ME 201 Thermodynamics

Class Notes
2Nd Law/Isentropic Efficiency
A final form of the second law may be obtained by considering an isolated system that
exchanges no work, heat , or mass with its surroundings. Then for any process this
isolated system undergoes we must have
U2 = U1
and similarly
S 0

since Q is zero for any process. One possible isolated system is the universe. After since
the universe includes everything, there is nothing for it to exchange energy with. Then
we must have
Suniverse 0
Of course most of the time we are interested in a system that is a bit smaller than the
universe. But in this case we can consider that the universe is composed of this smaller
system and everything else (which we call the surrounds) so that the mathematical
statement for the second law for a process can be written

(S)universe = (S)system + (S)surrounds 0

For a closed system we have

(S)system = m(s 2 - s1 )
and assuming that the surrounds are large enough to serve as a heat reservoir

(S)surrounds = Q surr
Tsurr

- Q system
Tsurr

Then any process for a closed system must satisfy

1

ME 201 Thermodynamics

m(s 2 - s1 ) +

- Q system
Tsurr

For a transient system we find it useful to introduce the concept of rate of entropy
production, S& prod , which is given by
S& prod =

(m f s f - m i s i )sys
t

& es e - m
& isi + m
outlets

inlets

&
Q
sys
Tsurr

For a control volume system we can reduce this further and write
S& prod =

& es e - m
& is i m

outlets

inlets

&
Q
sys
Tsurr

Example Entropy change of the universe

Two kilograms of superheated steam contained in a piston-cylinder at 400C and 600 kPa
are cooled at constant pressure by transferring heat to the surroundings at 25C until the
steam is completely condensed. Determine the net entropy change of the universe for
this process.
Solution:
It proves useful to utilize our 1st law problem solving template for this type of problem.
We need to calculate the net entropy change of the universe, which will be given by
-Q
(S) universe = m(s2 - s1 ) + sys
Tsurr
so we must calculate the entropy change of the system and the heat transfer of the system.
We now work this as a first law problem
Working Fluid: Water(compressible)
System: Closed System
Process: isobaric
Initial State: Fixed
Final State: Unknown
Wsh = 0
Q = ????
Wbnd = P1m1(v2-v1)
conservation of mass: m1 = m2
1st law: m(u2-u1) = Q-Wbnd
State 1
State 2
2

ME 201 Thermodynamics

T1 = 400C
T2 = 158.83C
P1 = 600 kPa
P2 = P1 = 600 kPa
u1 = 2960.67 kJ/kg
u2 = 669.41 kJ/kg
m1 =2 kg
m2 = 2 kg
3
v1 = 0.5138 m /kg
v2 = 0.001101 m3/kg
s2 = 1.9298 kJ/(kg K)
s1 = 7.7058 kJ/(kg K)
phase: sat.liq.
phase: sup.vap.
italicized values from tables, bold values are calculated
Approach: Since state 1 is fixed we may go to the steam tables and obtain the remaining
properties. State 2 can then be fixed from setting the two pressures equal, and
recognizing that the final state must be saturated liquid. The remaining properties for
state 2 are then obtained form the steam tables. The boundary work is then calculated
followed by the heat transfer from the 1st law. Finally we calculate the entropy change of
the universe.
For state 1 we find that at 600 kPa the saturation temperature is 158.83C, so that we
have superheated vapor. Then from the superheat table we find
u1 = 2960.67 kJ/kg, v1 = 0.5138 m3/kg, s1 = 7.7058 kJ/(kg K)
Since the process is isobaric
P2 = P1 = 600kPa
If the steam is fully condensed than we must have saturated liquid, so we may go to the
saturation pressure table at 600 kPa and find
T2 = 158.83C, u2 = 669.41 kJ/kg, v2 = 0.001101 m3/kg, s2 = 1.9298 kJ/(kg K)
The boundary work is then calculated
Wbnd = P1m1(v2-v1) = (600)(2)(0.001101-0.5138) = -615.24 kJ
We use the first law to determine the heat transfer
Qsys = m(u 2 - u1 ) + W = (2)(669.41 - 2960.67) + (-615.24)
= - 5197.76 kJ

Then

(S)surrounds =

- Qsys
Tsurr

- (-5197.76)
= 17.44 kJ/K
25 + 273

and for the system

(S)system = m(s2 - s1 ) = (2)(1.9298 - 7.7058)

= - 11.55 kJ/K

So that

(S)universe = - 11.55 + 17.44 = 5.89 kJ/K

Since this is greater than zero the second law is not violated.

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Example Entropy production for an open feedwater heater.

An open feedwater heater in a steam power plant preheats the feedwater to the boiler by
mixing it with steam extracted from the turbine. The heater operates at a pressure of 600
kPa. Steam enters at 250C and 0.5 kg/s. Cool water enters at 45C and 4 kg/s.
Calculate the rate of entropy production.
Solution:
Again it proves useful to utilize our 1st law problem solving template for this type of
problem. We need to calculate the rate of entropy production, which will be given by
&
Q
& es e - m
& i s i - sys
S& prod = m
Tsurr
outlets
inlets
so we must calculate the entropy change of the system and the heat transfer of the system.
We now work this as a first law problem
System Type: Control Volume
Substance Type: Compressible (steam)
Device: Mixing Tank(isobaric and adiabatic)
State 1 (water inlet): Fixed
State 2 (steam inlet): Fixed
State 3 (water outlet): unknown
Wsh = 0
Q=0
Wbnd = 0
&1+m
& 2 =m
&3
conservation of mass: m
st
& 1h1 + m
& 2h3 = m
& 3h 3
1 law: m
State 1 (water inlet)
State 2 (steam inlet)
State 3 (water outlet)
T1 = 45C
T2 = 250C
T3 = 118.4C
P1 = 600 kPa
P2 = 600 kPa
P3 = 600 kPa
h1 = 188.89 kJ/kg
h2 = 2957.24 kJ/kg
h3 = 496.48 kJ/kg
& 1 = 4 kg/s
& 2 = 0.5 kg/s
& 3 = 4.5 kg/s
m
m
m
s2 = 7.1820 kJ/(kg K)
s3 = 1.5100 kJ/(kg K)
s1 = 0.6379 kJ/(kg K)
phase: sub.liq.
phase: sup.vap.
phase: sub.liq.
Italicized values from tables. Bold values are calculated
Approach: Since state 1 and state 2 are fixed we may go to the steam tables and obtain
the remaining properties. State 3 can then be fixed from the 1st law. The remaining
properties for state 3 are then obtained from the steam tables. The conservation of mass
is used to determine the exit mass flow rate. Then we can calculate the entropy
production.

