Riemann hypothesis

Critical line redirects here. For the notion in phase tran- Thus, if the hypothesis is correct, all the non-trivial zeros
sition, see Critical line (thermodynamics).
lie on the critical line consisting of the complex numbers
In mathematics, the Riemann hypothesis, proposed by 1/2 + i t, where t is a real number and i is the imaginary
unit.
There are several nontechnical books on the Riemann hypothesis, such as Derbyshire (2003), Rockmore (2005),
(Sabbagh 2003a, 2003b), du Sautoy (2003). The books
Edwards (1974), Patterson (1988), Borwein et al. (2008)
and Mazur & Stein (2014) give mathematical introductions, while Titchmarsh (1986), Ivi (1985) and
Karatsuba & Voronin (1992) are advanced monographs.

1 Riemann zeta function

The Riemann zeta function is dened for complex s with
real part greater than 1 by the absolutely convergent
innite series

The real part (red) and imaginary part (blue) of the Riemann zeta
function along the critical line Re(s) = 1/2. The rst non-trivial
zeros can be seen at Im(s) = 14.135, 21.022 and 25.011.

(s) =

1
1
1
1
= s + s + s + .
s
n
1
2
3
n=1

Bernhard Riemann (1859), is a conjecture that the nontrivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function all have real
part 1/2. The name is also used for some closely related Leonhard Euler showed that this series equals the Euler
analogues, such as the Riemann hypothesis for curves product
over nite elds.
The Riemann hypothesis implies results about the distribution of prime numbers. Along with suitable generalizations, some mathematicians consider it the most
important unresolved problem in pure mathematics
(Bombieri 2000). The Riemann hypothesis, along with
the Goldbach conjecture, is part of Hilberts eighth problem in David Hilbert's list of 23 unsolved problems; it is
also one of the Clay Mathematics Institute Millennium
Prize Problems.

(s) =

pprime

1
1
1
1
1
1
=

1 ps
1 2s 1 3s 1 5s 1 7s
1 p

where the innite product extends over all prime numbers

p, and again converges for complex s with real part greater
than 1. The convergence of the Euler product shows that
(s) has no zeros in this region, as none of the factors have
zeros.
The Riemann hypothesis discusses zeros outside the
region of convergence of this series, so it must be
analytically continued to all complex s. This can be done
by expressing it in terms of the Dirichlet eta function as
follows. If the real part of s is greater than one, then the
zeta function satises

The Riemann zeta function (s) is a function whose

argument s may be any complex number other than 1,
and whose values are also complex. It has zeros at the
negative even integers; that is, (s) = 0 when s is one of
2, 4, 6, .... These are called its trivial zeros. However, the negative even integers are not the only values
for which the zeta function is zero. The other ones are
called non-trivial zeros. The Riemann hypothesis is concerned with the locations of these non-trivial zeros, and
states that:

)
(

(1)n+1
1 1 1
2
= s s + s .
1 s (s) =
s
2
n
1
2 3
n=1
However, the series on the right converges not just when
s is greater than one, but more generally whenever s has
positive real part. Thus, this alternative series extends the

The real part of every non-trivial zero of the

Riemann zeta function is 1/2.
1

HISTORY

zeta function from Re(s) > 1 to the larger domain Re(s) > which counts the primes and prime powers up to x, count0, excluding the zeros s = 1 + 2in/ ln(2) of 1 2/2s ing a prime power pn as 1/n of a prime. The number of
(see Dirichlet eta function). The zeta function can be ex- primes can be recovered from this function by
tended to these values, as well, by taking limits, giving a
nite value for all values of s with positive real part except

1
(n)
for a simple pole at s = 1.
(x) =
(x n )
n
n=1
In the strip 0 < Re(s) < 1 the zeta function satises the
1
1
1
1
1
1
functional equation
= (x) (x 2 ) (x 3 ) (x 5 )
2
3
5
1
1
( s )
+ (x 6 ) ,
s s1
6
(s) = 2
sin
(1 s) (1 s).
2
where is the Mbius function. Riemanns formula is
One may then dene (s) for all remaining nonzero com- then
plex numbers s by assuming that this equation holds out
side the strip as well, and letting (s) equal the right-hand
Li(x ) log(2)
side of the equation whenever s has non-positive real part. 0 (x) = Li(x)

If s is a negative even integer then (s) = 0 because the

dt
factor sin(s/2) vanishes; these are the trivial zeros of the
+
zeta function. (If s is a positive even integer this argument
t(t2 1) log(t)
x
does not apply because the zeros of the sine function are where the sum is over the nontrivial zeros of the zeta funccancelled by the poles of the gamma function as it takes tion and where is a slightly modied version of that
0
negative integer arguments.) The value (0) = 1/2 is not replaces its value at its points of discontinuity by the avdetermined by the functional equation, but is the limiting erage of its upper and lower limits:
value of (s) as s approaches zero. The functional equation also implies that the zeta function has no zeros with
negative real part other than the trivial zeros, so all non(x ) + (x + )
0 (x) = lim
.
trivial zeros lie in the critical strip where s has real part
0
2
between 0 and 1.
The summation in Riemanns formula is not absolutely
convergent, but may be evaluated by taking the zeros in
order of the absolute value of their imaginary part. The
2 History
function Li occurring in the rst term is the (unoset)
logarithmic integral function given by the Cauchy princi"es ist sehr wahrscheinlich, dass alle Wurzeln reell sind. pal value of the divergent integral
Hiervon wre allerdings ein strenger Beweis zu wnschen;
x
ich habe indess die Aufsuchung desselben nach einigen
dt
.
chtigen vergeblichen Versuchen vorlug bei Seite ge- Li(x) =
0 log(t)
lassen, da er fr den nchsten Zweck meiner UntersuThe terms Li(x ) involving the zeros of the zeta function
chung entbehrlich schien."
"it is very probable that all roots are real. Of course need some care in their denition as Li has branch points
one would wish for a rigorous proof here; I have for the at 0 and 1, and are dened (for x > 1) by analytic contime being, after some eeting vain attempts, provision- tinuation in the complex variable in the region Re()
ally put aside the search for this, as it appears dispensable > 0, i.e. they should be considered as Ei( ln x). The
other terms also correspond to zeros: the dominant term
for the next objective of my investigation.
Li(x) comes from the pole at s = 1, considered as a zero
Riemanns statement of the Riemann hypothesis, from
of multiplicity 1, and the remaining small terms come
(Riemann 1859). (He was discussing a version of the
from the trivial zeros. For some graphs of the sums of the
zeta function, modied so that its roots are real rather
rst few terms of this series see Riesel & Ghl (1970) or
than on the critical line.)
Zagier (1977).
This formula says that the zeros of the Riemann zeta funcIn his 1859 paper On the Number of Primes Less Than a
tion control the oscillations of primes around their exGiven Magnitude Riemann found an explicit formula for
pected positions. Riemann knew that the non-trivial zethe number of primes (x) less than a given number x.
ros of the zeta function were symmetrically distributed
His formula was given in terms of the related function
about the line s = 1/2 + it, and he knew that all of its
non-trivial zeros must lie in the range 0 Re(s) 1. He
checked that a few of the zeros lay on the critical line
1
1
1
(x) = (x) + 12 (x 2 ) + 13 (x 3 ) + 14 (x 4 )
with real part 1/2 and suggested that they all do; this is
1
1
the Riemann hypothesis.
+ 15 (x 5 ) + 16 (x 6 ) +

3.2

Growth of arithmetic functions

Consequences of the Riemann

hypothesis

M (x) =

(n)

nx

The practical uses of the Riemann hypothesis include

many propositions known true under the Riemann hy- then the claim that
pothesis, and some that can be shown equivalent to the
Riemann hypothesis.
1
M (x) = O(x 2 + )

3.1

Distribution of prime numbers

Riemanns explicit formula for the number of primes less

than a given number in terms of a sum over the zeros
of the Riemann zeta function says that the magnitude
of the oscillations of primes around their expected position is controlled by the real parts of the zeros of the
zeta function. In particular the error term in the prime
number theorem is closely related to the position of the
zeros: for example, the supremum of real parts of the
zeros is the inmum of numbers such that the error is
O(x )(Ingham 1932).

for every positive is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis (J.E. Littlewood, 1912; see for instance: paragraph
14.25 in Titchmarsh (1986)). (For the meaning of these
symbols, see Big O notation.) The determinant of the order n Redheer matrix is equal to M(n), so the Riemann
hypothesis can also be stated as a condition on the growth
of these determinants. The Riemann hypothesis puts a
rather tight bound on the growth of M, since Odlyzko &
te Riele (1985) disproved the slightly stronger Mertens
conjecture

Von Koch (1901) proved that the Riemann hypothesis is |M (x)| x.

equivalent to the best possible bound for the error of
The Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to many other conthe prime number theorem.
jectures about the rate of growth of other arithmetic funcA precise version of Kochs result, due to Schoenfeld tions aside from (n). A typical example is Robins theo(1976), says that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent rem (Robin 1984), which states that if (n) is the divisor
to
function, given by

|(x) Li(x)| <

1
x log(x),
8

all forx 2657.

(n) =

d|n

Schoenfeld (1976) also showed that the Riemann hypoththen

esis is equivalent to

|(x) x| <

1
x log2 (x),
8

all forx 73.2,

where (x) is Chebyshevs second function.

(n) < e n log log n

for all n > 5040 if and only if the Riemann hypothesis is
true, where is the EulerMascheroni constant.

