Qp
Qp

Qin

Qin

Qp

(a)

A
K

Qout H0

H0

(b)
Qout

impermeable

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic description of groundwater system; (b) linear reservoir model -the
water flux through the outlet is proportional with storage.
With similar considerations as in the problems described above, the reservoir mass balance
is controlled by two outflows (Fig. 14) one is constant in time Qp, whereas the other is
time-dependent spring discharge Qout(t). On the annual time scale, the natural recharge Qin0
is considered as constant. The time when the change occurred (pump, land use change) is
considered as t=0. The reservoir equation is therefore:
dV t

Qin0 h t H 0 Qp
dt
t 0 Qp 0
; t 0 Qp 0

(37)

Rearranging the problem results in

dh t

Qin 0 Qp
1
h t
with h t 0 h0
;
dt
K
An
t 0 Qp 0
; t 0 Qp 0

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233

It should be emphasized that K in this case represents a timescale by far larger than the
seasonal timescale. Eq. (38) is solved analytically with

K
K

t
h t h0
Qin 0 Qp exp
Qin 0 Qp
An

K An
An
Qout t
h t
K

(39)

It is assumed that prior to t=0, a steady state had been reached with Qp=0 and therefore
h(t)=h0 =(K/An)Qin0. At t the system is set on a new steady state h(t)= (K/An)(Qin0Qp). The expression [(h0- K/An)(Qin0-Qp)] is the aquifer system long-term full response to
the change Qp in water inflows and outflows. If this expression is zero, aquifer level and
spring discharge will remain unchanged in time. If the expression is positive, hydraulic
head decrease from one steady state to another, and vice versa.
As an example, this analytical solution is applied to the groundwater level in the Lower
Judea Group Aquifer near the Uja spring, located in the Eastern Basin of the Judea-Samaria
Mountains, ~12 km north-west of the town of Jericho. According to water level
measurements and the stratigraphic analysis in this region (Guttman, 2007; Laronne BenItzhak & Gvirtzman, 2005), the Judea Group aquifer, with a thickness of about 800 to 850 m,
is comprised of two sub-aquifers: the upper and the lower aquifers. The upper and lower
sub-aquifers are separated by relatively low permeability formations, causing groundwater
levels in the upper aquifer to be significantly higher than those in lower aquifer do.
Near the Uja Spring there are four wells. (Mekorot Uja-Naaran wells 1,2,3,4) drilled into the
lower aquifer (Guttman, 2007). The first well (Uja 1) was drilled in 1964 by the Jordanian
authority to a depth of 288 m and later was deepened by the Israeli authorities to 536 m.
This well pumped from the upper part of the lower aquifer. In 1974, a new well (Uja 2) was
drilled to a depth of 615 m in order to replace the Uja 1 well. At the beginning of the 1980s,
two more wells were drilled (Uja 3, to a depth of 738 m and Uja 4 to 650.5 m) a few
kilometres south of the other two wells. The three wells (Uja 2,3,4) currently pump ~3106
m3 annually from the lower aquifer of the Judea Group.
It is assumed that the steady state of groundwater levels in the wells stood at 100 m below
sea level (bsl.) prior to the significant pumping in 1974, whereas currently, the new steady
state is ~280 m bsl. The long-term measured reduction of groundwater level is nearly
exponential from 1974 to 1991 (Fig. 15). Following the extremely rainy season of 1991-1992
the levels increased to ~220 bsl, but since the year 2000 it returned to the steady state of ~280
m bsl. The proposed solution for this case was reached assuming K=1980 days; Qin=8200 m3
day-1 (3106 m3 annually); Qp=8200 m3 day-1; An=90,000 m2; and reduction of level (t=0)
initiated in 1974.
The physical interpretation of these results is that prior to the year 1974 a flux of ~3106 m3
passed through the local Lower Judea Group aquifer annually (both Qin and Qout were ~
8200 m3 day-1). The continuous pumping caused a significant reduction of groundwater
level, and brought the system to a new steady state in which the natural flow of
groundwater is reduced. The artificial deployment replaced the natural groundwater
outflow, which originally travelled downstream following the hydraulic gradient.

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Water Resources Management and Modeling

Groundwater level (m)

-50

Mek Uja-Naaran 1
Mek Uja-Naaran 2

-100

Mek Uja-Naaran 3
Mek Uja-Naaran 4
Exp function

-150
-200
-250

-300
01/1974 01/1978 01/1982 01/1986 01/1990 01/1994 01/1998 01/2002 01/2006

date

Annual discharge (m3day -1) Groundwater level (m)

Fig. 15. Measured and modeled multiannual ground water level in the Lower Judea Group
aquifer near Uja Spring from 1974 to 2007.

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Jan-52

a.

Measured groundwater level

Trend of groundwater level
Modeled level

b.
Measured discharge
Modeled discharge
Sep-65

May-79
date

Jan-93

Oct-06

Fig. 16. Measured and modeled multiannual trends of (a) groundwater level (monthly
values from 1988 to1999), and (b) average annual discharge of the Masrefot Spring from
1952 to 2008.

