Report Concerning Space Data System Standards

NAVIGATION DATA
DEFINITIONS AND
CONVENTIONS

INFORMATIONAL REPORT
CCSDS 500.0-G-2

GREEN BOOK
November 2005

CCSDS REPORT CONCERNING NAVIGATION DATADEFINITIONS AND CONVENTIONS

AUTHORITY

Issue:

Informational Report, Issue 2

Date:

November 2005

Location:

Washington, DC, USA

This document has been approved for publication by the Management Council of the
Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) and reflects the consensus of
technical panel experts from CCSDS Member Agencies. The procedure for review and
authorization of CCSDS Reports is detailed in the Procedures Manual for the Consultative
Committee for Space Data Systems.

This document is published and maintained by:

CCSDS Secretariat
Office of Space Communication (Code M-3)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Washington, DC 20546, USA

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FOREWORD
This Report contains technical material to supplement the CCSDS Recommended Standards
for the standardization of spacecraft navigation data generated by CCSDS Member Agencies.
The topics covered herein include radiometric data content, spacecraft ephemeris, planetary
ephemeris, tracking station locations, coordinate systems, and attitude data. This Report
deals explicitly with the technical definitions and conventions associated with inter-Agency
cross-support situations involving the transfer of ephemeris, tracking, and attitude data. This
version of the Green Book contains expanded material regarding spacecraft attitude data and
radiometric tracking data.
Through the process of normal evolution, it is expected that expansion, deletion or
modification to this Report may occur. This Report is therefore subject to CCSDS document
management and change control procedures. Current versions of CCSDS documents are
maintained at the CCSDS Web site:
http://www.ccsds.org/ccsds/
Questions relative to the contents or status of this document should be addressed to the
CCSDS Secretariat.

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At time of publication, the active Member and Observer Agencies of the CCSDS were:
Member Agencies

Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)/Italy.

British National Space Centre (BNSC)/United Kingdom.
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)/Canada.
Centre National dEtudes Spatiales (CNES)/France.
Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR)/Germany.
European Space Agency (ESA)/Europe.
Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos)/Russian Federation.
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)/Brazil.
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)/Japan.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)/USA.

Observer Agencies

Austrian Space Agency (ASA)/Austria.

Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BFSPO)/Belgium.
Central Research Institute of Machine Building (TsNIIMash)/Russian Federation.
Centro Tecnico Aeroespacial (CTA)/Brazil.
Chinese Academy of Space Technology (CAST)/China.
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)/Australia.
Danish Space Research Institute (DSRI)/Denmark.
European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
(EUMETSAT)/Europe.
European Telecommunications Satellite Organization (EUTELSAT)/Europe.
Hellenic National Space Committee (HNSC)/Greece.
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)/India.
Institute of Space Research (IKI)/Russian Federation.
KFKI Research Institute for Particle & Nuclear Physics (KFKI)/Hungary.
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)/Korea.
MIKOMTEK: CSIR (CSIR)/Republic of South Africa.
Ministry of Communications (MOC)/Israel.
National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT)/Japan.
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/USA.
National Space Program Office (NSPO)/Taipei.
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO)/Pakistan.
Swedish Space Corporation (SSC)/Sweden.
United States Geological Survey (USGS)/USA.

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DOCUMENT CONTROL

Document

Title

CCSDS
500.0-G-1

Navigation DataDefinitions and June 2001

Conventions

Original issue, superseded

CCSDS
500.0-G-2

Navigation DataDefinitions and November

2005
Conventions, Informational
Report, Issue 2

Current issue

CCSDS 500.0-G-2

Date

Page iv

Status

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CCSDS REPORT CONCERNING NAVIGATION DATADEFINITIONS AND CONVENTIONS

CONTENTS
Section
1

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

GENERAL.............................................................................................................. 3-1
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................ 3-1
NAVIGATION DATA CATEGORIES ................................................................. 3-2
NAVIGATION DATA AND NAVIGATION MESSAGE ................................... 3-2
NAVIGATION EXCHANGE DATA TYPES....................................................... 3-3
NAVIGATION DATA EXCHANGE CHARACTERISTICS............................... 3-4
NAVIGATION DATA EXCHANGE SCENARIOS............................................. 3-7

ANCILLARY DATA ..................................................................................................... 4-1

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

GENERAL.............................................................................................................. 2-1
NAVIGATION ....................................................................................................... 2-1
DEFINITIONS OF SPACECRAFT NAVIGATION TERMS............................... 2-3

NAVIGATION MESSAGE EXCHANGE FRAMEWORK...................................... 3-1

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

PURPOSE AND SCOPE........................................................................................ 1-1

APPLICABILITY................................................................................................... 1-1
STRUCTURE OF THIS DOCUMENT.................................................................. 1-1
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 1-2

SCOPE OF NAVIGATION .......................................................................................... 2-1

2.1
2.2
2.3

Page

RATIONALE.......................................................................................................... 4-1
QUALITY............................................................................................................... 4-1
COORDINATE FRAME IDENTIFICATION....................................................... 4-1
TIME....................................................................................................................... 4-8
ASTRODYNAMIC CONSTANTS...................................................................... 4-12
ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS .......................................................................... 4-13
ANTENNA TYPES.............................................................................................. 4-13

PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................ 5-1

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

RATIONALE.......................................................................................................... 5-1
POINT SOURCE PROPERTIES ........................................................................... 5-2
ATTITUDE............................................................................................................. 5-5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES .................................................................................. 5-11
HARDWARE PROPERTIES............................................................................... 5-12

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CONTENTS (continued)
Section
6

MEASUREMENTS ....................................................................................................... 6-1

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Page

RATIONALE.......................................................................................................... 6-1
MEASUREMENT DATA TYPES......................................................................... 6-1
GPS ......................................................................................................................... 6-8
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT DATA TYPES .................................................... 6-8

SATELLITE-BASED GLOBAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS ................................... 7-1

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 7-1

NAVSTAR.............................................................................................................. 7-1
GLONASS .............................................................................................................. 7-1
GALILEO ............................................................................................................... 7-2
EXCHANGE OF GNS MEASUREMENTS.......................................................... 7-2

ANNEX A GLOSSARY ................................................................................................... A-1

ANNEX B ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS.......................................................B-1
Figure
2-1
2-2
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
5-1
5-2
6-1
6-2

The Navigation Process ................................................................................................ 2-2

Real-Time or NearReal-Time Navigation Process ..................................................... 2-3
Agency Participants ...................................................................................................... 3-1
Navigation Message Exchange Definitions.................................................................. 3-2
Examples of Navigation Sessions................................................................................. 3-5
Navigation Session Using Multiple CCSDS Recommended Standards....................... 3-6
Relationships among Common Reference Frames ....................................................... 4-5
Local Orbital LVLH Frame .......................................................................................... 4-6
Local Orbital TNW Frame............................................................................................ 4-7
Local Orbital QSW Frame............................................................................................ 4-8
Differences between Relevant Time Scales between 1950 and 2020 .......................... 4-9
Relationships among Time Scales .............................................................................. 4-12
Classical Keplerian Orbit Orientation Angles .............................................................. 5-3
Rigid Body Angular Momentum .................................................................................. 5-9
DOR Observation Geometry ...................................................................................... 6-6
Differenced Range ........................................................................................................ 6-7