ME 201 Thermodynamics

At state 1 we can go to the saturation pressure table and find that at 600 kPa, the
saturation temperature is 158.83C, so that we have subcooled liquid. Unfortunately, the
pressure is not high enough to use the compressed liquid tables, so we will have to model
this as an incompressible substance, but use the saturation properties. Then
h = hf(at Tgiven) + vf(at Tgiven)[Pgiven - Psat(at Tgiven)]
s = sf(at Tgiven)
Then using the steam tables
h1 = 188.293 + (0.001010)(600-9.5914) = 188.89 kJ/kg
s1 = 0.6379 kJ/(kgK)
For state 2 we find that at 600 kPa the saturation temperature is 158.83C, so that we
have superheated vapor. Then from the superheat table we find
h2 = 2957.24 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.1820 kJ/(kg K)
Using the conservation of mass we find
&3=m
&1+m
& 2 = 4 + 0.5 = 4.5 kg/s
m
The first law will then give
h3 =

& 1h1 + m
& 2 h 3 (4)(188.89) + (0.5)(2957.24)
m
=
= 496.48 kJ/kg
&3
m
4.5

At 600 kPa we find

hf = 670.07 kJ/kg and hg = 2755.60 kJ/kg
so we must have subcooled liquid, where
h3 = hf(at T3) + vf(at T3)[P3 - Psat(at T3)]
Unfortunately, we can't solve this easily for T3, but we note that the pressure correction is
very small, so that
h3 hf(at T3)
Then we find
T3 = 118.4C and s3 = 1.5100 kJ/(kg K)
Finally, we can solve for the rate of entropy production from
&
Q
sys
&S
&
&
&
prod = m 3s3 - m1s1 - m 2s 2 Tsurr
= (4.5)(1.5100) - (4)(0.6379) - (0.5)(7.1820) = 0.6524 kW/K

(0)
298

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Second Law Problems

In general there are two types of problems that apply the second law,
Process Problems: Single process where we use (S)universe = 0

Machine Problems: Heat Engine, Heat Pump, or Refrigerator devices where we use the
Carnot cycle thermal efficiency or COP.
Isentropic Efficiency

Real work control volume devices (pumps, compressors, fans, turbines, etc.) can be very
effectively modeled by treating them first as ideal devices and then using the isentropic
efficiency, sometimes called the adiabatic efficiency, to calculate actual work or power.
The isentropic is defined differently depending on whether we have a work producing
device (i.e., turbine) or a work consuming device (pump or compressor). Then by
definition we have
& act
W
for a turbine
&
W
ideal
&
W
s = ideal for a pump, compressor, or fan
& act
W

s =

A real pump, compressor, or turbine that is modeled by an isentropic efficiency is

assumed to be adiabatic, so that the first law becomes

& act
& (h in h out , act ) - W
0=m
To perform a calculation for a real work control volume device with a specified
isentropic efficiency, the following steps can be taken.
1. Perform an ideal device calculation, i.e. assuming sin = sout, to obtain Wideal.
2. Using the definition of s, calculate the actual work or power from
& act = s W
& ideal for a turbine
W

ME 201 Thermodynamics

&
& act = Wideal for a pump, fan, or compressor
W
s

3. The actual exit enthalpy can then be calculated form the first law,
h out, act

& act
W
= h in &
m

4. With the actual exit enthalpy and pressure known the actual exit state is fixed and the
remaining properties can be obtained in the typical manner.

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Example Adiabatic steam turbine

Steam at 800 kPa, 600C, and 2 kg/s enters an adiabatic turbine and exits at a pressure of
50 kPa. Determine the power output and rate of entropy production, for an isentropic
efficiency of 80%.
Solution:
The actual power output for this turbine will be calculated from
& act = s W
& ideal
W
so that we will need to do an ideal 1st law turbine calculation. The rate of entropy
production will be given by
& 2s 2 - m
& 1s1
S& prod = m
So we proceed with our 1st law calculation
System Type: Control Volume
Substance Type: Compressible (steam)
Device: Non-Ideal Turbine(adiabatic with s = 0.8)
State 1 (steam inlet): Fixed
State 2s (ideal steam outlet): unknown
State 2a (actual steam outlet): unknown
Wsh: unknown
Q=0
Wbnd = 0
&1=m
&2
conservation of mass: m
st
& ideal , m
& act
& 1 ( h1 h 2 s ) = W
& 1 (h1 h 2a ) = W
1 law: m
State 1 ( inlet)
State 2s (ideal outlet)
State 2a (actual outlet)
T1 = 600C
T2s = 193C
T2a = 277.6C
P1 = 800 kPa
P2s = 20 kPa
P2a = 50 kPa
h1 = 3695.49 kJ/kg
h2s = 2864.07 kJ/kg
h2a = 2890.4 kJ/kg
& 1 = 2 kg/s
& 2s = 2 kg/s
& 2a = 2 kg/s
m
m
m
s1 = 8.1279 kJ/(kg K)
s2s = 8.1279 kJ/(kg K)
s2a = 8.4549 kJ/(kg K)
phase: sup.vap
phase: sup.vap.
phase: sup.vap.
Italicized values from tables. Bold values are calculated
Approach: Since state 1 is fixed we may go to the steam tables and obtain the remaining
properties. We may fix state 2s by using the isentropic condition for the ideal turbine,
and then use the 1st law to calculate the ideal power. The actual power can be calculated
form the efficiency equation, and then the actual exit enthalpy from the first law. This
will fix state 2a, and allow us to calculate the rate of entropy production.
At 800 kPa we find a saturation temperature of 170.4C, which means that we have
superheated vapor. Going to the superheat tables we find
8