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Simplified Conceptual Structures

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235

Another simplified solution can be obtained for the special case in which long-term regional
groundwater level and spring discharge is being constantly reduced. One possible
explanation for such reduction is the increasing deployment of the aquifer. From the
modelling point of view this is a case where Qp in Eqs. 36-39 follows a linear change in time
(Qp = at+ b). We consider an average constant annual inflow Qin and outflow Qout similar to
Eq. (2), but the additional outflow Qp, representing local pumping, is evolving and
increasing linearly in time. When Qp = at+ b is implemented in equations (36-39) the
analytical solution is:

Kb KQin exp t K Q at b
h t h0

in

An
K An

An
Qout t
h t
K

(40)

In this case, the exponential term (first term in the right hand side of Eq. 40) may approach
zero very quickly, while most of the reduction of groundwater level and spring discharge
depends on the decrease of recharge expressed in the second term in Eqs. 40 by Qin(at+b).
At large t the system continuously reduces in time as expected.
As an example, this analytical solution is applied to the Masrefot Spring (Fig. 16), which
is affected by the hydraulic heads of the Lower Judea Group aquifer in the Western
Galilee, Israel. This spring was selected for this case since on the one hand, according to
Kafri (1970), its seasonal changes in discharge are hardly noticed due to the large storage
of water that feeds them. On the other hand, the long-term history of measured spring
discharge (~60 years, Fig. 16) may reflect the reduction of regional groundwater level. The
regional water supply system includes dozens of pumping wells. Analysis of the actual
annual pumping in these wells revealed a nearly linear increase of pumped water
(r2=0.87) at least between 1960 and 1990, with an average increase of ~350,000 m3 year-1.
This is probably the reason for the systematic linear decrease of groundwater levels and
Masrefot Spring discharge.

3. Summary
The steps towards modeling groundwater usually include (1) definition of the modeling
domain; (2) definition of the hydrogeological structure; and (3) evaluation of initial and
boundary conditions. The objective of this paper is to suggest an additional step (4),
estimating the dominant parts that define the timely response of the hydrological system.
This step is particularly important in developing conceptual models that simplify the
hydrological problem to its relevant processes. We showed that using an analytical solution
with this methodology could result in some important understanding of the system in
question. Although the analytical solution can sometimes be the entire required modeling,
usually the usage of analytical solution is only the first idea that we have on the timedependent system. The cases described in section 2.1 and 2.2 are indeed well known, and
often found in the literature. However, the cases described in sections 2.3-2.7 are less
familiar, but can be used for creating other new types of models. In section 2.3, we showed
that a system of two serial reservoirs might be used to characterize the flow instead of

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Water Resources Management and Modeling

parallel reservoirs. In section 2.4, the possibility of exchanging parallel reservoirs was
discussed. Section 2.5 proposed that the recession curve might not fall into the well-known
exponential shape due to downward flow to lower outlet, while section 2.6 showed how
spring flow could change in time due to nearby dominant boundary condition (such as
lake). Finally, section 2.7 suggested simple modeling for multiannual groundwater levels
and spring discharge under reduction in water availability, a specific environmental
problem that is occurring now, and expected in the future. Altogether, our set of examples
can help in developing new process-based models for better system understanding and
forward prediction.

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Bergelson, G., Nativ, R. & Bein, A. 1998. Assessment of hydraulic parameters in the aquifers
sorrounding and underlying Sea of Galilee. GroundWater 36:409-417.
Beven, K.J., Kirby, M.J., 1979. A physically based, variable contributing area model of basin
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Bonacci, O., 1993. Karst springs hydrographs as indicators of karst aquifers / Les
hydrogrammes des sources karstiques en tant qu'indicateurs des aquifres
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Boyce, W.E., DiPrima, R.C., 2000. Elementary Differential Equations. Wiley, New York, 700
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discrete-continuum models. Application to karstic spring hydrograph modelling.
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with a reservoir model: Application to Fontaine de Vaucluse (South of France).
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Singh, V.P., 1988. Hydrologic systems, rainfall-runoff modeling. Prentice Hall, NJ.
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Water Resources Management and Modeling

Edited by Dr. Purna Nayak

ISBN 978-953-51-0246-5
Hard cover, 310 pages
Publisher InTech

Published online 21, March, 2012

Published in print edition March, 2012

Hydrology is the science that deals with the processes governing the depletion and replenishment of water
resources of the earth's land areas. The purpose of this book is to put together recent developments on
hydrology and water resources engineering. First section covers surface water modeling and second section
deals with groundwater modeling. The aim of this book is to focus attention on the management of surface
water and groundwater resources. Meeting the challenges and the impact of climate change on water
resources is also discussed in the book. Most chapters give insights into the interpretation of field information,
development of models, the use of computational models based on analytical and numerical techniques,
assessment of model performance and the use of these models for predictive purposes. It is written for the
practicing professionals and students, mathematical modelers, hydrogeologists and water resources
specialists.

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