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CONTENTS (continued)
Table
3-1
3-2
3-3
5-1
5-2

Page
Typical Measurement Data Types ................................................................................ 3-3
Typical Property Data Types ........................................................................................ 3-4
Typical Ancillary Information Data Types................................................................... 3-4
Property Data Types ..................................................................................................... 5-1
Classical Keplerian Elements ....................................................................................... 5-3

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INTRODUCTION

1.1

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

Spacecraft navigation data are exchanged between Consultative Committee for Space Data
Systems (CCSDS) Member Agencies during cross support of space missions. The purpose
of this document is to establish a common understanding for the exchange of spacecraft
navigation data. For purposes of this document, orientation and maneuver information are
included as part of the spacecraft navigation process.
Types of navigation data exchanged, and discussed in this document, include:

properties and measurements of spacecraft dynamics;

ground station information;

environmental models;

tracking data;

spacecraft attitude data;

orbital elements;

ancillary data required for spacecraft navigation.

1.2

APPLICABILITY

This document applies to navigation and attitude data exchanged in the following cases:

flight-to-ground;

ground-to-flight;

ground-to-ground;

flight-to-flight.

This document serves as a guideline for the development of compatible, inter-Agency

standards for the exchange of spacecraft navigation and attitude data.
1.3

STRUCTURE OF THIS DOCUMENT

a) Section 2 provides a brief overview of spacecraft navigation.
b) Section 3 provides foundational information regarding the components of a message
exchange architecture (definitions, paradigms, etc.).

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CCSDS REPORT CONCERNING NAVIGATION DATADEFINITIONS AND CONVENTIONS

c) Section 4 provides details about coordinate frames, time systems, astrodynamic

constants, environmental models, and other ancillary concepts important in spacecraft
navigation.
d) Section 5 discusses properties of the entities that participate in a navigation data
exchange.
e) Section 6 discusses the types of measurements that may be made during a navigation
session.
f) Section 7 briefly discusses satellite based global navigation systems such as GPS,
GLONASS, GALILEO.
g) Annexes A and B constitute a Glossary of Terms and a listing of Acronyms,
respectively.
1.4

REFERENCES

The following documents are referenced in this Technical Report. At the time of the
publication the indicated editions were valid. All documents are subject to revision, and
users of this Technical Report are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the
most recent editions of the documents indicated below. The latest issues of CCSDS
documents may be obtained from the CCSDS Secretariat at the address indicated on page i.
[1]

Procedures Manual for the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems. CCSDS
A00.0-Y-9. Yellow Book. Issue 9. Washington, D.C.: CCSDS, November 2003.

[2]

Dennis D. McCarthy and Grard Petit, eds. IERS Conventions (2003). IERS
Technical Note No. 32.
Frankfurt am Main, Germany: IERS, 2004.
<http://www.iers.org/iers/publications/tn/tn32/>

[3]

The Introduction of the Improved IAU System of Astronomical Constants, Time

Scales and Reference Frame into the Astronomical Almanac. Supplement section in
The Astronomical Almanac (1984): S1-S39.

[4]

International Terrestrial Reference Frame <http://itrf.ensg.ign.fr/> and National

Geodetic Survey Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS).
<http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/CORS/Coords.html>

[5]

O. Montenbruck and E. Gill. Satellite Orbits: Models, Methods, and Applications.

Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2000.

[6]

B. W. Parkinson and J. J. Spilker, Jr., eds. Global Positioning System: Theory and
Practice. Volumes 163 and 164 of Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics.
Washington, DC: AIAA, 1996.

[7]

E. D. Kaplan, ed. Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications. Norwood, MA:

Artech House, 1996.

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[8]

H. H. Fromm and R. Lucas. The European Contribution to GNSS-2: A Status Report

on the Technical Preparations. International Conference on the European GNSS-2
System, European Space Agency, 1998.

[9]

W. Gurtner and G. Mader. Receiver Independent Exchange Format Version 2.

CSTG GPS Bulletin 3, no. 3, (1990).

[10]

T. D. Moyer. Formulation for Observed and Computed Values of Deep Space

Network Data Types for Navigation. JPL Deep Space Communications and
Navigation Series. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2003.

[11]

JPLs Planetary Ephemerides. <http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/eph_info.html>

[12]

The
International
Celestial
Reference
<http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/ICRS_doc.html>

[13]

B. D. Tapley, B. E. Schutz, and G. H. Born. Statistical Orbit Determination.

Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2004.

[14]

C. Ma, et al. The International Celestial Reference Frame As Realized by Very Long
Baseline Interferometry. AJ 116 (1998): 516-546.

[15]

T. D. Moyer. Transformation from Proper Time on Earth to Coordinate Time in

Solar System Barycentric SpaceTime Frame of Reference. Parts 1 and 2.
Celestial Mechanics 23 (1981).

[16]

The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues. ESA Publication SP-1200. Noordwijk: ESA,
1997.

[17]

James R. Wertz, ed. Spacecraft Attitude Determination and Control. Astrophysics

and Space Science Library 73. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1978.

[18]

Coordinational Scientific Information Center, Global Navigation Satellite System.

<http://www.glonass-center.ru>

[19]

Galileo,
European
Satellite
Navigation
<http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo>

[20]

William G. Melbourne, Navigation between the Planets, Scientific American 234

(June 1976): 58-64, 68-74.

[21]

C. L. Thornton and J. S. Border. Radiometric Tracking Techniques for Deep-Space

Navigation. Deep Space Communication and Navigation Series. Hoboken, N.J.:
Wiley, 2003.

[22]

R. D. Kahn, et al. Position Determination of a Lander and a Rover at Mars with

Earth-Based Differential Tracking. TDA Progress Report 42-108 (OctoberDecember 1991). <http://tmo.jpl.nasa.gov/progress_report/issues.html>

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System

(ICRS).

System.

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CCSDS REPORT CONCERNING NAVIGATION DATADEFINITIONS AND CONVENTIONS

[23]

James R. Wertz, et al. Mission Geometry; Orbit and Constellation Design and
Management. Spacecraft Orbit And Attitude Systems. El Segundo, California;
Dordrecht, Boston: Microcosm Press; Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.

[24]

Malcolm D. Shuster. A Survey of Attitude Representations. The Journal of the

Astronautical Sciences 41, no. 4 (October-December 1993): 439-517.

[25]

Marcel J. Sidi. Spacecraft Dynamics and Control: A Practical Engineering

Approach. Cambridge Aerospace Series 7. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001.