ME 201 Thermodynamics

h1 = 3695.49 kJ/k and s1 = 8.1279 kJ/(kg K)

At state 2s we have
s2s = s1 = 8.1279 kJ/(kg K)
which then fixes the state at 2s. From the steam tables we find at 50 kPa
sf = 1.0903 kJ/kg and sg = 7.5939 kJ/kg
so we still have superheated vapor and find
h2s = 2864.07 kJ/k and T2s = 193C
The ideal power is then calculated from the 1st law as
&
& 1 (h1 h 2s ) = (2)(3695.49 - 2864.07) = 1662.84 kW
W
ideal = m

The actual power is calculated from the efficiency

& = W
&
W
act
s ideal = (0.8)(1662.84) = 1330.27 kW

The actual exit enthalpy is calculated from the 1st law

h 2 a = h1

&
W
act = 3695.49 - 1330.27 = 3030.35 kJ/kg
&1
m
2

At 50 kPa
hf = 350.42 kJ/kg and hg = 2649.84 kJ/kg
so we have superheated vapor with
s2a = 8.4549 kJ/(kg K) and T2a = 277.6C
Our rate of entropy production is then
& 1 (s 2a - s1 ) = (2)(8.4549 - 8.1279) = 0.654 kW/K
S& prod = m

Thermodynamic Cycles
Basic Principles

Three basic types of thermal cycles

Control Volume Power or Propulsion Cycles
Closed System Power or Propulsion Cycles
Control Volume Refrigeration Cycles
All three systems have
Heat Added
Heat Rejected
Net Work Output

qin
qout
wnet

First Law for any complete cycle is

9

ME 201 Thermodynamics

wnet = qin - qout

Net Power or heat transfer rate is given by

& net = m
& w net
W
& in = m
& q in
Q

System performance is characterized by

Thermal Efficiency: th =

& net
W
& in
Q

Coefficient of Performance: COP =

(for power cycles)

& in
Q
& net
W

(for refrigeration cycles)

To characterize best performance compare to Carnot cycle

T
Carnot Cycle Thermal Efficiency: Carnot = 1- L
TH
1
Carnot Cycle COP for Refrigerator: (COP) Carnot =
TH
-1
TL
Procedure of Cycle Analysis

1. The plant layout is sketched as a block diagram. The devices or processes are placed
and connected according to the plant description.
2. The nodes between the devices or processes are numbered. These nodes represent
the various states of the working fluid as it passes through the cycle.
3. A table is constructed with the following headings:
Assuming a compressible substance as the working fluid in a control volume plant
10

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Node

Fluid
Phase

&
m

Assuming an ideal gas as the working fluid in a control volume plant using the ideal
gas tables
Node

&
m

Assuming an ideal gas as the working fluid in a control volume plant using the
constant specific heat equations
Node

&
m

Assuming an ideal gas as the working fluid in a closed system plant using the ideal
gas tables
Node

Assuming an ideal gas as the working fluid in a closed system plant using the
constant specific heat equations
Node

11

ME 201 Thermodynamics

4. With the given operating conditions and plant description, all known thermodynamic
information is entered on the table.
5. Using the state postulate and the working fluid property tables or equations, all
obtainable thermodynamic information is added to the table.
6. The system is traversed, device by device or process by process, analyzing the fluid
as it passes through each device or process. This analysis provides additional fluid
properties, which when used in conjunction with step #5 systematically completes the
table.
7. If there is insufficient information to fix the state at the node, continue on to the next
node. After the cycle has been traversed, repeat the traversing until the state at each
node is fixed.
8. With the completed table, plant information (such as thermal efficiency and work
produced) is calculated.

Ideal Cycle Descriptions

Steam Power Plants
All steam power plants are based upon the ideal Rankine cycle shown below.

Boiler
Turbine

Pump

Condenser

The four devices are

Constant Pressure Boiler
12

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Isentropic Turbine
Constant Pressure Condenser (fluid exits as saturated liquid)
Isentropic Pump

Example Rankine Cycle Analysis

Consider a steam power plant operating on a Rankine cycle as shown below. Steam
leaves the boiler at 20 MPa and 700C. The condenser operates at a pressure of 0.004
MPa. Determine
a. thermal efficiency of the plant
b. mass flow rate of steam leaving the boiler required to produce 50 MW of power
1
Boiler

Turb #2

2
4
3
Pump

Condenser

Solution:
We begin by setting up our table.
Node
1

T(C)
700

P(MPa)

phase

h(kJ/kg)

20

sup.vap.

3799.67

13

s(kJ/kgK)
6.7905

ME 201 Thermodynamics

28.98

0.004

28.98

30.50

2045.69

6.7905

0.004

two phase
x = 0.792
sat.liq.

121.38

0.4225

20

sub.liq.