Another example was found by Jrme Franel, and extended by Landau (see Franel & Landau (1924)). The
Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to several statements
The Riemann hypothesis implies strong bounds on the showing that the terms of the Farey sequence are fairly
growth of many other arithmetic functions, in addition regular. One such equivalence is as follows: if Fn is the
to the primes counting function above.
Farey sequence of order n, beginning with 1/n and up to
One example involves the Mbius function . The state- 1/1, then the claim that for all > 0
ment that the equation

3.2

Growth of arithmetic functions

(n)
1
=
(s) n=1 ns

|Fn (i)

i
m|

= O(n 2 + )

i=1

is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis. Here

is valid for every s with real part greater than 1/2, with the
sum on the right hand side converging, is equivalent to the
n

Riemann hypothesis. From this we can also conclude that m =

(i)
if the Mertens function is dened by
i=1

3 CONSEQUENCES OF THE RIEMANN HYPOTHESIS

3.5 Criteria equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis

For an example from group theory, if g(n) is Landaus
is the number of terms in the Farey sequence of order n.

function given by the maximal order of elements of the

symmetric group Sn of degree n, then Massias, Nicolas Many statements equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis
& Robin (1988) showed that the Riemann hypothesis is have been found, though so far none of them have led to
much progress in proving (or disproving) it. Some typiequivalent to the bound
cal examples are as follows. (Others involve the divisor
function (n).)

The Riesz criterion was given by Riesz (1916), to the eflog g(n) < Li1 (n)
fect that the bound
for all suciently large n.

3.3

k=1

( 1 )
(x)k
= O x 4 +
(k 1)!(2k)

Lindelf hypothesis and growth of the

holds for all > 0 if and only if the Riemann hypothesis
zeta function
holds.

The Riemann hypothesis has various weaker conse- Nyman (1950) proved that the Riemann Hypothesis is
quences as well; one is the Lindelf hypothesis on the true if and only if the space of functions of the form
rate of growth of the zeta function on the critical line,
which says that, for any > 0,
( )
n

f (x) =
c
x
=1
(
)
1
where (z) is the fractional part of z, 0 1, and

+ it = O(t ),
2
as t .

c = 0
The Riemann hypothesis also implies quite sharp bounds =1
for the growth rate of the zeta function in other regions
is dense in the Hilbert space L2 (0,1) of square-integrable
of the critical strip. For example, it implies that
functions on the unit interval. Beurling (1955) extended
this by showing that the zeta function has no zeros with
real part greater than 1/p if and only if this function space
|(1 + it)|
is dense in Lp (0,1)
2e
e lim sup
t+ log log t
Salem (1953) showed that the Riemann hypothesis is true
if and only if the integral equation
6
1/|(1 + it)|
12
e lim sup
2e
2
log log t

t+
1
z
(z) dz
=0
so the growth rate of (1+it) and its inverse would be
x/z
e
+1
0
known up to a factor of 2 (Titchmarsh 1986).
has no non-trivial bounded solutions for 1/2 < < 1
.
Weils criterion is the statement that the positivity of a
certain function is equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis.
The prime number theorem implies that on average, the Related is Lis criterion, a statement that the positivity of a
gap between the prime p and its successor is log p. How- certain sequence of numbers is equivalent to the Riemann
ever, some gaps between primes may be much larger than hypothesis.
the average. Cramr proved that, assuming the Riemann Speiser (1934) proved that the Riemann hypothesis is
hypothesis, every gap is O(p log p). This is a case in equivalent to the statement that (s) , the derivative of
which even the best bound that can be proved using the (s), has no zeros in the strip
Riemann Hypothesis is far weaker than what seems true:
Cramrs conjecture implies that every gap is O((log p)2 ),
which, while larger than the average gap, is far smaller 0 < (s) < 1 .
2
than the bound implied by the Riemann hypothesis. Numerical evidence supports Cramrs conjecture (Nicely That has only simple zeros on the critical line is equiv1999).
alent to its derivative having no zeros on the critical line.

3.4

Large prime gap conjecture

3.7

3.6

Excluded middle

Consequences of the generalized Riemann hypothesis

Several applications use the generalized Riemann hypothesis for Dirichlet L-series or zeta functions of number
elds rather than just the Riemann hypothesis. Many
basic properties of the Riemann zeta function can easily
be generalized to all Dirichlet L-series, so it is plausible
that a method that proves the Riemann hypothesis for the
Riemann zeta function would also work for the generalized Riemann hypothesis for Dirichlet L-functions. Several results rst proved using the generalized Riemann
hypothesis were later given unconditional proofs without
using it, though these were usually much harder. Many
of the consequences on the following list are taken from
Conrad (2010).
In 1913, Gronwall showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that Gausss list of imaginary quadratic elds with class number 1 is complete, though Baker, Stark and Heegner later gave
unconditional proofs of this without using the generalized Riemann hypothesis.

5
Weinberger (1973) showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the zeta functions of all algebraic number elds implies that any number eld
with class number 1 is either Euclidean or an imaginary quadratic number eld of discriminant 19,
43, 67, or 163.
In 1976, G. Miller showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that one can test if a number is prime in polynomial time via the Miller test.
In 2002, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal and Nitin
Saxena proved this result unconditionally using the
AKS primality test.
Odlyzko (1990) discussed how the generalized Riemann hypothesis can be used to give sharper estimates for discriminants and class numbers of number elds.
Ono & Soundararajan (1997) showed that the
generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that
Ramanujans integral quadratic form x2 +y2 + 10z2
represents all integers that it represents locally, with
exactly 18 exceptions.

In 1917, Hardy and Littlewood showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies a conjecture of 3.7 Excluded middle
Chebyshev that
Some consequences of the RH are also consequences
of its negation, and are thus theorems. In their discussion of the Hecke, Deuring, Mordell, Heilbronn theorem,

(p+1)/2 p
(Ireland & Rosen 1990, p. 359) say
lim
(1)
x = +,
x1

p>2

which says that in some sense primes 3 mod 4

are more common than primes 1 mod 4.
In 1923 Hardy and Littlewood showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies a weak form
of the Goldbach conjecture for odd numbers: that
every suciently large odd number is the sum of
three primes, though in 1937 Vinogradov gave an
unconditional proof. In 1997 Deshouillers, Enger,
te Riele, and Zinoviev showed that the generalized
Riemann hypothesis implies that every odd number
greater than 5 is the sum of three primes.

The method of proof here is truly amazing. If the generalized Riemann hypothesis is
true, then the theorem is true. If the generalized Riemann hypothesis is false, then the theorem is true. Thus, the theorem is true!! (punctuation in original)
Care should be taken to understand what is meant by
saying the generalized Riemann hypothesis is false: one
should specify exactly which class of Dirichlet series has
a counterexample.

3.7.1 Littlewoods theorem

In 1934, Chowla showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies that the rst prime in This concerns the sign of the error in the prime number
the arithmetic progression a mod m is at most theorem. It has been computed that (x) < Li(x) for all
Km2 log(m)2 for some xed constant K.
x 1023 , and no value of x is known for which (x) >
Li(x). See this table.
In 1967, Hooley showed that the generalized Riemann hypothesis implies Artins conjecture on In 1914 Littlewood proved that there are arbitrarily large
values of x for which
primitive roots.
In 1973, Weinberger showed that the generalized

Riemann hypothesis implies that Eulers list of

1 x
(x) > Li(x) +
log log log x,
idoneal numbers is complete.
3 log x

4 GENERALIZATIONS AND ANALOGS OF THE RIEMANN HYPOTHESIS

and that there are also arbitrarily large values of x for 3.7.3 Growth of Eulers totient
which
In 1983 J. L. Nicolas proved (Ribenboim 1996, p. 320)
that

1 x
(x) < Li(x)
log log log x.
3 log x
n

Thus the dierence (x) Li(x) changes sign innitely (n) < e log log n
many times. Skewes number is an estimate of the value
of x corresponding to the rst sign change.
for innitely many n, where (n) is Eulers totient funcLittlewoods proof is divided into two cases: the RH is tion and is Eulers constant.
assumed false (about half a page of Ingham 1932, Chapt. Ribenboim remarks that:
V), and the RH is assumed true (about a dozen pages).
3.7.2

The method of proof is interesting, in that

the inequality is shown rst under the assumption that the Riemann hypothesis is true, secondly under the contrary assumption.

Gausss class number conjecture

This is the conjecture (rst stated in article 303 of Gausss

Disquisitiones Arithmeticae) that there are only a nite
number of imaginary quadratic elds with a given class
number. One way to prove it would be to show that as the
discriminant D the class number h(D) .

4 Generalizations and analogs of

the Riemann hypothesis

The following sequence of theorems involving the Riemann hypothesis is described in Ireland & Rosen 1990,
4.1
pp. 358361:
Theorem (Hecke; 1918). Let D < 0
be the discriminant of an imaginary quadratic
number eld K. Assume the generalized Riemann hypothesis for L-functions of all imaginary quadratic Dirichlet characters. Then there
is an absolute constant C such that

|D|
h(D) > C
.
log |D|
Theorem (Deuring; 1933). If the RH is
false then h(D) > 1 if |D| is suciently large.
Theorem (Mordell; 1934). If the RH is
false then h(D) as D .
Theorem (Heilbronn; 1934). If the generalized RH is false for the L-function of some
imaginary quadratic Dirichlet character then
h(D) as D .
(In the work of Hecke and Heilbronn, the only Lfunctions that occur are those attached to imaginary
quadratic characters, and it is only for those L-functions
that GRH is true or GRH is false is intended; a failure
of GRH for the L-function of a cubic Dirichlet character would, strictly speaking, mean GRH is false, but that
was not the kind of failure of GRH that Heilbronn had in
mind, so his assumption was more restricted than simply
GRH is false.)