[26]

Marshall H. Kaplan. Modern Spacecraft Dynamics and Control. New York: Wiley,
1976.

[27]

William E. Wiesel. Spaceflight Dynamics. 2nd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1997.

[28]

Basics of Space Flight. <http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/index.html>

[29]

Pedro Ramon Escobal. Methods of Orbit Determination. Malabar, Florida: Krieger,

1965.

[30]

Betsy Edwards. Tracking and Acquisition Handbook for the Spaceflight Tracking and
Data Network. Rev. 5. STDN No. 724. Greenbelt, Maryland: Goddard Space Flight
Center, March 1990.

[31]

Technical Manual: 26-Meter Antenna (GDS/MAD).

NASA, September 26, 1977.

[32]

Time and Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology Physics
Laboratory. <http://tf.nist.gov/timefreq/index.html>

[33]

Institute for National Measurement Standards, National Research Council of Canada.

<http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/en/main_e.php>

[34]

James Jespersen and Jane Fitz-Randolph. From Sundials to Atomic Clocks:

Understanding Time and Frequency. 2nd rev. ed. Mineola, New York: Dover, 1999.

[35]

Attitude Data Messages. Draft Recommendation for Space Data System Standards,
CCSDS 504.0-R-1. Red Book. Issue 1. Washington, D.C.: CCSDS, November 2005.

[36]

Orbit Data Messages. Recommendation for Space Data System Standards, CCSDS
502.0-B-1. Blue Book. Issue 1. Washington, D.C.: CCSDS, September 2004.

[37]

Tracking Data Message. Draft Recommendation for Space Data System Standards,
CCSDS 503.0-R-1. Red Book. Issue 1. Washington, D.C.: CCSDS, November 2005.

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CCSDS REPORT CONCERNING NAVIGATION DATADEFINITIONS AND CONVENTIONS

SCOPE OF NAVIGATION

2.1

GENERAL

This section briefly describes the spacecraft navigation process, and defines terms relevant to
this process.
2.2

NAVIGATION

2.2.1

DEFINITION

The word navigate is derived from the Latin words navis, meaning ship, and agere,
meaning to move or direct. The common definition of navigation establishes that it is the
science of getting a craft or person from one place to another.
2.2.2

SPACECRAFT NAVIGATION PROCESS

The spacecraft navigation process is comprised of four steps:

1) A set of measurements is acquired.
2) The set of measurements is used to determine the trajectory, flight path, and/or
attitude of the spacecraft at a given time or over an interval of time (cf. references
[13], [20], and [21] and figure 2-1).
3) The future state is predicted by propagation models using the updated estimate from
step 2.
4) A spacecraft propulsive maneuver is performed to correct the trajectory, if necessary,
to meet mission requirements and constraints. This process is called flight path
control.

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Real World

Modeled World
Orbit Determination
Spacecraft
Dynamic
Model

Planet

Sun

Ephemeris

Calibrations
Station
Locations
Predicted
Observations

Observations
Model

Corrections
to Models
No
Guidance

Compare
Residuals
(OK?)
Yes

Observations
Earth

The navigation process. Orbit determination is an iterative procedure for

estimating the spacecraft trajectory and related physical parameters from
a set of tracking data. Guidance involves the calculation of optimal maneuvers
and commands needed to deliver the spacecraft to the desired target.

Figure 2-1: The Navigation Process

Figure 2-2 depicts the spacecraft navigation process, which can take place either in real time,
nearreal time, or after the fact (also referred to as reconstruction).

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Measurements taken

State

State prediction

Prediction
Now

Measures interval

Now

Now

Measures interval

Measures interval

Figure 2-2: Real-Time or NearReal-Time Navigation Process

2.3

DEFINITIONS OF SPACECRAFT NAVIGATION TERMS

In order to establish a solid standard for the exchange of spacecraft navigation data among
agencies, it is important to clearly define terms relevant to this process. These terms are as
follows:
Navigation is the process used to find the present and imminent future position, orbit and
orientation of a spacecraft using a series of measurements.
Guidance is the process of defining a path to move a spacecraft from one point to another.
Control is the process to maintain a spacecraft within the prescribed path and attitude.
The responsibilities for guidance and control are outside of the scope of this Report.

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3
3.1

NAVIGATION MESSAGE EXCHANGE FRAMEWORK

GENERAL

This section describes the elements, characteristics, and major groupings of navigation
message exchanges, as well as the data types involved in these exchanges.
3.2

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Agency Center: Facility used for executing commands to spacecraft, as well as for
monitoring telemetry, tracking, flight dynamics, and other engineering parameters. Data may
be exchanged between agency centers by operations staff (e.g., via facsimile), or by servers
across a computer network common to both the broadcasting and acquiring agents.
Navigation Session: The interchange of
data between participants for navigation
purposes.
Participant: An entity that has the
ability to acquire or broadcast
navigation messages. Possible agency
participants can be arranged into three
categories, as depicted in figure 3-1.
Spacecraft: A vehicle in orbit about
any celestial body or celestial point, as a
single entity or as part of a set (such as
constellations
or
formations).
Spacecraft also include assets in
operations at, or in close proximity to, a
remote body; these participants are
referred to as in situ assets, and can
include rovers, landers, aircraft, etc.
Navigation messages to/from these
participants are exchanged digitally, and
are usually optimized in response to
bandwidth, power, or message format
constraints.

Spacecraft
Single Spacecraft

Constellations

Formation Flyers

In Situ

Tracking Stations
Complex

Station 1

Station 2

Station k

Agency Centers
Staff

File Servers

Figure 3-1: Agency Participants

Tracking Station:
Ground-based
facility used to monitor the location of
spacecraft.
Some agencies have
multiple stations operated by a central entity, referred to as the complex.

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3.3

NAVIGATION DATA CATEGORIES

For the purpose of organization in this report, the navigation data types exchanged by
participants are grouped into three categories:
a) Property of a participant is a data type that allows describing the physical
characteristics of that participant.
b) Measurements are data types collected specifically to improve the knowledge of
properties.
NOTE Any piece of information can be treated as a property or a measurement; the
distinction is in how the information is used.
c) Ancillary Information is any data type used for the correct interpretation of
measurements and properties.
3.4

NAVIGATION DATA AND NAVIGATION MESSAGE

Navigation Data: A set of measurements, properties, and ancillary information exchanged

between participants during a navigation session.
Navigation Message: A particular arrangement of the navigation data whose structure and
content are the subjects of CCSDS flight dynamics Recommended Standards.
Figure 3-2 describes the roles of navigation data versus navigation messages.
Broadcasting