145.94

0.4225

Italicized values are from steam tables. Bold values are calculated.
We note that with the operating information provided that states 1 and 3 are fixed, so we
may go directly to the steam tables and read their properties. Then traversing the cycle:

14

ME 201 Thermodynamics

1-2 Turbine: Isentropic

We must have
s2 = s1 = 6.7905 kJ/kgK
which fixes our state 2. We go to the steam tables and find
x2 =

s 2 s f 6.7905 0.4225
=
= 0.7907
s g s f 8.4759 0.4225

and the enthalpy is

h 2 = h f + x 2 h fg = 121.38 + (0.7907)(2433.61) = 2045.69 kJ/kg

3-4 Pump: Isentropic

We must have
s4 = s3 = 0.4225 kJ/kgK
which fixes our state 4. We go to the compressed liquid tables to find our remaining
properties.
With our state table complete, we now turn to calculate our system parameters. The
thermal efficiency is given by

w net
q in

The net work is given by

w net = w turb + w pump
= h1 - h 2 + h 3 - h 4
= 3799.67 - 2045.69 + 121.38 - 145.94
= 1753.98 + (-24.56) = 1729.42 kJ/kg

15

ME 201 Thermodynamics

The heat transfer in is

q in = q boil = h1 - h 6 = 3799.67 - 145.94 = 3653.73 kJ/kg

Then
=

1729.42
= 0.473 or 47.3%
3653.73

To produce a power output of 50 MW we must have

& steam =
m

&
W
net = 50,000 = 28.9 kg/s
w net 1729.42

In actual steam power systems, two additional devices are often included to improve
performance and efficiency of the system: reheater and feedwater heater. Both of these
are discussed below.
1. Reheater: In analyzing ideal Rankine cycle performance it is seen that the large
the pressure drop across the turbine the higher the thermal efficiency of the
cycle. However, as the pressure drop rises the quality of the steam leaving the
turbine decreases. This is a major problem since if we consider the "wet" steam
to be composed of small droplets suspended in a gas (vapor), one could imagine
these small droplets impacting on the turbine blades and causing considerable
erosion and mechanical fatigue. In fact, most modern turbines can only
withstand an exit quality greater than 95%. To work within in this constraint
one needs to either lower the pressure drop (which will decrease the thermal
efficiency), increase the inlet steam temperature, or apply reheating. For a
variety of reasons the preferred choice is often to employ a reheat leg. In a
reheat leg the steam is not expanded all at once to the condenser pressure, but
rather is expanded part of the way, staying within the exit quality constraint of
the turbine, in the high pressure turbine, then reheated by passing it for a second
time through the boiler (the reheat leg), and finally is expanded the rest of the
way through a second turbine, the low pressure turbine. A block diagram of a
Rankine cycle with reheat is shown below:

16

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Boiler

High P
Turbine

Reheat
Leg

Low P
Turbine

Condenser

Pump

To evaluate the reheat leg both its pressure (which will remain constant) and its
exit temperature (which will often be very close to the exit temperature of the
steams first pass through the boiler) must be specified. There is no work
associated with the reheater device, but the heat transfer in can be calculated as
& reheat = m
& ( h out - h in )
Q
When the thermal efficiency is calculated for the plant this heat must be
included in the heat added term, or for a number of reheaters the heat added will
be the sum of the boiler heat transfer and all the reheater heat transfers,

& in = Q
& boiler + Q
& rh,i
Q
i

2. Feedwater Heater: In the ideal Rankine cycle saturated liquid leaves the
condenser and is compressed by the pump to a high pressure liquid prior to
entering the boiler. If the pressure boost is large, a considerable amount of
subcooling occurs. Then as this subcooled liquid enters the boiler a
considerable amount of energy must be expended to simply raise it to the
boiling point. In an attempt to decrease this energy, it is proposed to do the
pumping in stages and then to heat the subcooled liquid so as to bring it up to
the saturation temperature. This heating is done in what we call feedwater
heaters. The heating occurs by extracting some steam from a turbine and using
it to heat the subcooled water. This is accomplished in one of two ways: either
17

ME 201 Thermodynamics

using a traditional heat exchanger called a closed feedwater heater or a direct

contact heat exchanger where the subcooled liquid and extracted steam are
allowed to mix called an open feedwater heater. In an open feedwater heater
we really have a mixing chamber in which the extracted steam at some pressure
is mixed with condenser water whose pressure has been increased to the
extracted steam pressure by a pump. A block diagram of a Rankine cycle with
a single open feedwater heater is shown below

Boiler
Turbine

Pump

Open Feedwater
Heater

Pump

Condenser

The constraint of saturated liquid leaving the open feedwater heater will require
that a certain amount of steam be extracted from the turbine for the feedwater
heater. This mass can be determined by applying the first law to the feedwater
heater
& 1 h1 + m
& 2 h2 = m
& 3h 3
m
and the conservation of mass
&1 + m
&2 = m
&3
m
where the subscripts refer to the diagram below.