Dirichlet L-series and other number

elds

The Riemann hypothesis can be generalized by replacing

the Riemann zeta function by the formally similar, but
much more general, global L-functions. In this broader
setting, one expects the non-trivial zeros of the global Lfunctions to have real part 1/2. It is these conjectures,
rather than the classical Riemann hypothesis only for the
single Riemann zeta function, which account for the true
importance of the Riemann hypothesis in mathematics.
The generalized Riemann hypothesis extends the Riemann hypothesis to all Dirichlet L-functions. In particular it implies the conjecture that Siegel zeros (zeros of
L-functions between 1/2 and 1) do not exist.
The extended Riemann hypothesis extends the Riemann
hypothesis to all Dedekind zeta functions of algebraic
number elds. The extended Riemann hypothesis for
abelian extension of the rationals is equivalent to the generalized Riemann hypothesis. The Riemann hypothesis
can also be extended to the L-functions of Hecke characters of number elds.
The grand Riemann hypothesis extends it to all
automorphic zeta functions, such as Mellin transforms of
Hecke eigenforms.

4.2 Function elds and zeta functions of

varieties over nite elds

Artin (1924) introduced global zeta functions of

In 1935, Carl Siegel later strengthened the result without (quadratic) function elds and conjectured an analogue of
using RH or GRH in any way.
the Riemann hypothesis for them, which has been proven

4.5

Ihara zeta functions

by Hasse in the genus 1 case and by Weil (1948) in gen- 4.5 Ihara zeta functions
eral. For instance, the fact that the Gauss sum, of the
quadratic character of a nite eld of size q (with q odd),
The Ihara zeta function of a nite graph is an analogue
has absolute value
of the Selberg zeta function, which was rst introduced
by Yasutaka Ihara in the context of discrete subgroups of
the two-by-two p-adic special linear group. A regular
nite graph is a Ramanujan graph, a mathematical model
q
of ecient communication networks, if and only if its
is actually an instance of the Riemann hypothesis in the Ihara zeta function satises the analogue of the Riemann
function eld setting. This led Weil (1949) to conjecture a hypothesis as was pointed out by T. Sunada.
similar statement for all algebraic varieties; the resulting
Weil conjectures were proven by Pierre Deligne (1974,
1980).

4.3

4.6 Montgomerys pair correlation conjecture

Arithmetic zeta functions of arithmetic schemes and their L-factors

Arithmetic zeta functions generalise the Riemann and

Dedekind zeta functions as well as the zeta functions of
varieties over nite elds to every arithmetic scheme or a
scheme of nite type over integers. The arithmetic zeta
function of a regular connected equidimensional arithmetic scheme of Kronecker dimension n can be factorized into the product of appropriately dened L-factors
and an auxiliary factor Jean-Pierre Serre (19691970).
Assuming a functional equation and meromorphic continuation, the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the Lfactor states that its zeros inside the critical strip (s)
(0, n) lie on the central line. Correspondingly, the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the arithmetic zeta function of a regular connected equidimensional arithmetic
scheme states that its zeros inside the critical strip lie
on vertical lines (s) = 1/2, 3/2, . . . , n 1/2 and its
poles inside the critical strip lie on vertical lines (s) =
1, 2, . . . , n 1 . This is known for schemes in positive characteristic and follows from Pierre Deligne (1974,
1980), but remains entirely unknown in characteristic
zero.

4.4

Montgomery (1973) suggested the pair correlation conjecture that the correlation functions of the (suitably normalized) zeros of the zeta function should be the same as
those of the eigenvalues of a random hermitian matrix.
Odlyzko (1987) showed that this is supported by large
scale numerical calculations of these correlation functions.
Montgomery showed that (assuming the Riemann hypothesis) at least 2/3 of all zeros are simple, and a related
conjecture is that all zeros of the zeta function are simple (or more generally have no non-trivial integer linear
relations between their imaginary parts). Dedekind zeta
functions of algebraic number elds, which generalize the
Riemann zeta function, often do have multiple complex
zeros. This is because the Dedekind zeta functions factorize as a product of powers of Artin L-functions, so
zeros of Artin L-functions sometimes give rise to multiple zeros of Dedekind zeta functions. Other examples
of zeta functions with multiple zeros are the L-functions
of some elliptic curves: these can have multiple zeros at
the real point of their critical line; the Birch-SwinnertonDyer conjecture predicts that the multiplicity of this zero
is the rank of the elliptic curve.

Selberg zeta functions

Main article: Selberg zeta function

Selberg (1956) introduced the Selberg zeta function of a
Riemann surface. These are similar to the Riemann zeta
function: they have a functional equation, and an innite
product similar to the Euler product but taken over closed
geodesics rather than primes. The Selberg trace formula
is the analogue for these functions of the explicit formulas
in prime number theory. Selberg proved that the Selberg
zeta functions satisfy the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis, with the imaginary parts of their zeros related
to the eigenvalues of the Laplacian operator of the Riemann surface.

4.7 Other zeta functions

There are many other examples of zeta functions with
analogues of the Riemann hypothesis, some of which
have been proved. Goss zeta functions of function elds
have a Riemann hypothesis, proved by Sheats (1998).
The main conjecture of Iwasawa theory, proved by Barry
Mazur and Andrew Wiles for cyclotomic elds, and Wiles
for totally real elds, identies the zeros of a p-adic Lfunction with the eigenvalues of an operator, so can be
thought of as an analogue of the HilbertPlya conjecture for p-adic L-functions (Wiles 2000).

5 ATTEMPTS TO PROVE THE RIEMANN HYPOTHESIS

Attempts to prove the Riemann

hypothesis

V 1 (x) =

d1/2 N (x)
4
dx1/2

Several mathematicians have addressed the Riemann hy(Connes 1999). This yields to a Hamiltonian whose
pothesis, but none of their attempts have yet been aceigenvalues are the square of the imaginary part of the
cepted as correct solutions. Watkins (2007) lists some
Riemann zeros, and also the functional determinant of
incorrect solutions, and more are frequently announced.
this Hamiltonian operator is just the Riemann Xi function. In fact the Riemann Xi function would be proportional to the functional determinant (Hadamard product)
5.1 Operator theory
Main article: HilbertPlya conjecture
det(H + 1/4 + s(s 1))
Hilbert and Polya suggested that one way to derive the
Riemann hypothesis would be to nd a self-adjoint operator, from the existence of which the statement on the
real parts of the zeros of (s) would follow when one applies the criterion on real eigenvalues. Some support for
this idea comes from several analogues of the Riemann
zeta functions whose zeros correspond to eigenvalues of
some operator: the zeros of a zeta function of a variety
over a nite eld correspond to eigenvalues of a Frobenius
element on an tale cohomology group, the zeros of a
Selberg zeta function are eigenvalues of a Laplacian operator of a Riemann surface, and the zeros of a p-adic zeta
function correspond to eigenvectors of a Galois action on
ideal class groups.

as proven by Connes and others, in this approach

(s)
det(H + s(s 1) + 1/4)
=
.
(0)
det(H + 1/4)
The analogy with the Riemann hypothesis over nite
elds suggests that the Hilbert space containing eigenvectors corresponding to the zeros might be some sort of rst
cohomology group of the spectrum Spec(Z) of the integers. Deninger (1998) described some of the attempts to
nd such a cohomology theory (Leichtnam 2005).

In 1999, Michael Berry and Jon Keating conjectured that

of the classical
there is some unknown quantization H
Hamiltonian H = xp so that

Zagier (1983) constructed a natural space of invariant

functions on the upper half plane that has eigenvalues
under the Laplacian operator that correspond to zeros of
the Riemann zeta functionand remarked that in the unlikely event that one could show the existence of a suitable
positive denite inner product on this space, the Riemann
hypothesis would follow. Cartier (1982) discussed a related example, where due to a bizarre bug a computer program listed zeros of the Riemann zeta function as eigenvalues of the same Laplacian operator.

=0
(1/2 + iH)

Schumayer & Hutchinson (2011) surveyed some of the

attempts to construct a suitable physical model related to
the Riemann zeta function.

Odlyzko (1987) showed that the distribution of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function shares some statistical properties with the eigenvalues of random matrices
drawn from the Gaussian unitary ensemble. This gives
some support to the HilbertPlya conjecture.

and even more strongly, that the Riemann zeros coin . This
cide with the spectrum of the operator 1/2 + iH
is in contrast to canonical quantization, which leads to
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle [x, p] = 1/2 and
the natural numbers as spectrum of the quantum harmonic oscillator. The crucial point is that the Hamiltonian should be a self-adjoint operator so that the quantization would be a realization of the HilbertPlya program.
In a connection with this quantum mechanical problem
Berry and Connes had proposed that the inverse of the
potential of the Hamiltonian is connected to the halfderivative of the function

5.2 LeeYang theorem

The LeeYang theorem states that the zeros of certain
partition functions in statistical mechanics all lie on a
critical line with real part 0, and this has led to some
speculation about a relationship with the Riemann hypothesis (Knauf 1999).

5.3 Turns result

Pl Turn (1948) showed that if the functions

N (s) =

1
Arg (1/2 + i s)

then, in BerryConnes approach

n=1

ns

5.7

Arithmetic zeta functions of models of elliptic curves over number elds

have no zeros when the real part of s is greater than one 5.7
then

T (x) =

(n)
0 for x > 0,
n

nx

Noncommutative geometry

Connes (1999, 2000) has described a relationship between the Riemann hypothesis and noncommutative geometry, and shows that a suitable analog of the Selberg
trace formula for the action of the idle class group on
the adle class space would imply the Riemann hypothesis. Some of these ideas are elaborated in Lapidus (2008).