Participant
Participant 11

Receiving

Navigation
Message

Participant
Participant 22

Navigation Data
- Properties,
- Measurements,
- Ancillary Information

Figure 3-2: Navigation Message Exchange Definitions

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3.5

NAVIGATION EXCHANGE DATA TYPES

Tables 3-1 through 3-3 contain lists of the most typical measurement, property, and ancillary
information data types currently exchanged. For current and future Recommended
Standards, it is preferable to use the units from these tables; in most cases, the International
System of units (SI) will be used. However, there are cases where it is not possible to
convert raw measurements from hardware-specific units to SI units without risking some
degradation of measurement quality. For example, for Doppler and range measurements
collected during periods when the transmitter frequency is time varying, a conversion to SI
units is only possible with accurate trajectory information. In this case, the recommendation
is for the participating agencies to agree upon a hardware-specific unit.
Table 3-1: Typical Measurement Data Types

Type

Units

Variable Transmitter Range

km
km/s
s
Range
Units

Range
Range rate
Light Time

Angles (antenna tracking,

sun sensor, star sensor,
gyro package, horizon
sensor, videometers, etc.)
Doppler (coherent)
Doppler (non-coherent)
Variable Transmitter Doppler
Integrated Doppler count
Quality of measurements
IMU output
magnetometers

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deg

Hz
Hz
deg/s2
T

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Table 3-2: Typical Property Data Types

Type
Position
Angular Velocity
Linear Velocity
Angular acceleration
Acceleration
Length
Moment of Inertia
Force
Torque
Mass
Energy, work, or heat
Power
Pressure

Units
km
deg/s
km/s
deg/ s2
km/s2
m
kgm2
kgm/ s2
kgm2/ s2
kg
kgm2/ s2
kgm/s
kg/ ms2

Temperature
Transmitter delay
Receiver delay
Surface
Antenna angles
Oscillator frequency
Ballistic coefficient
Aerodynamic coefficient
Reflectivity
Angles
Angle rate
Angular drift
Magnetic field components

Alternate Units

N
N*m
N*m
W
hPa

K
ms
ms
m2
deg
MHz
m2/kg
deg
deg/s
deg/ s2
T

Table 3-3: Typical Ancillary Information Data Types

Type
Physical constants
Transmitter ID
Receiver ID
Epoch
Co-ordinate system
description
Time system description
Quality of property

3.6

Units
Depends on
constant
-

NAVIGATION DATA EXCHANGE CHARACTERISTICS

This Report describes a framework for the exchange of messages between any two types of
participants (see subsection 3.2 and figure 3-1). It is not possible to describe every possible
navigation session in detail, but navigation sessions generally have the following three
general characteristics:

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a) Navigation sessions may be divided so as to accommodate constraints on data

rates or availability of relevant information. For example, for launch support of a
spacecraft, spacecraft state vectors could be exchanged between operations centers of
two agencies. This exchange may take the form of an ASCII file or electronic FAX.
The text contains (1) the relevant property information (the position and velocity or
attitude of the spacecraft); and (2) all of the necessary ancillary information needed to
interpret the position and velocity or attitude of the spacecraft (coordinate frame,
time, time frame, spacecraft ID, etc.).
All of the information needed to
unambiguously interpret the property information is sent in one event. In a second
example, it may be necessary to send spacecraft position or orientation updates from
one spacecraft to another in real time. Because of bandwidth limitations on the
telemetry, it may not be desirable to send any other ancillary information at that time.
In that case, the participating agencies must agree on the coordinate frames, time
frames, etc., beforehand, and commit these pieces of information to an Interface
Control Document (ICD). This document, in fact, becomes part of the overall
navigation session as depicted in figure 3-3.
Agency 1

Agency 2

Flight
Dynamics
Center

Flight
Dynamics
Center

Position,
Velocity,
Coord. Frame,
Etc.

(a) Spacecraft state vectors between agencies

Agency 1
Operations
Center

Agency 2
Event 1

Operations
Center

Inter-Agency Agreement
(Coord. Frame,
Time Frame, Etc.)
Spacecraft

Event 2
Telemetry Packets
(x,y,z,t)1, (x,y,z,t)2,

Spacecraft

(b) Spacecraft relative position information between spacecraft

Figure 3-3: Examples of Navigation Sessions

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b) Navigation messages may utilize a CCSDS-recommended shorthand to convey

ancillary information.
The shorthand developed in each case should be
unambiguous, flexible, and extensible. For example, in the case described in part (a)
of figure 3-3, the coordinate frame can be an ASCII string, such as Earth Centered
True of Date. It is possible to assign each coordinate frame a unique ASCII string,
but there is a loss of extensibility with that approach, and in some cases the required
number of bits of information may be prohibitive. It is also possible to assign a
unique ID number to each coordinate frame; this approach would result in a fairly
compact message, but the resulting order of coordinate frame IDs would have little
physical meaning. (Shorthand conventions for commonly used data types are
reviewed in section 4.)
c) The content of a navigation session may be governed by more than one CCSDS
Recommended Standard. For example, if one agency is to provide another with the
time history of the position of a sensor or antenna on a spacecraft, there are three
pieces of information that need to be exchanged, each with its own protocol: (1) the
time history of the spacecraft trajectory or orbit; (2) the position of the sensor or
antenna with respect to the spacecraft center of mass (given most likely in a
spacecraft fixed frame); and (3) the attitude history of the spacecraft. Although the
content of these pieces come from different Recommended Standards, the
information itself can be sent at one time or in separate events (see figure 3-4).

Agency 1

Agency 2

Flight
Dynamics
Center

Flight
Dynamics
Center
Time, Spacecraft Position, Etc.
Sensor or Antenna Location
Time, Spacecraft Attitude, Etc.

Figure 3-4: Navigation Session Using Multiple CCSDS Recommended Standards

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3.7
3.7.1

NAVIGATION DATA EXCHANGE SCENARIOS

GENERAL

Ideally, every CCSDS Recommended Standard should apply to every type of navigation
message exchange (orbit, attitude, tracking) described previously in this section. However, it
is clear that widely used formats and protocols that are considered strong candidates for
CCSDS Recommended Standard cannot presently cover the entire range of exchanges.
Nevertheless, agencies can benefit by promoting some of these formats at the present time.
Therefore, the set of exchanges to which a Recommended Standard applies needs to be
defined. As new Recommended Standards are proposed, new exchange scenarios will be
defined in future versions of CCSDS flight dynamics documents.
3.7.2

GROUND-TO-GROUND SCENARIO

Ground-to-ground exchanges are defined as the set of exchanges between any two nonspacecraft participants.
3.7.3

GROUND-TO-FLIGHT AND FLIGHT-TO-GROUND SCENARIOS

Ground-to-flight and flight-to-ground exchanges are defined as the set of exchanges

between any one spacecraft participant and a non-spacecraft participant.
3.7.4

FLIGHT-TO-FLIGHT SCENARIO

Flight-to-flight exchanges are defined as the set of exchanges between any two spacecraft
participants.