18

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Turbine

2
3
to Boiler

1
Open Feedwater
Heater

Pump

Condenser

& 1 and m
& 2 , that can be readily
The two equations above have two unknowns, m
solved for
h -h
&2 = m
&3 3 1
m
h 2 - h1
For a system with more than one feedwater heater we first solve for the mass
flows associated with the highest pressure heater and then move on to the next
highest pressure heater and so on.
In summary, we may modify our simple Rankine cycle with the addition of reheating and
regeneration which results in two new devices
Reheat Leg: Constant pressure device with no work, only heat transfer.
Open Feedwater Heater: Constant pressure device with no work or heat
transfer and the fluid leaves as saturated liquid,

19

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Piston-Cylinder Cycles
Most internal combustion engines can be modeled as one of three piston/cylinder cycles.
At the start of these cycles, the piston is out as far as possible, so that we have the
maximum or bottom dead center volume. When the piston is in as far as possible we
have the minimum or top dead center volume. Two parameters are used to communicate
the size of the engine,
Compression ratio: r =

VBDC
VTDC

Engine Displacement: Vdisp =

Piston Stroke: L =

VBDC - VTDC
number of cylinders

(Vdisp )cylinder
2
Dcylinder
/4

An additional parameter used to characterize engine performance is the mean effective

pressure (MEP) which is defined as the pressure required to produce the same work
output as the engine if the process was isobaric, or
Wnet = (MEP) Vdisp
or
MEP =

Wnet
VBDC VTDC

The power output of an engine can be calculated from

& net = (# of cylinders)(Wnet for one cylinder)(rpm)(1/60 min/s)(2/(# of strokes))
W

We now consider three of the most common piston/cylinder cycles.

1. Otto Cycle
The Otto Cycle is composed of the following four processes

20

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Isentropic Compression
Constant Volume Heat Addition
Isentropic Expansion
Constant Volume Heat Rejection
The block diagram for this cycle is shown below
Isentropic
Compression

Const. Vol.
Cooling

Const. Vol.
Heating

Isentropic
Expansion

The cycle begins with the isentropic compression and the temperature and pressure prior
to this process is normally given. The only other information required to work the
problem are volume and compression ratio information and some information about the
combustion process, heat added or final temperature.
Diesel Cycle
The Diesel cycle consists of the following four process
Isentropic Compression
Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Isentropic Expansion
Constant Volume Heat Rejection
The block diagram is shown below

21

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Isentropic
Compression

Const. Vol.
Cooling

Const. Pres.
Heating

Isentropic
Expansion

In addition to initial temperature and pressure and volume and compression ratio data that
must provided, we must also be given the cut-off ratio, given as
rc =

V3
VTDC

Dual Cycle
The Dual cycle consists of five processes and is a hybrid of the Otto and Diesel cycles
Isentropic Compression
Constant Volume Heat Addition
Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Isentropic Expansion
Constant Volume Heat Rejection
The block diagram for the cycle is shown below

22

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Isentropic
Compression

Const. Vol.
Heating
Const. Vol.
Cooling

Const. Pres.
Heating
5

Isentropic
Expansion

Required operating data includes

Initial Temperature and Pressure
Volumes and/or compression ratio
Cutoff Ratio
Pressure Ratio or Maximum Operating Temperature
The pressure ratio is given as
rP =

P3
P2

The maximum operating temperature must be

T4 = Tmax
which will allow us to determine the pressure at 4 from the ideal gas law, which is also
the pressure at 3.

23

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Example: Analysis of an Otto Cycle

Consider an internal combustion engine operating on the ideal Otto cycle with the
following conditions:
Ten cylinder, four stroke engine with displacement of 6.2 liters
Compression ratio of 9.5
Combustion temperature of 2100 K
Engine speed of 3100 rpm
The initial temperature and pressure are taken to be 130 kPa and 315 K due to
supercharging of the intake air. Determine
a. engine thermal efficiency
b. engine power output
c. engine MEP
Solution:
We begin by making the calculations for our VBDC and VTDC. We first calculate our
displacement volume per cylinder

( Vdisp ) cyl

( Vdisp ) engine
N cyl

6.2 x 10 -3
=
= 6.2 x 10 -4 m 3
10

Next we use

(Vdisp )cyl = VTDC - VTDC

and
r=

VBDC
VTDC

To obtain

VTDC =

(Vdisp )cyl
(r - 1)

(6.2 x 10- 4 )
= 7.294 x 10-5 m 3
(9.5 - 1)

24

ME 201 Thermodynamics

and
VBDC = r VTDC = (9.5)(7.294 x 10-5 ) = 6.929 x 10-4 m 3
We now layout our block diagram for the cycle.
Isentropic
Compression

Const. Vol.
Cooling

Const. Vol.
Heating

Isentropic
Expansion

Next we set up our node table.

Node
1
2
3
4

T(K)
315
745.9
2100
1042.3

P(kPa)
130
2924
8233
4086.4

v(m3/kg)
0.6954
0.0732
0.0732
0.6954

V(m3)
6.929 x 10-4
7.294 x 10-5
7.294 x 10-5
6.929 x 10-4

Italicized values are from air tables or ideal gas law

Bold values are calculated
We enter our operating information on the tables.
Next we calculate the mass in the cylinder with
P1V1 (130)(6.929 x 10-4 )
m=
=
= 9.964 x 10- 4 kg
RT1
(0.287)(315)

25

u(kJ/kg)
12.285
337.79
1567.96
585.91

(kJ/kg K)
6.7681
7.6614
8.8842
8.0370

ME 201 Thermodynamics

This allows us to calculate the specific volumes at all our states using

v =

V
m

For state 1 we have two properties, so the state is fixed and we can go to the air tables
and find
u1 = 12.285 kJ/kg and 1 = 6.7681 kJ/(kgK)
State 3 is also fixed but we will need to calculate the pressure form the ideal gas equation
mRT3 (9.964 x 10-4 )(0.287)(2100)
P3 =
=
= 8233 kPa
V3
(7.294 x 10 5 )
and then from the air tables
u3 = 1567.96 kJ/kg and 1 = 8.8842 kJ/(kgK)
Now we can traverse the cycle.
1-2 Isentropic compression
As we saw in class, it is much easier to use the vr from the air tables for these isentropic
processes, hence
v1
V
v
= 1 = r1
v2
V2
v r2
so that
V
1
v r2 = v r1 2 = (0.8706)
= 0.09163
9 .5
V1