5.5

Arithmetic zeta functions of models of

elliptic curves over number elds

When one goes from geometric dimension one, e.g. an

algebraic number eld, to geometric dimension two, e.g.
a regular model of an elliptic curve over a number eld,
the two-dimensional part of the generalized Riemann hypothesis for the arithmetic zeta function of the model
deals with the poles of the zeta function. In dimension
one the study of the zeta integral in Tates thesis does not
lead to new important information on the Riemann hypothesis. Contrary to this, in dimension two work of Ivan
Fesenko on two-dimensional generalisation of Tates thesis includes an integral representation of a zeta integral
closely related to the zeta function. In this new situation,
not possible in dimension one, the poles of the zeta function can be studied via the zeta integral and associated
adele groups. Related conjecture of Fesenko (2010) on
the positivity of the fourth derivative of a boundary function associated to the zeta integral essentially implies the
pole part of the generalized Riemann hypothesis. Suzuki
(2011) proved that the latter, together with some technical assumptions, implies Fesenkos conjecture.

where (n) is the Liouville function given by (1)r if n has

r prime factors. He showed that this in turn would imply
that the Riemann hypothesis is true. However Haselgrove
(1958) proved that T(x) is negative for innitely many x
(and also disproved the closely related Plya conjecture),
and Borwein, Ferguson & Mossingho (2008) showed
that the smallest such x is 72185376951205. Spira (1968)
showed by numerical calculation that the nite Dirichlet
series above for N=19 has a zero with real part greater
than 1. Turn also showed that a somewhat weaker assumption, the nonexistence of zeros with real part greater
than 1+N 1/2+ for large N in the nite Dirichlet series above, would also imply the Riemann hypothesis,
but Montgomery (1983) showed that for all suciently
large N these series have zeros with real part greater than
1 + (log log N)/(4 log N). Therefore, Turns result is
vacuously true and cannot be used to help prove the Rie5.8
mann hypothesis.

5.4

Multiple zeta functions

Delignes proof of the Riemann hypothesis over nite

elds used the zeta functions of product varieties, whose
zeros and poles correspond to sums of zeros and poles
of the original zeta function, in order to bound the real
parts of the zeros of the original zeta function. By analogy, Kurokawa (1992) introduced multiple zeta functions
whose zeros and poles correspond to sums of zeros and
poles of the Riemann zeta function. To make the series
converge he restricted to sums of zeros or poles all with
non-negative imaginary part. So far, the known bounds
on the zeros and poles of the multiple zeta functions are
not strong enough to give useful estimates for the zeros
of the Riemann zeta function.

Hilbert spaces of entire functions

Louis de Branges (1992) showed that the Riemann hy- 6 Location of the zeros
pothesis would follow from a positivity condition on a certain Hilbert space of entire functions. However Conrey & 6.1 Number of zeros
Li (2000) showed that the necessary positivity conditions
are not satised.
The functional equation combined with the argument
principle implies that the number of zeros of the zeta
function with imaginary part between 0 and T is given
by

5.6

Quasicrystals

The Riemann hypothesis implies that the zeros of the zeta

function form a quasicrystal, meaning a distribution with
discrete support whose Fourier transform also has discrete support. Dyson (2009) suggested trying to prove
the Riemann hypothesis by classifying, or at least studying, 1-dimensional quasicrystals.

N (T ) =

s
1
1
Arg((s)) = Arg(( 2s ) 2 (s)s(s1)/2)

for s=1/2+iT, where the argument is dened by varying

it continuously along the line with Im(s)=T, starting with
argument 0 at +iT. This is the sum of a large but well
understood term

10

ZEROS ON THE CRITICAL LINE

= 1. Together with the functional equation and the fact

that there are no zeros with real part greater than 1, this
1
T
T
T
Arg(( 2s ) s/2 s(s1)/2) =
log
+7/8+O(1/T
) that all non-trivial zeros must lie in the interior
showed

2
2 2
of the critical strip 0 < Re(s) < 1. This was a key step in
and a small but rather mysterious term
their rst proofs of the prime number theorem.
1
Arg((1/2 + iT )) = O(log(T )).

So the density of zeros with imaginary part near T is

about log(T)/2, and the function S describes the small
deviations from this. The function S(t) jumps by 1 at each
zero of the zeta function, and for t 8 it decreases monotonically between zeros with derivative close to log t.
S(T ) =

Both the original proofs that the zeta function has no zeros
with real part 1 are similar, and depend on showing that
if (1+it) vanishes, then (1+2it) is singular, which is not
possible. One way of doing this is by using the inequality

|()3 ( + it)4 ( + 2it)| 1

Karatsuba (1996) proved that every interval (T, T+H] for for > 1, t real, and looking at the limit as 1. This
27
inequality follows by taking the real part of the log of the
H T 82 + contains at least
Euler product to see that

H(ln T ) 3 ec
1

ln ln T

points where the function S(t) changes sign.

|(+it)| = exp

pn(+it)
pn

= exp

pn cos(t log pn )
pn

Selberg (1946) showed that the average moments of even

powers of S are given by
where the sum is over all prime powers pn , so that

|S(t)|2k dt =
0

(2k)!
4
n 3 + 4 cos(t log p ) + cos(2t lo
T (log log T )k +O(T (log log T |()
)k1/23 (+it)
).
(+2it)|
=
exp
p
2k
k!(2)
n
n
p

This suggests that S(T)/(log log T)1/2 resembles a

Gaussian random variable with mean 0 and variance 22
(Ghosh (1983) proved this fact). In particular |S(T)| is
usually somewhere around (log log T)1/2 , but occasionally
much larger. The exact order of growth of S(T) is not
known. There has been no unconditional improvement
to Riemanns original bound S(T)=O(log T), though the
Riemann hypothesis implies the slightly smaller bound
S(T)=O(log T/log log T) (Titchmarsh 1985). The true
order of magnitude may be somewhat less than this, as
random functions with the same distribution as S(T) tend
to have growth of order about log(T)1/2 . In the other direction it cannot be too small: Selberg (1946) showed that
S(T) o((log T)1/3 /(log log T)7/3 ), and assuming the Riemann hypothesis Montgomery showed that S(T) o((log
T)1/2 /(log log T)1/2 ).

which is at least 1 because all the terms in the sum are

positive, due to the inequality

3 + 4 cos() + cos(2) = 2(1 + cos())2 0.

6.3 Zero-free regions

De la Valle-Poussin (18991900) proved that if + i t is

a zero of the Riemann zeta function, then 1 C/log(t)
for some positive constant C. In other words zeros cannot
be too close to the line = 1: there is a zero-free region
close to this line. This zero-free region has been enlarged
by several authors using methods such as Vinogradovs
mean-value theorem. Ford (2002) gave a version with
Numerical calculations conrm that S grows very slowly: explicit numerical constants: ( + i t ) 0 whenever |t |
|S(T)| < 1 for T < 280, |S(T)| < 2 for T < 6800000, and 3 and
the largest value of |S(T)| found so far is not much larger
than 3 (Odlyzko 2002).
1
Riemanns estimate S(T) = O(log T) implies that the gaps 1
.
2/3
57.54(log |t|) (log log |t|)1/3
between zeros are bounded, and Littlewood improved this
slightly, showing that the gaps between their imaginary
parts tends to 0.

7 Zeros on the critical line

6.2

Theorem of Hadamard and de la Hardy (1914) and Hardy & Littlewood (1921) showed
there are innitely many zeros on the critical line, by conValle-Poussin

sidering moments of certain functions related to the zeta

Hadamard (1896) and de la Valle-Poussin (1896) inde- function. Selberg (1942) proved that at least a (small)
pendently proved that no zeros could lie on the line Re(s) positive proportion of zeros lie on the line. Levinson

7.3

Numerical calculations

11

(1974) improved this to one-third of the zeros by relating Karatsuba (1992) proved that an analog of the Selberg
the zeros of the zeta function to those of its derivative, conjecture holds for almost all intervals (T, T+H], H =
and Conrey (1989) improved this further to two-fths.
T , where is an arbitrarily small xed positive numMost zeros lie close to the critical line. More precisely, ber. The Karatsuba method permits to investigate zeros
Bohr & Landau (1914) showed that for any positive , of the Riemann zeta-function on supershort intervals of
all but an innitely small proportion of zeros lie within a the critical line, that is, on the intervals (T, T+H], the
distance of the critical line. Ivi (1985) gives several length H of which grows slower than any, even arbitrarily
more precise versions of this result, called zero density small degree T. In particular, he proved that for any given
numbers , 1 satisfying the conditions 0 < , 1 < 1 alestimates, which bound the number of zeros in regions
T+H] for H exp {(ln T() } con-)
with imaginary part at most T and real part at least 1/2+. most all intervals (T,1
tain at least H(ln T ) 1 zeros of the function 21 + it
. This estimate is quite close to the one that follows from
the Riemann hypothesis.
7.1 HardyLittlewood conjectures
In 1914 Godfrey Harold Hardy proved that
has innitely many real zeros.

(1
2

+ it

7.3 Numerical calculations

Let N(T) be the total number of real zeros, N0 (T ) be the

total number of zeros of odd order of the function

(1
2

)
+ it ,

lying on the interval (0, T].