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ANCILLARY DATA

4.1

RATIONALE

This section describes the ancillary data types, which are the pieces of information needed to
interpret measurements and properties of navigation participants. In general, ancillary
information makes it possible to take properties or measurements and incorporate them
correctly into numerical computations. In some cases, very detailed modeling information is
passed along so that measurements and properties can be used in state-of-the-art, highfidelity computations. For each ancillary data type covered, descriptions of formats and
systems supported by member agencies are included in a unified manner.
4.2

QUALITY

For some exchanges, it may be desirable to include the uncertainty of the transmitted data.
This uncertainty information is referred to as data quality. Quality specifications will be
made in the individual Recommended Standards. In addition, navigation uses many
constants having uncertainty values that are agreed upon in the international community; in
this case, the user should refer to the relevant governing document.
4.3
4.3.1

COORDINATE FRAME IDENTIFICATION

GENERAL

This subsection defines coordinate system terms and describes commonly used
specifications.
4.3.2

COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINITIONS

A coordinate frame is defined as an associated set of mutually orthogonal Cartesian axes

(referred to as x, y, and z).
The reference plane is the xy plane in a coordinate frame.
The reference direction is the direction of the x axis.
The frame origin is the common origin of the Cartesian axes. Also called center name.

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4.3.3

COORDINATE SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS

4.3.3.1 Specifying (1) the frame origin of the Cartesian axes, (2) the reference direction,
and (3) the reference plane (or its normal direction, the z axis direction) is sufficient to define
a coordinate frame unambiguously. Frame origins are generally either (1) the center of mass
of a participant (spacecraft, ground station, etc.), (2) the center of mass of a natural body, (3)
the center of mass of a set of bodies (referred to as the barycenter), or (4) the object position
on orbit at each given time for local frame. Other frame origins are possible for special
purposes. For this discussion the origin will remain constant over time. The reference
direction and reference plane normal are vectors that can be defined in one of these ways:

point to a fixed direction in inertial space (e.g., toward a quasar);

be parallel to the distance vector between one object and another;

be parallel to an objects velocity vector;

point from the origin through the intersection of two defined planes;

be parallel to an objects spin axis; or

be normal to an objects orbit.

4.3.3.2 In many cases, the reference plane is the equator or orbit plane of a natural body or
orbit of the spacecraft. In those cases, the motions of the equator or orbit plane are explicitly
computed. A natural bodys equatorial bulges can be perturbed by the gravitational
attraction of other natural bodies; this causes variations in the orientation of the equatorial
plane. Also, the perturbative effects of natural bodies on each other cause variations in the
orientation of their orbit plane. Long term motions that can be treated as though they are
secular are known as precession motion; short periodic motions are referred to as nutation.
When the natural bodys equator and ecliptic are defined as being represented by the
precession motions only, these are referred to as mean directions. Those affected by both
precession and nutation are referred to as true directions. Directions fixed at the time
corresponding to a fundamental reference are referred to as values at the epoch, while those
referring to instantaneous moments are referred to as values of date.
4.3.3.3 With the information contained in 4.3.3.2, it is possible to specify any form of
coordinate reference system about any form of participant. In current practice, however, the
vast majority of navigation messages between agencies use only a small subset of the
possibilities, some of which are described in the following sections.

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4.3.4
4.3.4.1

INTERNATIONAL CELESTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (ICRS)

General

In 1991 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) established the International Celestial
Reference System (ICRS) as the fundamental inertial coordinate system (reference [2]). The
origin of the ICRS is defined as the solar system barycenter within a relativistic framework,
and its axes are fixed with respect to distant extragalactic radio objects.
4.3.4.2

International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF)

The practical realization of the ICRS is designated the International Celestial Reference
Frame (ICRF), which is jointly maintained by the International Earth Rotation Service
(IERS) and the IAU Working Group on Reference Frames (references [2] and [14]). The
fundamental plane of the ICRF is closely aligned with the mean Earth equator at J2000, and
the origin of right ascension is defined by an adopted right ascension of the quasar 3C273 to
closely match the vernal equinox at J2000. The Hipparcos star catalogue is an optical
realization of the ICRS (reference [16]).
4.3.4.3

International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)

Complementary to the ICRS, the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) provides
the conceptual definition of an Earth-fixed reference system (reference [2]). Its origin is
located at the Earths center of mass (including oceans and atmosphere), and its unit of
length is the SI meter. The orientation of the IERS Reference Pole (IRP) and IERS Meridian
(IRM) are consistent with the previously adopted Bureau International de lHeure (BIH)
system at epoch 1984.0, as well as the former Conventional International Origin (CIO). The
time evolution of the ITRS is such that it exhibits no net rotation with respect to the Earths
crust. The International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is a realization of the ITRS.
New versions of the ITRF are published annually and exhibit global differences on the
centimeter level.
4.3.4.4

Solar System Ephemerides

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory provides a series of solar system ephemerides. The
Development Ephemerides (DE) are publicly available; see reference [11] for the
ephemerides currently most widely used for general applications. All data are referred to the
ICRF (references [2] and [14]). The difference between the dynamical J2000 reference
frame and the ICRF is at a level of 0.01 arcsec, and determined with an accuracy of 0.003
arcsec (reference [5]).

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4.3.4.5

True of Date (TOD) Coordinate System

The True of Date (TOD) coordinate system is frequently used for astrodynamical
applications. The mean equator and equinox of a given date define a Mean-of-Date (MOD)
coordinate system, which includes the effects of precession but not the effects of nutation. A
given dates true equator and equinox, which can be obtained by applying nutation to the
mean values, define a True Of Date (TOD) coordinate system.
4.3.4.6

Greenwich True of Date (GTOD) Coordinate System

The Greenwich True of Date (GTOD) (geographic) coordinate system is a rotating, righthanded, Cartesian system with the origin at the center of the Earth. The orientation of this
system is specified with:

The xy plane is the Earths true of date Equator.

The z axis is directed along the Earths true of date rotational axis and is positive
north.

The positive x axis is directed toward the prime meridian.

The y axis completes a right-handed system.

Greenwich True of Date is also referred to as True of Date Rotating (TDR) or Greenwich
Rotating Coordinate Frame (GCR).
4.3.4.7

Relationships among Common Reference Frames

The transformations for position vectors (r) among the ICRS, the ITRF, and the TOD
coordinate systems are performed in figure 4-1.
With the simplification
&
&
&
(t ) N (t ) P (t ) 0 , which is applicable in the framework of navigation data exchange,
the transformations of velocity vectors (v) among these frames is also shown.

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rITRS (t ) (t ) N (t ) P(t ) rICRS

rICRS
vICRS

rITRS
vITRS

v ITRS (t ) (t ) N (t ) P (t ) vICRS
+(t )

d
(t ) N (t ) P(t ) rICRS
dt

rITRS = (t ) (t ) rTOD

rTOD = N(t ) P (t ) rICRS

v ITRS = (t ) (t ) vTOD

vTOD = N(t ) P(t ) vICRS

+ (t )
rTOD
vTOD

d (t )
r
dt TOD

where:
:
:

N:
P:

Polar Motion Transformation Matrix

Earth Rotation Transformation Matrix
Nutation Transformation Matrix
Precession Transformation Matrix

0 1 0
d (t )
= E 1 0 0 (t )
dt
0 0 0
and is the (time dependent) Earth angular velocity.
transformations are contained in reference [2].