Interpolating from the air tables we get

T2 = 745.9 K and u2 = 337.79 kJ/kg and 2 = 7.6614 kJ/(kgK)

26

ME 201 Thermodynamics

and from the ideal gas equation

P2 =

mRT2 (9.964 x 10-4 )(0.287)(745.9)

=
= 2924 kPa
V2
(7.294 x 10 5 )

2-3 Constant Volume Heating

We have all the needed information here, so we must continue traversing.
3-4 Isentropic expansion
Again we can use the vr approach processes, hence
v 3 V3 v r3
=
=
v 4 V4 v r3
so that
V
v r4 = v r3 3 = (0.003641)(9.5) = 0.03459
V4

Interpolating from the air tables we get

T4 = 1042.3 K and u4 = 585.91 kJ/kg and 4 =8.0370 kJ/(kgK)
and from the ideal gas equation
mRT2 (9.964 x 10-4 )(0.287)(1042.3)
P2 =
=
= 4086.4 kPa
V2
(7.294 x 10 5 )

The engine thermal efficiency is given by

th =

Wnet
Qin

where Wnet and Qin can be either on a per cylinder basis or an engine basis, as long as
they are both on the same basis. Using a per cylinder basis we have
Wnet = W1-2 + W3-4
27

ME 201 Thermodynamics

where
W1- 2 = m(u1 - u 2 ) = (9.964 x 10-4 )(12.285 - 337.79) = - 0.3243 kJ
W3- 4 = m(u 3 - u 4 ) = (9.964 x 10-4 )(1567.96 - 585.91) = 1.0084 kJ

and
Wnet = (-0.3243) + (1.00841) = 0.6441 kJ

Then
Qin = Q 2-3 = m(u 3 - u 2 ) = (9.964 x 10-4 )(1567.96 337.79) = 1.2556 kJ

Then
th =

0.6441
= 0.545
1.2559

The engine power output is given by

& = N (W ) (rps)(2/4)
W
net
cyl
net cyl
= (10)(0.6441)(3100/60)(2/4)
= 166 kW = 224 hp

The engine MEP is given by

MEP =

(Wnet )cyl

(Vdisp )cyl

0.6441
(6.2 x 10-3 /10)

= 10392 kPa

28

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Gas Turbine Power Cycles

All gas turbine power plants are based upon the ideal Brayton cycle shown below.

Burner

Compressor

Turbine

The three devices are

Isentropic Compressor
Constant Pressure Burner (fluid is heated)
Isentropic Turbine
In actual gas turbine power systems, three additional devices are often included to
improve performance and efficiency of the system: regenerator, intercooler (along with
compressor staging), and reheater (along with turbine staging). These are discussed
below.
Regenerator: The purpose of a regenerator is to use the energy that is being exhausted at
the exit of the turbine to pre-heat the gas as it enters the burner. This significantly
increases the efficiency of the gas turbine power plant. The performance of a regenerator
is characterized by the effectiveness, which is given by
reg =

h hot,in h hot ,out

h hot,in h cold,in

h cold,out h cold,in
h hot,in h cold,in

Ideally, there is no pressure drop in the regenerator. The regenerator is position in the
device as shown below.

29

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Regenerator
Burner

Compressor

Turbine

Intercooler: Intercooling and compressor staging is used to decrease the work

consumption of the compression part of the system. Rather than performing the
compression with just one machine, two or more compressors are used and the gas is
cooled in between each compressor pair. Ideally, there is no pressure drop in the
regenerator. For two stage compression it has been shown that the pressure of the
intercooler should be set at
Pint = Pin Pout
The arrangement with two stage compression is shown below.

Compressor
#1

Compressor
#2

Intercooler

Burner

Reheater: Reheating and turbine staging involves the addition of multiple burner and
turbine pairs. A two stage reheating layout is shown below.

Burner
#1

Turbine
#1

Burner
#2

Turbine
#2

Gas Turbine Propulsion Cycles

The ideal jet propulsion system consists of the five components shown below.
30

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Diffuser

Burner

Compressor

Turbine

Nozzle

It is an ideal Brayton cycle with a diffuser on the front end and a nozzle on the rear end.
The major difference between the ideal jet propulsion cycle and the Brayton cycle is that
the power output of the turbine is used only to power the compressor. That is,
& turb = W
& comp
W

This condition is often used to help fix the state at the exit of the turbine. Actual nozzles
and diffusers may be modeled as ideal, isentropic devices using the following definitions
h1 h 2 a
h1 h 2 s
P P
Diffuser Pressure Coefficient: K P = 2a 1
P2s P1

Nozzle Efficiency:

N =

There are three performance criteria used for jet engine cycles. They are
r
r
& (v exit v inlet )
F=m
r
r
r
&p =m
& (v exit v inlet ) v aircraft
W

Thrust:
Propulsive Power:

&p
W
p =
&
Q
in

Propulsive Efficiency:

Two additional components are often included in a jet engine cycle model. An
afterburner is a second burner unit that is located after the turbine. The afterburner exit
temperature is not limited to the operating temperature of the turbine, as is the burner exit
temperature, so that a much hotter gas may flow through the nozzle. The other
component is a bypass where following the diffuser, some of the flow is diverted away
form the compressor. This flow then bypasses the compressor, burner, and turbine, and is
expanded through its own nozzle.