The next two conjectures of Hardy and John Edensor
( 1 Lit-)
tlewood on the distance between(real zeros
of

2 + it
)
and on the density of zeros of 12 + it on intervals (T,
T+H] for suciently large T > 0, H = T a+ and with
as less as possible value of a > 0, where > 0 is an arbitrarily small number, open two new directions in the
investigation of the Riemann zeta function:
1. for any > 0 there exists T0 = T0 () > 0 such that
for T T0 and H = T 0.25+ the interval (T,
( T + )H]
contains a zero of odd order of the function 12 + it .
2. for any > 0 there exist T0 = T0 () > 0 and c = c()
> 0, such that for T T0 and H = T 0.5+ the inequality Absolute value of the -function
N0 (T + H) N0 (T ) cH is true.
The function

7.2

Selberg conjecture
2 ( 2s )(s)
s

This paragragh is not on Selbergs 1/4 conjecture but on Selbergs zeta function conjecture.
Atle Selberg (1942) investigated the problem of Hardy
Littlewood 2 and proved that for any > 0 there exists
such T0 = T0 () > 0 and c = c() > 0, such that for T
T0 and H = T 0.5+ the inequality N (T +H)N (T )
cH log T is true. Selberg conjectured that this could be
tightened to H = T 0.5 . A. A. Karatsuba (1984a, 1984b,
1985) proved that for a xed satisfying the condition
0 < < 0.001, a suciently large T and H = T a+ ,
1
1
a = 27
82 = 3 246 , the interval (T, T+H) contains
at(least cHln(T)
real zeros of the Riemann zeta function
)
12 + it and therefore conrmed the Selberg conjecture. The estimates of Selberg and Karatsuba can not be
improved in respect of the order of growth as T .

has the same zeros as the zeta function in the critical strip,
and is real on the critical line because of the functional
equation, so one can prove the existence of zeros exactly
on the real line between two points by checking numerically that the function has opposite signs at these points.
Usually one writes

( 12 + it) = Z(t)ei(t)
where Hardys function Z and the RiemannSiegel theta
function are uniquely dened by this and the condition
that they are smooth real functions with (0)=0. By nding many intervals where the function Z changes sign one
can show that there are many zeros on the critical line.

8 ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST THE RIEMANN HYPOTHESIS

To verify the Riemann hypothesis up to a given imaginary part T of the zeros, one also has to check that there
are no further zeros o the line in this region. This can
be done by calculating the total number of zeros in the
region and checking that it is the same as the number of
zeros found on the line. This allows one to verify the Riemann hypothesis computationally up to any desired value
of T (provided all the zeros of the zeta function in this
region are simple and on the critical line).
Some calculations of zeros of the zeta function are listed
below. So far all zeros that have been checked are on the
critical line and are simple. (A multiple zero would cause
problems for the zero nding algorithms, which depend
on nding sign changes between zeros.) For tables of the
zeros, see Haselgrove & Miller (1960) or Odlyzko.

7.4

Gram points

A Gram point is a point on the critical line 1/2 + it where

the zeta function is real and non-zero. Using the expression for the zeta function on the critical line, (1/2 + it)
= Z(t)e i(t) , where Hardys function, Z, is real for real t,
and is the RiemannSiegel theta function, we see that
zeta is real when sin((t)) = 0. This implies that (t) is
an integer multiple of , which allows for the location of
Gram points to be calculated fairly easily by inverting the
formula for . They are usually numbered as gn for n =
0, 1, ..., where gn is the unique solution of (t) = n.
Gram observed that there was often exactly one zero of
the zeta function between any two Gram points; Hutchinson called this observation Grams law. There are several other closely related statements that are also sometimes called Grams law: for example, (1)n Z(gn) is usually positive, or Z(t) usually has opposite sign at consecutive Gram points. The imaginary parts n of the rst few
zeros (in blue) and the rst few Gram points gn are given
in the following table
The rst failure of Grams law occurs at the 127'th zero
and the Gram point g126 , which are in the wrong order.
A Gram point t is called good if the zeta function is positive at 1/2 + it. The indices of the bad Gram points
where Z has the wrong sign are 126, 134, 195, 211,
... (sequence A114856 in OEIS). A Gram block is an
interval bounded by two good Gram points such that all
the Gram points between them are bad. A renement
of Grams law called Rossers rule due to Rosser, Yohe
& Schoenfeld (1969) says that Gram blocks often have
the expected number of zeros in them (the same as the
number of Gram intervals), even though some of the individual Gram intervals in the block may not have exactly
one zero in them. For example, the interval bounded by
g125 and g127 is a Gram block containing a unique bad
Gram point g126 , and contains the expected number 2 of
zeros although neither of its two Gram intervals contains
a unique zero. Rosser et al. checked that there were no
exceptions to Rossers rule in the rst 3 million zeros, al-

Polar graph of Riemann zeta( + it)

Im ( + it)

12

1.5

0.5

0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

-0.5

-1

Re ( + it)

-1.5

-2

This shows the values of (1/2+it) in the complex plane for 0

t 34. (For t=0, (1/2) 1.460 corresponds to the leftmost
point of the red curve.) Grams law states that the curve usually
crosses the real axis once between zeros.

though there are innitely many exceptions to Rossers

rule over the entire zeta function.
Grams rule and Rossers rule both say that in some sense
zeros do not stray too far from their expected positions.
The distance of a zero from its expected position is controlled by the function S dened above, which grows extremely slowly: its average value is of the order of (log
log T)1/2 , which only reaches 2 for T around 1024 . This
means that both rules hold most of the time for small T
but eventually break down often. Indeed Trudgian (2011)
showed that both Grams law and Rossers rule fail in a
positive proportion of cases. To be specic, it is expected
that in about 73% one zero is enclosed by two successive
Gram points, but in 14% no zero and in 13% two zeros
are in such a Gram-interval on the long run.

8 Arguments for and against the

Riemann hypothesis
Mathematical papers about the Riemann hypothesis tend
to be cautiously noncommittal about its truth. Of authors
who express an opinion, most of them, such as Riemann
(1859) or Bombieri (2000), imply that they expect (or at
least hope) that it is true. The few authors who express
serious doubt about it include Ivi (2008) who lists some
reasons for being skeptical, and Littlewood (1962) who
atly states that he believes it is false, and that there is no
evidence whatever for it and no imaginable reason that
it would be true. The consensus of the survey articles
(Bombieri 2000, Conrey 2003, and Sarnak 2008) is that
the evidence for it is strong but not overwhelming, so that
while it is probably true there is some reasonable doubt
about it.
Some of the arguments for (or against) the Riemann hy-

13
pothesis are listed by Sarnak (2008), Conrey (2003), and
Ivi (2008), and include the following reasons.
Several analogues of the Riemann hypothesis have
already been proved. The proof of the Riemann hypothesis for varieties over nite elds by Deligne
(1974) is possibly the single strongest theoretical
reason in favor of the Riemann hypothesis. This
provides some evidence for the more general conjecture that all zeta functions associated with automorphic forms satisfy a Riemann hypothesis, which
includes the classical Riemann hypothesis as a special case. Similarly Selberg zeta functions satisfy
the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis, and are
in some ways similar to the Riemann zeta function,
having a functional equation and an innite product
expansion analogous to the Euler product expansion.
However there are also some major dierences; for
example they are not given by Dirichlet series. The
Riemann hypothesis for the Goss zeta function was
proved by Sheats (1998). In contrast to these positive examples, however, some Epstein zeta functions
do not satisfy the Riemann hypothesis, even though
they have an innite number of zeros on the critical
line (Titchmarsh 1986). These functions are quite
similar to the Riemann zeta function, and have a
Dirichlet series expansion and a functional equation,
but the ones known to fail the Riemann hypothesis
do not have an Euler product and are not directly
related to automorphic representations.
At rst, the numerical verication that many zeros
lie on the line seems strong evidence for it. However, analytic number theory has had many conjectures supported by large amounts of numerical evidence that turn out to be false. See Skewes number for a notorious example, where the rst exception to a plausible conjecture related to the Riemann
hypothesis probably occurs around 10316 ; a counterexample to the Riemann hypothesis with imaginary part this size would be far beyond anything that
can currently be computed using a direct approach.
The problem is that the behavior is often inuenced
by very slowly increasing functions such as log log
T, that tend to innity, but do so so slowly that this
cannot be detected by computation. Such functions
occur in the theory of the zeta function controlling
the behavior of its zeros; for example the function
S(T) above has average size around (log log T)1/2 .
As S(T) jumps by at least 2 at any counterexample
to the Riemann hypothesis, one might expect any
counterexamples to the Riemann hypothesis to start
appearing only when S(T) becomes large. It is never
much more than 3 as far as it has been calculated, but
is known to be unbounded, suggesting that calculations may not have yet reached the region of typical
behavior of the zeta function.
Denjoy's probabilistic argument for the Riemann

hypothesis (Edwards 1974) is based on the observation that if (x) is a random sequence of 1"s and
"1"s then, for every > 0, the partial sums

M (x) =

(n)

nx

(the values of which are positions in a simple

random walk) satisfy the bound
M (x) = O(x1/2+ )
with probability 1. The Riemann hypothesis is
equivalent to this bound for the Mbius function and the Mertens function M derived in
the same way from it. In other words, the Riemann hypothesis is in some sense equivalent
to saying that (x) behaves like a random sequence of coin tosses. When (x) is non-zero
its sign gives the parity of the number of prime
factors of x, so informally the Riemann hypothesis says that the parity of the number of
prime factors of an integer behaves randomly.
Such probabilistic arguments in number theory often give the right answer, but tend to be
very hard to make rigorous, and occasionally
give the wrong answer for some results, such
as Maiers theorem.
The calculations in Odlyzko (1987) show that the zeros of the zeta function behave very much like the
eigenvalues of a random Hermitian matrix, suggesting that they are the eigenvalues of some self-adjoint
operator, which would imply the Riemann hypothesis. However all attempts to nd such an operator
have failed.
There are several theorems, such as the weak Goldbach conjecture for suciently large odd numbers,
that were rst proved using the generalized Riemann
hypothesis, and later shown to be true unconditionally. This could be considered as weak evidence for
the generalized Riemann hypothesis, as several of
its predictions turned out to be true.
Lehmers phenomenon (Lehmer 1956) where two
zeros are sometimes very close is sometimes given
as a reason to disbelieve in the Riemann hypothesis.
However one would expect this to happen occasionally just by chance even if the Riemann hypothesis
were true, and Odlyzkos calculations suggest that
nearby pairs of zeros occur just as often as predicted
by Montgomerys conjecture.
Patterson (1988) suggests that the most compelling
reason for the Riemann hypothesis for most mathematicians is the hope that primes are distributed as
regularly as possible.