Details for these

Figure 4-1: Relationships among Common Reference Frames

4.3.5

BODY FRAME SPECIFICATIONS

Just as there are various coordinate frames attached to an orbit for convenience, a coordinate
frame is established to define the physical geometry of the spacecraft body. There is no
restriction on this frame (except for orthogonality) as its purpose is to make convenient the
definition of mechanical components, science instruments, and forces and torques. Some
examples of these coordinate frames are as follows:
a) center of frame placed at the center of mass or center of gravity and aligned along the
principal axes of inertia;
b) center of frame placed at an arbitrary location on or near the spacecraft body and
oriented for the purpose of defining the location of mechanical equipment and/or
science instruments;

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c) center of frame placed at center of mass or center of gravity and oriented to define
roll, pitch and yaw similar to the definition for aircraft.
Note that if a reference frame is not centered on the center of gravity (usually coincident with
the center of mass) then care must be taken when specifying forces and torques to be applied.
4.3.6

LOCAL ORBITAL FRAME

4.3.6.1

General

Important reference frames defined using the orbital position and velocity at a given time are
used for attitude estimation and attitude control.
4.3.6.2

Local Orbital Frame (LVLH)

Z = rr
r
Orbital plane

r r r

X=Y Z

Figure 4-2: Local Orbital LVLH Frame

LVLH stands for Local Vertical Local Horizontal.
Frame origin : spacecraft gravity center
r
Z : unit vector collinear and opposite sign of geocentric satellite position (planet center,

spacecraft gravity center)

r
Y : unit vector collinear and opposite sign of the orbital kinetic momentum (normal to orbit

plane)
r r
r
X : unit vector equal to Y Z

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4.3.6.3

Local Orbital Frame (T,N,W)

r
w
r r r
n =wt

Orbital plane
r
r V
t= r
V

Figure 4-3: Local Orbital TNW Frame

In TNW, T stands for tangential, N for normal, and W for the Greek omega () denoting
the axis of angular momentum.
Frame origin : spacecraft gravity center

r
t : unit vector collinear to absolute orbital velocity
r
w

: unit vector collinear to orbital kinetic momentum (normal to orbit plane)

r r
r
n : unit vector equal to w t

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4.3.6.4

Local Orbital Frame (Q,S,W) or RTN (Radial, Transverse, Normal)

O rbital p lane

r r r

s = wq

r rr
r

q=

Figure 4-4: Local Orbital QSW Frame

Frame origin : spacecraft gravity center
Q : unit vector collinear to geocentric satellite position (planet center, spacecraft gravity
center) (R)
W : unit vector collinear to the orbital kinetic momentum (normal to orbit plane) (N)
r r
S : unit vector equal w q (T)

4.4

TIME

4.4.1

RATIONALE

The exact definition and understanding of time systems is essential for:

the modeling of satellite orbits and attitude;

exchange of navigation data; and

satellite ground operations.

This subsection provides definitions of time scales relevant to navigation messages

(reference [2]). The relative differences between time frames appear as (1) step functions
(for example, when leap seconds are added); or (2) monotonically increasing differences
(when relativistic effects are added); or (3) periodic differences (due to solar system
dynamics).

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4.4.2

TIME SCALES

4.4.2.1

Differences Between Time Scales

Figure 4-5 provides an overview of the differences between the most relevant time scales
described in references [2] and [5].
NOTE Periodic terms in Barycentric Coordinated Time (TCB) and Barycentric
Dynamical Time (TDB) have been exaggerated by a factor of 100 to make them
discernible.

60
50
40

TCB
TCG

TDB

30

TT (=TDT=ET)

dt [s]

20
10
0
-10

TAI

UT1

GPS
-20
UTC

-30
-40
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Year

Figure 4-5: Differences between Relevant Time Scales between 1950 and 2020
4.4.2.2
4.4.2.2.1

Time Scales for Earth Orbiting Satellites

Terrestrial Time

Terrestrial Time (TT), previously known as Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT), is a

conceptually uniform time scale that would be measured by an ideal clock on the surface of
the geoid. TT is measured in days of 86400 SI seconds.

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4.4.2.2.2

International Atomic Time

International Atomic Time (TAI) provides the practical realization of a uniform time scale
based on atomic clocks and agrees with TT, except for a constant offset of 32.184s and the
imperfections of existing clocks.
Between TAI and TT the following relation holds:
TAI = TT - 32.184s
4.4.2.2.3

Global Positioning System Time

Global Positioning System (GPS) time is an atomic time scale like TAI, but differs in the
chosen offset and the choice of atomic clocks used in its realization.
The origin of GPS was arbitrarily chosen as:
GPS = UTC on 1980 January 6.0, i.e., GPS time differs from TAI by a constant offset
of:
GPS = TAI(GPS) - 19s
4.4.2.2.4

Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time

Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time (GMST) is defined as the Greenwich hour angle of the mean
vernal equinox of date.
4.4.2.2.5

Universal Time

Universal Time (UT1) is todays realization of a mean solar time, which is derived from
GMST by a conventional relation.
4.4.2.2.6

Coordinated Universal Time

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is an atomic time scale, based on the performance of
atomic clocks. It is tied to TAI by an offset of integer seconds (called leap seconds), which
is regularly updated to keep UTC in close agreement with UT1 (within 0.9s). Since atomic
clocks are more stable than the rate at which the Earth rotates, leap seconds are needed to
keep the two time scales in agreement. Although it is possible to have a negative leap second
(a second removed from UTC), so far, all leap seconds have been positive (a second has been
added to UTC). Based on what we know about the Earths rotation, it is unlikely that we will
ever subtract a second. The International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) notifies the world
when a leap second is to be added or subtracted, which is done only at the end of June or
December. See references [5], [32], [33], and [34].

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When no leap second is to occur, the clocks count time over the transition from one day to
the next as follows:
23:59:58 23:59:59 00:00:00 00:00:01 UTC no leap second
To add a leap second, the clocks are made to count time at the transition from June 30 to July
1 or the transition from December 31 to January 1 as follows:
23:59:58 23:59:59 23:59:60 00:00:00 UTC positive leap second
If a leap second were to be subtracted, the clocks would count time as follows:
23:59:58 00:00:00 00:00:01

UTC negative leap second

At the beginning of the year 2005, the difference between UTC and TAI was
UTC - TAI = -32s
At the end of the year 2005, an additional leap second is scheduled to be added, making the
difference between UTC and TAI -33s.
4.4.2.3

Time Scales for Interplanetary Missions

4.4.2.3.1

Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB)

Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) is the independent variable of current barycentric solar
system ephemerides. This time was introduced by the IAU in 1976 and defined to deviate
from the TDT (which is now identical with TT) by periodic terms (2 ms) only (references
[3] and [15]).
4.4.2.3.2

Barycentric Coordinated Time

Barycentric Coordinated Time (TCB) is the relativistic time coordinate of the 4-dimensional
barycentric frame. TCB and TDB exhibit a scale difference of
LB = 1.550519748710-8
which results in a secularly increasing difference of
TCB - TDB 46.7s/cy (year-1977.0)
4.4.2.4

Relationships Between Time Scales

Figure 4-6 depicts the relationships between the time scales.