31

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Example: Ideal Brayton Cycle

Most armored military vehicles use gas turbine engines. Consider an engine with the
following operating conditions:
Intake air at 310 K and 100 kPa
Compressor pressure ratio of 11
Combustion temperature of 1900 K
Determine
a.) Engine efficiency
b.) air flow rate required to produce 500 hp
Solution:
We begin with our block diagram (noded) of the system

3
Burner

Compressor

Next we set up our table

Node
T(K)
1
310
2
617.5
3
1700
4
950.3

P(kPa)
100
11,00
11,000
100

h(kJ/kg)
315.27
625.42
1880.1
989.54

4
Turbine

(kJ/kgK)
1.75106
2.43926
3.5979
2.9097

We enter our operating data, including using the pressure ratio to determine the pressures
at states 3 and 4. We note that states 1 and 3 are fixed, so we may go to the air tables and
find
h1 = 315.27 kJ/kg and 1 = 1.75106 kJ/kgK
h3 = 1880.1 kJ/kg and 3 = 3.5979 kJ/kgK
Now we are ready to traverse the cycle
1-2 Isentropic Compressor

32

ME 201 Thermodynamics

P
s = 0 = 2 - 1 - R ln 2
P1
Solving for 2
P
2 = 1 + R ln 2 = 1.75106 - (0.287)ln(11) = 2.43926 kJ/(kg K)
P1
Then going to the air table and interpolating
T2 = 617.5 kJ/kg and h2 = 625.42 kJ/kg

2-3 Isobaric Heating

All the information has already been collected
3-4 Isentropic Expansion
P
s = 0 = 4 - 3 - R ln 4
P3
Solving for 2
P
4 = 3 + R ln 4 = 3.5979 - (0.287)ln(1/11) = 2.43926 kJ/(kg K)
P3
Then going to the air table and interpolating
T2 = 950.3 kJ/kg and h2 = 989.54 kJ/kg

Now calculating our cycle parameters,

w
th = net
q in
Calculating the net work and heat in gives
wnet = wcomp + wturb = h1-h2 + h3-h4 = -310.15 + 890.56 = 580.41 kJ/kg
qin = qburner = h3-h2 = 1254.68 kJ/kg
580.41
th =
= 0.463
1254.68
To determine the air flow rate required, we first convert the power output to kW to obtain
372.85 kW. Then
&
W
372.85
& = net =
m
= 0.64 kg/s
w net 580.41
Refrigeration Cycles

33

ME 201 Thermodynamics

The most common refrigeration cycles are based upon the ideal vapor compression
refrigeration cycle shown below.

Evaporator

Compressor

Valve

Condenser

Ideally, saturated liquid leaves the condenser and saturated vapor leaves the evaporator.
In the ideal system, the system is fully prescribed in specifying the operating
temperatures or pressures for the evaporator and condenser.

Example: VCR Air Conditioner Operation

An VCR air conditioner operates with Refrigerant-12 with an evaporator at 16C and a
condenser at 85F. Determine
a. the refrigerant mass flow rate for a cooling load of 10 kW
b. the annual operating energy required for 63 cooling days
Solution:
We implement our cycle analysis procedure.
Steps 1 and 2: Sketch and Number the Block Diagram

34

ME 201 Thermodynamics

4
Evaporator

Compressor

Valve

2
Condenser

Step 2a: Relate System Pressures

P1 = P4 and P2 = P3
Step 3 Set Up Table
Node

T
(C)
16
35.1
30
16

P
(kPa)
509.6
744.8
744.8
509.6

Fluid
Phase
1
sat.vap.
2
sup.vap.
3
sat.liq.
4
2 phase
x = 0.166
italicized values from tables, bold values calculated

h
(kJ/kg)
194.16
202.33
64.56
64.56

s
kJ/(kgK)
0.6899
0.6899
0.2398

Step 4 Enter the Operating Information

Converting F to C. Note that the temperatures of the devices are taken to be at the exit
of the device.
Step 5 For Fixed States Complete the Thermodynamic Data
States 1 and 3 are fixed. Once we get the pressures at these states, we can use our cycle
pressure relationships to complete the pressure column.
Step 6 Traverse the Cycle
1-2 Ideal Compressor
35

ME 201 Thermodynamics

s2 = s1 = 0.6899 kJ/(kgK)
The remaining properties can be determined from the R-12 tables, though it will
require double interpolation.
2-3 Condenser
All information already known
3-4 Ideal Valve
h4 = h3 = 64.56 kJ/kg
We recognize as a two phase mixture with
x4 =

h 4 h f 64.56 - 40.5
=
= 0.166
h g h f 185.4 - 40.5

The reaming properties can then be evaluated

Step 7 Repeat the Cycle Traverse
Not needed since the table is complete.
Step 8 Calculate Plant Performance Information
The cooling load will be handled by the evaporator, so we must have
& =m
& ( h1 h 4 )
Q
L

So that
& =
m

&
Q
10
l
=
= 0.0772 kg/s
(h1 h 4 ) (194.16 64.56)

To determine the annual energy consumption, we need the power of the compressor. It is
given by
&
& (h)comp = (0.0772)(202.33 - 194.16) = 0.63 kW
W
comp = m

Then
&
AEC = W
comp x (hrs/yr)
= (0.63)(24)(63) = 953 kW hr

Occasionally when a large temperature difference exists between the cold space and the
warm space, two vapor compression refrigeration systems are cascaded together as
shown below.

36

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Evaporator

Compressor

Valve

Condenser

Heat Exchanger
Evaporator

Compressor

Valve

Condenser

Another variation is a multistage compression refrigeration cycle, which is shown below

37

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Evaporator

Compressor
#2

Valve #1

Mix
Tank

Flash
Tank

Compressor
#1

Valve #2

Condenser

Finally, in devices like a freezer/refrigerator, there is a need for two cold spaces at
different temperature to be cooled. Then a two evaporator refrigeration cycle is shown
below.