14

10

See also
Generalized Riemann hypothesis
Grand Riemann hypothesis
Hilberts eighth problem
Millennium Prize Problems
Riemann hypothesis for curves over nite elds

10

References

REFERENCES

Connes, Alain (1999), Trace formula in noncommutative geometry and the zeros of the
Riemann zeta function, Selecta Mathematica.
New Series 5 (1): 29106, arXiv:math/9811068,
doi:10.1007/s000290050042, MR 1694895
Connes, Alain (2000), Noncommutative geometry
and the Riemann zeta function, Mathematics: frontiers and perspectives, Providence, R.I.: American
Mathematical Society, pp. 3554, MR 1754766
Conrey, J. B. (1989), More than two fths of the
zeros of the Riemann zeta function are on the critical line, J. Reine angew. Math. 399: 116, MR
1004130

Artin, Emil (1924), Quadratische Krper im Gebiete der hheren Kongruenzen. II. Analytischer
Teil, Mathematische Zeitschrift 19 (1): 207246,
doi:10.1007/BF01181075

Conrey, J. Brian (2003), The Riemann Hypothesis

(PDF), Notices of the American Mathematical Society: 341353 Reprinted in (Borwein et al. 2008).

Beurling, Arne (1955), A closure problem related to the Riemann zeta-function, Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 41 (5): 312314,
doi:10.1073/pnas.41.5.312, MR 0070655

Conrey, J. B.; Li, Xian-Jin (2000), A note on

some positivity conditions related to zeta and Lfunctions, International Mathematics Research Notices 2000 (18): 929940, arXiv:math/9812166,
doi:10.1155/S1073792800000489, MR 1792282

Bohr, H.; Landau, E. (1914), Ein Satz ber

Dirichletsche Reihen mit Anwendung auf die Funktion und die L-Funktionen, Rendiconti del
Circolo Matematico di Palermo 37 (1): 269272,
doi:10.1007/BF03014823

Deligne, Pierre (1974), La conjecture de Weil. I,

Publications Mathmatiques de l'IHS 43: 273307,
doi:10.1007/BF02684373, MR 0340258

Bombieri, Enrico (2000), The Riemann Hypothesis

ocial problem description (PDF), Clay Mathematics Institute, retrieved 2008-10-25 Reprinted in
(Borwein et al. 2008).
Borwein, Peter; Choi, Stephen; Rooney, Brendan;
Weirathmueller, Andrea, eds. (2008), The Riemann
Hypothesis: A Resource for the Acionado and
Virtuoso Alike, CMS Books in Mathematics, New
York: Springer, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-72126-2,
ISBN 978-0-387-72125-5
Borwein, Peter; Ferguson, Ron; Mossingho,
Michael J. (2008), Sign changes in sums of the Liouville function, Mathematics of Computation 77
(263): 16811694, doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-0802036-X, MR 2398787

Deligne, Pierre (1980), La conjecture de Weil : II,

Publications Mathmatiques de l'IHS 52: 137252,
doi:10.1007/BF02684780
Deninger, Christopher (1998), Proceedings of the
International Congress of Mathematicians, Vol. I
(Berlin, 1998)", Documenta Mathematica: 163
186, MR 1648030 |chapter= ignored (help)
Derbyshire, John (2003), Prime Obsession, Joseph
Henry Press, Washington, DC, ISBN 978-0-30908549-6, MR 1968857
Dyson, Freeman (2009), Birds and frogs, Notices
of the American Mathematical Society 56 (2): 212
223, MR 2483565
Edwards, H. M. (1974), Riemanns Zeta Function,
New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-48641740-0, MR 0466039

de Branges, Louis (1992), The convergence of Euler products, Journal of Functional Analysis 107
(1): 122210, doi:10.1016/0022-1236(92)90103P, MR 1165869

Fesenko, Ivan (2010), Analysis on arithmetic

schemes. II, Journal of K-theory 5 (3): 437557,
doi:10.1017/is010004028jkt103

Cartier, P. (1982), Comment l'hypothse de Riemann ne fut pas prouve, Seminar on Number
Theory, Paris 198081 (Paris, 1980/1981), Progr.
Math. 22, Boston, MA: Birkhuser Boston, pp. 35
48, MR 693308

Ford, Kevin (2002), Vinogradovs integral and

bounds for the Riemann zeta function, Proceedings
of the London Mathematical Society. Third Series 85
(3): 565633, doi:10.1112/S0024611502013655,
MR 1936814

15
Franel, J.; Landau, E. (1924), Les suites de Farey
et le problme des nombres premiers (Franel, 198
201); Bemerkungen zu der vorstehenden Abhandlung von Herrn Franel (Landau, 202206)", Gttinger Nachrichten: 198206
Ghosh, Amit (1983), On the Riemann zeta
functionmean value theorems and the distribution of |S(T)|", J. Number Theory 17: 93102,
doi:10.1016/0022-314X(83)90010-0
Gourdon, Xavier (2004), The 1013 rst zeros of the
Riemann Zeta function, and zeros computation at
very large height (PDF)
Gram, J. P. (1903), Note sur les zros de la fonction
(s) de Riemann, Acta Mathematica 27: 289304,
doi:10.1007/BF02421310
Hadamard, Jacques (1896), Sur la distribution des
zros de la fonction (s) et ses consquences arithmtiques, Bulletin Socit Mathmatique de France
14: 199220 Reprinted in (Borwein et al. 2008).
Hardy, G. H. (1914), Sur les Zros de la Fonction
(s) de Riemann, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 158: 1012
1014, JFM 45.0716.04 Reprinted in (Borwein et al.
2008).
Hardy, G. H.; Littlewood, J. E. (1921), The
zeros of Riemanns zeta-function on the critical line, Math.
Z. 10 (34): 283317,
doi:10.1007/BF01211614
Haselgrove, C. B. (1958), A disproof of a conjecture of Plya, Mathematika 5 (2): 141145,
doi:10.1112/S0025579300001480, ISSN 00255793, MR 0104638, Zbl 0085.27102 Reprinted in
(Borwein et al. 2008).
Haselgrove, C. B.; Miller, J. C. P. (1960), Tables
of the Riemann zeta function, Royal Society Mathematical Tables, Vol. 6, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0-521-06152-0, MR 0117905 Review
Hutchinson, J. I. (1925), On the Roots of
the Riemann Zeta-Function, Transactions of the
American Mathematical Society 27 (1): 4960,
doi:10.2307/1989163, JSTOR 1989163
Ingham, A.E. (1932), The Distribution of Prime
Numbers, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics and
Mathematical Physics 30, Cambridge University
Press. Reprinted 1990, ISBN 978-0-521-39789-6,
MR 1074573
Ireland, Kenneth; Rosen, Michael (1990), A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory (Second
edition), New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-97329X

Ivi, A. (1985), The Riemann Zeta Function, New

York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-806349, MR 0792089 (Reprinted by Dover 2003)
Ivi, Aleksandar (2008), On some reasons for
doubting the Riemann hypothesis, in Borwein, Peter; Choi, Stephen; Rooney, Brendan; Weirathmueller, Andrea, The Riemann Hypothesis: A Resource for the Acionado and Virtuoso Alike, CMS
Books in Mathematics, New York: Springer, pp.
131160, arXiv:math.NT/0311162, ISBN 978-0387-72125-5
Karatsuba, A. A. (1984a), Zeros of the function
(s) on short intervals of the critical line, Izv. Akad.
Nauk SSSR, Ser. Mat. (in Russian) 48 (3): 569584,
MR 0747251
Karatsuba, A. A. (1984b), Distribution of zeros of
the function (1/2 + it)", Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser.
Mat. (in Russian) 48 (6): 12141224, MR 0772113
Karatsuba, A. A. (1985), Zeros of the Riemann
zeta-function on the critical line, Trudy Mat. Inst.
Steklov. (in Russian) (167): 167178, MR 0804073
Karatsuba, A. A. (1992), On the number of zeros of the Riemann zeta-function lying in almost all
short intervals of the critical line, Izv. Ross. Akad.
Nauk, Ser. Mat. (in Russian) 56 (2): 372397, MR
1180378
Karatsuba, A. A.; Voronin, S. M. (1992), The
Riemann zeta-function, de Gruyter Expositions in
Mathematics 5, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.,
ISBN 978-3-11-013170-3, MR 1183467
Keating, Jonathan P.; Snaith, N. C. (2000), Random matrix theory and (1/2 + it)", Communications in Mathematical Physics 214 (1): 5789,
doi:10.1007/s002200000261, MR 1794265
Knauf, Andreas (1999), Number theory, dynamical systems and statistical mechanics, Reviews in Mathematical Physics. A Journal for
Both Review and Original Research Papers in the
Field of Mathematical Physics 11 (8): 10271060,
doi:10.1142/S0129055X99000325, MR 1714352
von Koch, Helge (1901), Sur la distribution des
nombres premiers, Acta Mathematica 24: 159
182, doi:10.1007/BF02403071
Kurokawa, Nobushige (1992), Multiple zeta functions: an example, Zeta functions in geometry
(Tokyo, 1990), Adv. Stud. Pure Math. 21, Tokyo:
Kinokuniya, pp. 219226, MR 1210791
Lapidus, Michel L. (2008), In search of the Riemann
zeros, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical
Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4222-5, MR 2375028