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Mean Solar Time

Atomic Time

Dynamical Time

(Based on the Earth rotation

(Based on characteristic

("Solar System, free-flowing

rate)

UT1
(Universal Time)
Mean solar time defined by the

UT1 UTC

< 0.9s

fundamental

time," relativistic coordinate

frequencies of selected

time used in solar system

molecules)

ephemerides)

TAI

TEP H ("ET," "TDB")

(International

(Ephemeris Time)

Atomic Time)

Widely used ephemeris time; rate

adopted right ascension of the

SI second; realization of

mean Sun and the observed

TT. Defined by hyperfine

Greenwich Sidereal Time.

radiation of cesium-133

removed so that
|TT-TEPH| < 0.002 s.

atoms.

= TT

T
EPH

+ 1.66 10 sinE +
UTC

TT

(Coordinated

(Terrestrial Time)
Independent

Universal Time)
Runs at same rate as
TAI and TT; offset by

TAI GPS 19s

- (s-level offsets)

E = Eccentric Anomaly of
Earth /Moon barycenter

time

variable of geocentric
ephemerides

frame;

integer number of leap

formerly

Terrestrial

seconds.

Dynamic Time (TDT).1

UTC = TAI
- (Leap Seconds)

TT = TAI + 32.184 s

GMST

GPS

TCB

(Greenwich Mean

(Global Positioning

(Barycentric
Coordinate Time)

Sidereal Time)

Satellite Time System)

Greenwich hour angle of the

Similar to TAI; based on

mean vernal equinox of date.

different atomic clocks

and initial offset.

GMST = 24110.54841

New IAU "official" time; based

on SI second, not widely used
(departs from TT at about 0.5
s/yr).

+ 8640184.812866 T 0
+ 1.002737909350795 UT1

TCB = TT

+ 0.093104 T 2

+LB TT TT0

- 0.0000062 T 3
T=

+1.66 10 sinE+

JD(UT1 ) 2451545

LB = 1.5505197487 10

36525

Figure 4-6: Relationships among Time Scales

4.5

ASTRODYNAMIC CONSTANTS

Examples of astrodynamic constants exchanged for navigation purposes include the vacuum
speed of light, Greenwich Mean (GM), and reference dimensions for Earth and other solar
system bodies. Unless otherwise specified, the international community uses values
recommended by the IERS (www.iers.org).

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4.6

ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS

Along with astrodynamic constants, mathematical models have been derived to compute
effects on measurements, as well as effects on the equations of motion. Unless otherwise
specified, the international community uses models recommended by the IERS
(www.iers.org).
4.7
4.7.1

ANTENNA TYPES
GENERAL

Several different antenna types are used in the process of collecting the tracking data that is
used in the navigation process. For understanding the differences in these antenna types,
some background is helpful. (See references [28], [29], [30], and [31].)
4.7.2

BACKGROUND TERMS FOR ANTENNA TYPES

The locations of objects in the sky are described in terms of the celestial sphere, a virtual
sphere of infinite radius that surrounds the Earth. The center, pole and equatorial plane
(reference plane) of the celestial sphere are the same as those of the Earth.
Declination (DEC) represents the angle formed between the center and a vector pointing to
the object, expressed in degrees from 90 to -90. Positive declination angles represent objects
north of the reference plane of the celestial sphere, and negative declination angles represent
objects south of the reference plane.
Right ascension (RA) is conceptually equivalent to longitude. It measures how far the object
is away from the zero point of the celestial reference plane (i.e., the vernal equinox). The
right ascension may be expressed either in degrees from 0 to 360; or in hours, minutes, and
seconds, where an hour of RA is 15 degrees of sky rotation. Together, the RA and DEC
uniquely specify the inertial position of an object on the celestial sphere.
An objects hour angle (HA) is the time dependent distance in hours, minutes, and seconds
westward along the celestial equator from the observers meridian to the objects RA. The
HA is zero when the object is on the observers meridian.
A keyhole is an area in the sky where an antenna cannot track a spacecraft because the
required angular rates would be too high. Mechanical limitations may also contribute to
keyhole size.

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4.7.3

EQUATORIAL OR RADEC MOUNT

An equatorial mount or RADEC antenna mount is designed with one mechanical axis
parallel to the Earths axis. To track an object, the antenna is pointed toward the objects
known HA and DEC and then rotated about the antennas polar axis as the Earth rotates
during the rest of the tracking pass. The antenna structure design is latitude dependent.
4.7.4

THE X-Y MOUNT

In an X-Y antenna, X-angular movement is about a ground-fixed horizontal axle and Yangular movement is about a perpendicular axle that rotates with X motion. The Y axle
varies from a vertical to horizontal to inverted vertical orientation as X rotates through its
range of motion. This configuration cannot directly swivel in azimuth as can an antenna
having an AZEL mount. The X-Y mount can rotate freely in any direction from its upwardlooking zenith central position.
An X-Y-mounted antenna is mechanically similar to a RADEC antenna. X-Y mounted
antennas can have one of two types of configuration. These are XSYE and XEYN, whose
characteristics are shown in the following table:
X-Y
Configuration

Keyholes

X-Axis
Point

Y-Axis Point

Best For

XSYE

east/west
horizon

south

east

objects in polar orbits

XEYN

north/south
horizon

east

north

objects in lower inclination

orbits

4.7.5

AZIMUTH-ELEVATION (AZEL) CONFIGURATION

An azimuth-elevation (AZEL) design antenna locates a point in the sky by azimuth (AZ) in
degrees eastward (clockwise) from true north, and elevation (EL) in degrees above the
horizon. The AZEL fundamental design is not location dependent.
The AZEL mount has two perpendicular axes. The azimuth movement is about a groundfixed vertical axle and elevation movement is about a perpendicular horizontal axle that
rotates with azimuth motion. The keyhole in an AZEL system is near the zenith position.

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5
5.1

PROPERTIES
RATIONALE

There are many possible ways to group the physical attributes of spacecraft, rovers,
equipment, and tracking stations that are needed for navigation. This section first discusses
the simplest physical attributes, and then introduces progressively more sophisticated
attributes (see table 5-1).
Table 5-1: Property Data Types
Property Data
Type Grouping
Point Source

Three-Dimensional
Object (e.g., attitude)
Physical

Hardware

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Definition

Example Data Types

The attributes that can be associated

with an object when it is treated as a
point source.
The attributes that can be associated
with an object when it is treated as a
three-dimensional object.
The attributes that are physical
characteristics of the spacecraft in its
entirety.