38

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Evaporator #1
Valve #1

Compressor

Evaporator #2

Valve #2

Condenser

Air Processing

One of the important topics in thermal environmental engineering is the understanding

and design of the air processing system. The air processing system is responsible for
maintaining the interior conditions within the design comfort zone. That is, maintaining
the inside temperature and relative humidity at specified values. Air processing may also
include fresh air concerns and odor concerns. If we are principally concerned with the
temperature and humidity of air, then we need to use our thermodynamics dealing with
psychrometrics. To work with psychrometrics (i.e., air/water vapor mixtures) there are
some basic assumptions and definitions we need to review.
Basic Assumptions:
The air and water vapor mixture behaves as a mixture of ideal gases.
The components of the mixture take on the temperature and volume of the mixture, but
have their own individual pressures called the partial pressures.
39

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Basic definitions:
One way to describe a mixture is by specifying the mole fractions of the components.
The mole fraction of component 1 is defined as
y1 =

number of moles of component 1 in the mixture

N1
=
total number of moles in the mixture
N tot

We observe that

yi = 1
i

The partial pressures are directly related to the mole fraction by

P1 = y1Ptot or y1 =

P1
Ptot

Sometimes we wish to work on a mass basis, so we define a mass fraction, mf as

( mf )1

mass of component 1 in the mixture

m1
=
total mass of the mixture
mtot

The enthalpy of an ideal gas mixture is given by

h mix = ( mf )i h i (at Tmix )
i

or for our two component air(a)/water vapor(v) mixture

h mix = (mf)a h a (at Tmix ) + (mf) v h v (at Tmix )
This would give us an enthalpy of the mixture in terms of kJ per kg of mixture. It turns
out that by tradition in psychrometrics we actually want the enthalpy of the mixture
defined as kJ per kg of dry or pure air. We then recognize that
h a -v = h a (at Tmix ) +

(mf) v
h v (at Tmix )
(mf) a
40

ME 201 Thermodynamics

The ratio of the mass fractions will occur through the bulk of our psychrometric analysis,
so we define it as the humidity ratio, or

(mf) v
mass of water vapor in the mixture
=
(mf) a
mass of dry or pure air in the mixture

Then
h a-v = h a (at Tmix ) + h v (at Tmix )
Two other parameters that we sue to describe air/water vapor mixture are the relative
humidity, , and the wet bulb temperature, Twb. Lets briefly describe both of these.
By definition we have that

Pv
Psat (at Tmix )

The wet bulb temperature involves ...

It turns out that of our psychrometric variables: Tmix (also called the dry bulb
temperature), Twb, ha-v, , , and va-v (specific volume of the mixture based on kg of dry
or pure air), if any two are specified the others are obtainable. It is sort of like our state
principle. This does assume that the pressure is known and fixed. A very convenient
presentation of this variables and their relationships with one another is the
Psychrometric Chart. [Describe the chart] [Do an example] [Do the in class exercise]

Example Use of the Psychometric Chart

Complete the following table for the properties of an air/water vapor mixture.
Tdry bulb
(C)

Twet bulb
(C)

Rel.Hum.
(%)

(kg/kg of dry air)

ha-v
(kJ/kg of dry air)

15

20

35

25

41

ME 201 Thermodynamics

10

10

20

0.007

50

70

Solution:
Reading from the psychrometric chart. we find

Tdry bulb
(C)

Twet bulb
(C)

Rel.Hum.
(%)

(kg/kg of dry air)

hav
(kJ/kg of dry air)

15

20

0.002

21

35

25

45

0.016

77

10

10

100

0.00775

29.5

20

13.5

47

0.007

38

31.5

23.5

50

0.015

70

Air Processing Cycles (Air -Water Vapor Cycles)

Air processing cycles vary by their components depending on the objective of the
processing. There are four typical control volume devices used air processing cycles.
Heating Coils: Air-Water Vapor mixture is heated at constant pressure. The moisture
content (humidity ratio) will stay constant. The first law is simply written:

h av,out = h av,in +

&
Q
in
&a
m

Cooling Coils: Air-Water Vapor mixture is cooled at constant pressure. The moisture
content will stay constant until saturation is reached at which time further cooling will
42

ME 201 Thermodynamics

produce condensation. If this point is reached liquid water will leave the system and the
air-water vapor leaving the system will have a relative humidity of 100%. The first law
is written:
h av,in

&
Q
= out + h av,out + (in - out )h l, out
&a
m

The exit enthalpy of the liquid water should be taken as the enthalpy of saturated liquid at
the average temperature between the dew point temperature of the entering air-water
vapor mixture and the dry bulb temperature of the exiting air-water vapor mixture.
Evaporative Spray Cooler: A spray of liquid droplets is introduced to the air-water
vapor mixture. The liquid evaporates into the mixture giving rise to cooling. The first
law is written:

h av,in + (out - in )h l,in = h av,out

Steam Humidifier: Steam is mixed with the inlet air-water vapor mixture, so as to
increase its moisture content (humidity ratio). The first law is written:

h av,in + (out - in )h stm,in = h av,out

Example Air Processing Device

Air enters an evaporative cooler at 30C and 20% relative humidity. How much liquid
water (in kg/kg of dry air) at 15C must be evaporated to cool the air to 20C and a
relative humidity of 70%?
Solution:
Consider the drawing below:
liquid water
in

Evaporative
Cooler

air/water vapor
in

43

air/water vapor
out

ME 201 Thermodynamics

Now conserving water we have

mvapor,in + mliquid,in = mvapor,out
or rearranging
mliquid,in = mvapor,out - mvapor,in
Now dividing by mair
m liquid,in
m air

m vapor,out
m air

m vapor,out
m air

= out - in

Going to the Psychrometric chart we find

out = 0.0105 kg of vapor/kg of dry air

in = 0.0055 kg of vapor/kg of dry air
Then
m liquid,in
m air

= 0.005 kg of liquid / kg of dry air

44