16
Lavrik, A. F. (2001), Zeta-function, in
Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Lehmer, D. H. (1956), Extended computation
of the Riemann zeta-function, Mathematika. A
Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics 3 (2):
102108, doi:10.1112/S0025579300001753, MR
0086083
Leichtnam, Eric (2005), An invitation to
Deningers work on arithmetic zeta functions,
Geometry, spectral theory, groups, and dynamics,
Contemp. Math. 387, Providence, RI: Amer.
Math. Soc., pp. 201236, MR 2180209.
Levinson, N. (1974), More than one-third of the
zeros of Riemanns zeta function are on = 1/2,
Adv. In Math. 13 (4): 383436, doi:10.1016/00018708(74)90074-7, MR 0564081
Littlewood, J. E. (1962), The Riemann hypothesis, The scientist speculates: an anthology of partly
baked idea, New York: Basic books
van de Lune, J.; te Riele, H. J. J.; Winter, D. T.
(1986), On the zeros of the Riemann zeta function in the critical strip. IV, Mathematics of Computation 46 (174): 667681, doi:10.2307/2008005,
JSTOR 2008005, MR 829637
Massias, J.-P.; Nicolas, Jean-Louis; Robin, G.
(1988), "valuation asymptotique de l'ordre maximum d'un lment du groupe symtrique, Polska
Akademia Nauk. Instytut Matematyczny. Acta Arithmetica 50 (3): 221242, MR 960551
Mazur, Barry; Stein, William (2014), Primes. What
is Riemanns hypothesis?
Montgomery, Hugh L. (1973), The pair correlation of zeros of the zeta function, Analytic number
theory, Proc. Sympos. Pure Math. XXIV, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, pp.
181193, MR 0337821 Reprinted in (Borwein et al.
2008).
Montgomery, Hugh L. (1983), Zeros of approximations to the zeta function, in Erds, Paul, Studies
in pure mathematics. To the memory of Paul Turn,
Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhuser, pp. 497506,
ISBN 978-3-7643-1288-6, MR 820245
Nicely, Thomas R. (1999), New maximal prime
gaps and rst occurrences, Mathematics of Computation 68 (227): 13111315, doi:10.1090/S00255718-99-01065-0, MR 1627813.
Nyman, Bertil (1950), On the One-Dimensional
Translation Group and Semi-Group in Certain Function Spaces, PhD Thesis, University of Uppsala:
University of Uppsala, MR 0036444

10

REFERENCES

Odlyzko, A. M.; te Riele, H. J. J. (1985), Disproof

of the Mertens conjecture, Journal fr die reine
und angewandte Mathematik 357 (357): 138160,
doi:10.1515/crll.1985.357.138, MR 783538
Odlyzko, A. M. (1987), On the distribution
of spacings between zeros of the zeta function,
Mathematics of Computation 48 (177): 273
308, doi:10.2307/2007890, JSTOR 2007890, MR
866115
Odlyzko, A. M. (1990), Bounds for discriminants
and related estimates for class numbers, regulators
and zeros of zeta functions: a survey of recent results, Sminaire de Thorie des Nombres de Bordeaux, Srie 2 2 (1): 119141, doi:10.5802/jtnb.22,
MR 1061762
Odlyzko, A. M. (1992), The 1020 -th zero of the Riemann zeta function and 175 million of its neighbors
This unpublished book describes the implementation of the algorithm and discusses the results in detail.
Odlyzko, A. M. (1998), The 1021 st zero of the Riemann zeta function
Ono, Ken; Soundararajan, K. (1997), Ramanujans
ternary quadratic form, Inventiones Mathematicae
130 (3): 415454, doi:10.1007/s002220050191
Patterson, S. J. (1988), An introduction to the theory
of the Riemann zeta-function, Cambridge Studies in
Advanced Mathematics 14, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 978-0-521-33535-5, MR 933558
Ribenboim, Paulo (1996), The New Book of Prime
Number Records, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-38794457-5
Riemann, Bernhard (1859), Ueber die Anzahl
der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grsse,
Monatsberichte der Berliner Akademie. In Gesammelte Werke, Teubner, Leipzig (1892), Reprinted
by Dover, New York (1953). Original manuscript
(with English translation). Reprinted in (Borwein et
al. 2008) and (Edwards 1974)
Riesel, Hans; Ghl, Gunnar (1970), Some calculations related to Riemanns prime number formula, Mathematics of Computation 24 (112): 969
983, doi:10.2307/2004630, JSTOR 2004630, MR
0277489
Riesz, M. (1916), Sur l'hypothse de Riemann, Acta Mathematica 40:
185190,
doi:10.1007/BF02418544
Robin, G. (1984), Grandes valeurs de la fonction
somme des diviseurs et hypothse de Riemann,
Journal de Mathmatiques Pures et Appliques, Neuvime Srie 63 (2): 187213, MR 774171

17
Rockmore, Dan (2005), Stalking the Riemann hypothesis, Pantheon Books, ISBN 978-0-375-421365, MR 2269393
Rosser, J. Barkley; Yohe, J. M.; Schoenfeld, Lowell (1969), Rigorous computation and the zeros of
the Riemann zeta-function. (With discussion)", Information Processing 68 (Proc. IFIP Congress, Edinburgh, 1968), Vol. 1: Mathematics, Software, Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 7076, MR 0258245
Rudin, Walter (1973), Functional Analysis, 1st edition (January 1973), New York: McGraw-Hill,
ISBN 0-070-54225-2
Sabbagh, Karl (2003a), The Riemann hypothesis,
Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, ISBN 9780-374-25007-2, MR 1979664
Sabbagh, Karl (2003b), Dr. Riemanns zeros, Atlantic Books, London, ISBN 978-1-843-54101-1
Salem, Raphal (1953), Sur une proposition quivalente l'hypothse de Riemann, Les Comptes rendus de l'Acadmie des sciences 236: 11271128, MR
0053148
Sarnak, Peter (2008), Problems of the Millennium:
The Riemann Hypothesis, in Borwein, Peter; Choi,
Stephen; Rooney, Brendan; Weirathmueller, Andrea, The Riemann Hypothesis: A Resource for the
Acionado and Virtuoso Alike (PDF), CMS Books
in Mathematics, New York: Springer, pp. 107115,
ISBN 978-0-387-72125-5
du Sautoy, Marcus (2003), The music of the primes,
HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN 978-0-06-6210704, MR 2060134
Schoenfeld, Lowell (1976), Sharper bounds for
the Chebyshev functions (x) and (x). II,
Mathematics of Computation 30 (134): 337
360, doi:10.2307/2005976, JSTOR 2005976, MR
0457374
Schumayer, Daniel; Hutchinson, David A. W.
(2011), Physics of the Riemann Hypothesis,
arXiv:1101.3116
Selberg, Atle (1942), On the zeros of Riemanns
zeta-function, Skr. Norske Vid. Akad. Oslo I. 10:
59 pp, MR 0010712

Serre, Jean-Pierre (19691970), Facteurs locaux

des fonctions zeta des variets algbriques (dnitions et conjectures)", Sminaire Delange-PisotPoitou 19
Sheats, Jerey T. (1998), The Riemann hypothesis for the Goss zeta function for F [T]",
Journal of Number Theory 71 (1): 121157,
doi:10.1006/jnth.1998.2232, MR 1630979
Siegel, C. L. (1932), "ber Riemanns Nachla
zur analytischen Zahlentheorie, Quellen Studien zur
Geschichte der Math. Astron. und Phys. Abt. B: Studien 2: 4580 Reprinted in Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Vol. 1. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1966.
Speiser, Andreas (1934), Geometrisches zur Riemannschen Zetafunktion, Mathematische Annalen
110: 514521, doi:10.1007/BF01448042, JFM
60.0272.04
Stein, William; Mazur, Barry (2007), What is Riemanns Hypothesis? (PDF)
Suzuki, Masatoshi (2011), Positivity of certain
functions associated with analysis on elliptic surfaces, Journal of Number Theory 131 (10): 1770
1796, doi:10.1016/j.jnt.2011.03.007
Titchmarsh, Edward Charles (1935), The Zeros
of the Riemann Zeta-Function, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences (The Royal Society)
151 (873): 234255, doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0146,
JSTOR 96545
Titchmarsh, Edward Charles (1936), The Zeros
of the Riemann Zeta-Function, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences (The Royal Society)
157 (891): 261263, doi:10.1098/rspa.1936.0192,
JSTOR 96692
Titchmarsh, Edward Charles (1986), The theory of
the Riemann zeta-function (2nd ed.), The Clarendon Press Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19853369-6, MR 882550
Trudgian, Timothy (2011), On the success and failure of Grams Law and the Rosser Rule, Acta Arithmetica 125 (3): 225256, doi:10.4064/aa148-3-2

Selberg, Atle (1946), Contributions to the theory of

the Riemann zeta-function, Arch. Math. Naturvid.
48 (5): 89155, MR 0020594

Turn, Paul (1948), On some approximative

Dirichlet-polynomials in the theory of the zetafunction of Riemann, Danske Vid. Selsk. Mat.Fys. Medd. 24 (17): 36, MR 0027305 Reprinted
in (Borwein et al. 2008).

Selberg, Atle (1956), Harmonic analysis and discontinuous groups in weakly symmetric Riemannian
spaces with applications to Dirichlet series, J. Indian Math. Soc. (N.S.) 20: 4787, MR 0088511

Turing, Alan M. (1953), Some calculations of the

Riemann zeta-function, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. Third Series 3: 99117,
doi:10.1112/plms/s3-3.1.99, MR 0055785

18

11

de la Valle-Poussin, Ch.J. (1896), Recherches analytiques sur la thorie des nombers premiers, Ann.
Soc. Sci. Bruxelles 20: 183256
de la Valle-Poussin, Ch.J. (18991900), Sur la
fonction (s) de Riemann et la nombre des nombres premiers infrieurs une limite donne, Mem.
Couronnes Acad. Sci. Belg. 59 (1) Reprinted in
(Borwein et al. 2008).
Weil, Andr (1948), Sur les courbes algbriques et
les varits qui sen dduisent, Actualits Sci. Ind.,
no. 1041 = Publ. Inst. Math. Univ. Strasbourg 7
(1945), Hermann et Cie., Paris, MR 0027151
Weil, Andr (1949), Numbers of solutions
of equations in nite elds, Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society 55 (5): 497
508,
doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1949-09219-4,
MR 0029393 Reprinted in Oeuvres Scientiques/Collected Papers by Andre Weil ISBN
0-387-90330-5
Weinberger, Peter J. (1973), On Euclidean rings
of algebraic integers, Analytic number theory ( St.
Louis Univ., 1972), Proc. Sympos. Pure Math. 24,
Providence, R.I.: Amer. Math. Soc., pp. 321332,
MR 0337902
Wiles, Andrew (2000), Twenty years of number
theory, Mathematics: frontiers and perspectives,
Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, pp. 329342, ISBN 978-0-8218-2697-3, MR
1754786
Zagier, Don (1977), The rst 50 million prime
numbers (PDF), Math. Intelligencer (Springer) 0:
719, doi:10.1007/BF03039306, MR 643810
Zagier, Don (1981), Eisenstein series and the Riemann zeta function, Automorphic forms, representation theory and arithmetic (Bombay, 1979), Tata
Inst. Fund. Res. Studies in Math. 10, Tata Inst.
Fundamental Res., Bombay, pp. 275301, MR
633666

11

External links

American institute of mathematics, Riemann hypothesis

Apostol, Tom, Where are the zeros of zeta of s?
Poem about the Riemann hypothesis, sung by John
Derbyshire.
Borwein, Peter, The Riemann Hypothesis (PDF)
(Slides for a lecture)
Conrad, K. (2010), Consequences of the Riemann
hypothesis

EXTERNAL LINKS

Conrey, J. Brian; Farmer, David W, Equivalences to

the Riemann hypothesis
Gourdon, Xavier;
Sebah, Pascal (2004),
Computation of zeros of the Zeta function (Reviews the GUE hypothesis, provides an extensive
bibliography as well).
Odlyzko, Andrew, Home page including papers on
the zeros of the zeta function and tables of the zeros
of the zeta function
Odlyzko, Andrew (2002), Zeros of the Riemann
zeta function: Conjectures and computations (PDF)
Slides of a talk
Pegg, Ed (2004), Ten Trillion Zeta Zeros, Math
Games website. A discussion of Xavier Gourdons
calculation of the rst ten trillion non-trivial zeros
Pugh, Glen, Java applet for plotting Z(t)
Rubinstein, Michael, algorithm for generating the zeros.
du Sautoy, Marcus (2006), Prime Numbers Get
Hitched, Seed Magazine
Stein, William A., What is Riemanns hypothesis
de Vries, Andreas (2004), The Graph of the Riemann Zeta function (s), a simple animated Java applet.
Watkins, Matthew R. (2007-07-18), Proposed
proofs of the Riemann Hypothesis
Zetagrid (2002) A distributed computing project
that attempted to disprove Riemanns hypothesis;
closed in November 2005

19

12
12.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Riemann hypothesis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann%20hypothesis?oldid=637288238 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The

Anome, Tarquin, XJaM, William Avery, Olivier, Twilsonb, Ubiquity, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Cole Kitchen, Klaus, Meekohi, Wwwwolf, Chinju, TakuyaMurata, GTBacchus, Mcarling, Eric119, Looxix, BigFatBuddha, Julesd, Kh7, Dod1, Evercat, Ilyanep, Schneelocke,
Revolver, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Tpbradbury, Taxman, Topbanana, Raul654, Pstudier, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Fredrik,
Chocolateboy, Seglea, Lowellian, Gandalf61, Timrollpickering, Deadbarnacle, Ruakh, HaeB, Lzur, Wile E. Heresiarch, Carnildo, Tobias
Bergemann, David Gerard, Cedars, Giftlite, Gene Ward Smith, Herbee, Numerao, Maha ts, Neilc, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Estel, Halo,
Elroch, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Frenchwhale, Zondor, TheCustomOfLife, Qui1che, Discospinster, Helohe, Rich Farmbrough, Ericamick,
Gika, Paul August, Bender235, Pt, Rgdboer, Crislax, Vipul, EmilJ, Gershwinrb, Iamunknown, Army1987, Reinyday, C S, JW1805,
Obradovic Goran, DBrane, Mpeisenbr, Gary, Rgclegg, Andrew Gray, Calton, Hu, Wtmitchell, Saga City, Suruena, Jheald, Egg, Dominic,
Oleg Alexandrov, Mcsee, Linas, Mindmatrix, Shreevatsa, David Haslam, Bkkbrad, Guardian of Light, Jacobolus, Mpatel, Rchamberlin,
GregorB, Marudubshinki, Jijinmachina, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, NatusRoma, Salix alba, Pasky, R.e.b., Bubba73, RobertG, Mathbot, Gurch,
Choess, Scythe33, Bgwhite, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Wavelength, Dmharvey, Pip2andahalf, Woseph, Conscious, Piet Delport, DiceDiceBaby,
Million Little Gods, LMSchmitt, Krea, DYLAN LENNON, Voidxor, Emersoni, MathNT, Arthur Rubin, Paul White, GrinBot, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, Incnis Mrsi, Jeppesn, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, Jtwdog, Speight, IronSwallow, ERcheck, PrimeHunter, Joel.Gilmore,
Hgrosser, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Timothy Clemans, Kdoto, Zaian, Waprap, Kingdon, Ianmacm, Daqu, Mistamagic28, Hongerandi, Nicolasqueen, Andrei Stroe, Saccerzd, Overlord 77520, Ripe, Loadmaster, MarkSutton, Ravi12346, WAREL, Madmath789,
LDH, Profstein, Dto, STRANGELUV3, CRGreathouse, Wafulz, Fumblebruschi, Baiji, 345Kai, Emholvoet, Myasuda, Doomed Rasher,
Travelbird, Mon4, He Who Is, DumbBOT, Karl-H, Epbr123, Barticus88, Fournax, Anupam, Headbomb, Cool Blue, RobHar, Sherbrooke,
Comrade jo, Fetchcomms, IanOsgood, Igodard, Hut 8.5, Gavia immer, Magioladitis, Dicconb, Jakob.scholbach, Rivertorch, Julian Brown,
Peterungar, David Eppstein, Freticat, DerHexer, InvertRect, Chrisguidry, F3et, J.delanoy, Svetovid, TheSeven, Krishnachandranvn, Fullmetal2887, Aydinkutlu, Openshac, A-Doo, Yurakm, Yecril, Blood Oath Bot, Pleasantville, LokiClock, Mrhawley, LouisWins, TXiKiBoT,
Sbjf, Anonymous Dissident, Dr. Leibniz, Ocolon, Seraphita, AlleborgoBot, Kapalama, GirasoleDE, Seb Przd, Droog Andrey, Venona2007,
Robotchampion, Allmightyduck, Henry Delforn (old), Ofap, Thehotelambush, JackSchmidt, Aiden Fisher, Anchor Link Bot, Sidis24,
ClueBot, Justin W Smith, Rodhullandemu, Plastikspork, JuPitEer, Boing! said Zebedee, Copedance, Timhoooey, Rhododendrites, Sun
Creator, Cenarium, Oshanker, Rylann, Jsondow, Corkgkagj, B222, Darkicebot, Snthdiueoa, Sandrobt, XLinkBot, REGULAR-NORMAL,
Katsushi, Virginia-American, PL290, TravisAF, Addbot, DOI bot, Atethnekos, Youre dreaming eh?, Tassedethe, Lightbot, CountryBot,
Chartguy, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Adavit.donda, Amirobot, Kilom691, 12george1, AnomieBOT, Slonzor, Angry bee, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Gsmgm, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Erud, Ched, Ekaratsuba, Magicxcian, GrouchoBot, AliceNovak, Raulshc,
CES1596, Einsteinino, Nicolas Perrault III, Dr. Megadeth, Motomuku, Atlantia, Citation bot 1, Tkuvho, Tiggerchen, Symplectic Map, Gingermint, Jujutacular, Vinoo Cameron, DixonDBot, Albert Einstein2011, Opustylnikov, John of Reading, Slawekb, , Quondum,
Sallypally, Fages, Manifestement, Chewings72, Sapphorain, Harleyjamesmunro, ClueBot NG, Teeesssyyy, Ypnypn, LJosil, 13shajiia, Helpful Pixie Bot, RiemannsZeta, Lowercase sigmabot, Ann12h, Teika kazura, Mmmzeta0, TBrandley, Symmetries134, Zetaandl, Moontigger,
Purdygb, Qashqaiilove, Taerch, Deltahedron, Enyokoyama, AppliedMathematics, Levelmartinmusatov, Spectral sequence, AHusain314,
Jochen Burghardt, Aramushakobyanus, Lsmll, Ieatllamas, VerticalNexus, Dklsdkls, K9re11, Aboul Qassm, Pajama dad, Albana Diez,
Jhon Hard, MarkAndrewGerads and Anonymous: 360

12.2

Images

File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg License: LGPL

Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:RiemannCriticalLine.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/RiemannCriticalLine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work.
Made with Mathematica using the following code: Show[Plot[{Re[Zeta[1/2+I x]],
Im[Zeta[1/2+I x]]}, {x,30, 30},AxesLabel->{"x"} , PlotStyle->{Red, Blue}, Ticks->{Table[4x-28,{x,0,14}]}, ImageSize>{800,600}], Graphics[Text[Style[\[DoubleStruckCapitalR][\[Zeta][ I x + 1/2"]],14,Red ,Background ->White],{22,2.6} ]], Graphics[Text[Style[\[GothicCapitalI][\[Zeta][ I x + 1/2"]],14,Blue ,Background ->White],{14,2.6} ]]] Original artist: Slonzor
File:Riemann_zeta_function_absolute_value.png Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Riemann_zeta_
function_absolute_value.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Zeta_polar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Zeta_polar.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zeta_polar.svg Original artist:
Original artwork created by Linas Vepstas <[email protected]> User:Linas 19 February 2006

12.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0