Position
Velocity
Acceleration
Orientation Angles
Angular Velocity
Quaternion
Spacecraft Mass
Moments of Inertia
Solar Rad. Press. Area
Solar Rad. Press. Coefficient
Aerodynamic Drag Area
Aerodynamic Coefficient
The attributes that are physical Solar Panel Area, Bus Area
characteristics of a specific sub- Mass Flow Rate
assembly on a spacecraft.
Transmitter Delays
Receiver Delays
Oscillator Frequency
Oscillator Stability
Earth sensor
Gyro
Star sensor
Sun sensor
Magnetometer
Thrusters

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5.2

POINT SOURCE PROPERTIES

5.2.1

SURFACE STATION LOCATIONS

Spacecraft tracking and communications are made possible by a network of fixed ground
stations located around the world. Whenever an orbiting spacecraft passes across the field of
coverage of a ground station, the ground station can collect tracking data that allows
determination of the spacecraft position and velocity. In this category we also consider the
location of surface rovers and remote stations.
For surface tracking stations, the station coordinates and uncertainties are commonly defined
based on the ITRF (reference [4]), using Cartesian coordinates. The reference point
described by the coordinates is usually independent of its pointing direction. Pointingdependent corrections, if significantly larger than the location uncertainty, are specified
separately.
5.2.2
5.2.2.1

STATE VECTORS AND ORBITAL ELEMENTS

General

The motion of a satellite around a central body may be described by various sets of
parameters. In subsections 5.2.2.1 and 5.2.2.2, short definitions are given for the most
commonly used representations.
5.2.2.2

State Vector

The time-dependent spacecraft position (km) and velocity vectors (km/s)

x(t )
x& (t )

r&
r
r (t ) = y (t ) and r (t ) = y& (t )
z (t )
z& (t )

are usually given in the 6-dimensional representation of the state vector

x(t )

y (t )
z (t )
r

Y (t ) =
x& (t )
y& (t )

z& (t )

in a specified coordinate system at a specific epoch.

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5.2.2.3

Classical Keplerian Elements

For some purposes it may be convenient to use the classic osculating Keplerian elements
(table 5-2), which are an equivalent representation of the state vector at a specified epoch.
Table 5-2: Classical Keplerian Elements
Parameter

Symbol

Unit

Semi-major Axis

km

Eccentricity

Inclination

deg

Right Ascension of Ascending Node

deg

Argument of Pericenter

deg

True Anomaly

deg

NOTE The application of the Keplerian elements does not make sense for special cases
(e.g., i = 0, e = 1).
For some applications (e.g., orbit maintenance of remote sensing satellites), it is common to
use mean Keplerian elements, which are generated by averaging the osculating elements over
one or more revolutions.

Figure 5-1: Classical Keplerian Orbit Orientation Angles

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5.2.3
5.2.3.1

ORBIT MANEUVERS
Thrust Forces

The motion of a spacecraft is affected by natural forces. Spacecraft motion may also be
affected by the action of an onboard thruster system. Thrusters are frequently applied for
orbit control, attitude control, or a combination of both, and exhibit a variety of performance
levels and burn durations. The mathematical model used for trajectory prediction must factor
in the impact of thrust forces on maneuvers, as well as the impact of maneuvers on spacecraft
orbit.
5.2.3.2

Impulsive Maneuvers

In many cases thrust forces may be modeled as impulsive maneuvers. These are described by a
r
velocity vector v , applied to the spacecraft at a specified epoch with a burn duration t = 0.
5.2.3.3

Simplified Modeling of Extended Orbit Maneuvers

For extended maneuvers, a simplified model with the assumptions of constant thrust and
mass flow rate is sufficient in most cases.
With
r
F:
m& :
t:

m0:

Thrust force vector (assumed as constant during the maneuver)

Mass flow rate (assumed as constant during the maneuver)
Maneuver burn duration
Spacecraft mass at start of the maneuver

The total velocity increment experienced by the spacecraft is computed in this case as
follows:
r

m& t
r
F

v = ln1

m&
m
0

5.2.3.4

Exact Modeling of Extended Orbit Maneuvers

In cases of high precision orbit computation, a more refined numerical modeling of the timedependent functions of thrust and mass flow rate is applied.

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5.2.4

EPHEMERIS REPRESENTATIONS OF TRAJECTORIES

Under the proper conditions, state vectors and orbital elements allow for the use of a
propagation technique (analytical or numerical) to interpret the position and velocity at times
different from the specified epoch. Another manner to represent a trajectory is to use a
tabular format, with state vectors at pre-determined time intervals. This format (referred to
as an ephemeris representation) allows for the use of interpolation techniques to interpret the
position and velocity at times different from the tabular epochs.
5.3
5.3.1

ATTITUDE
GENERAL

The attitude of a spacecraft is its orientation in space. The motion of a rigid body is specified
by its position, velocity, attitude, and attitude rotation. Understanding the attitude requires
knowing: how it is determined/estimated, how it is controlled, and how its future rotation is
predicted.
See references [17] and [23].
This document seeks to address the
determination/estimation and prediction of attitude. Attitude control is not in the scope of
this document.
5.3.2

DEFINITIONS

The attitude of a rigid body is the orientation of a body-connected frame in a 3-dimensional

space at a given time, with respect to a defined reference frame. Participant attitude is the
orientation, at each time, of a participant with respect to a known reference (e.g., celestial
objects, frame, etc.). Attitude motion describes the attitude evolution around its center of
mass in a defined reference frame.
5.3.3

ATTITUDE ESTIMATION

Attitude estimation is the process of computing a set of parameters that describe this
orientation using measurements (generally onboard measurements). The process of attitude
estimation also includes checking the measurements of the various onboard attitude sensors
for any sign of physical deterioration, improper configuration, or changes in calibration or
alignment. All available attitude measurements can be processed to compute a best-estimate
time history of spacecraft attitude. This history is called definitive attitude. Most
spacecraft now carry Onboard Computers (OBC) with the capability of computing the
spacecrafts own attitude parameters.

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5.3.4

ATTITUDE REPRESENTATIONS

Several attitude representations are available, and the choice of a particular representation is
generally suited to the attitude stabilization mode of the spacecraft. Examples of stabilization
modes include:

single axis (spinning);

three axis;

gravity gradient;

uncontrolled.

Because of this wide domain of configuration it is convenient to use a single representation

to describe the status of the attitude (see reference [24] for a survey of attitude
representations). This mathematical representation of a rigid body is called a quaternion.
As it is non-ambiguous and singularity free, it is the most convenient for attitude kinematics,
and is used for every attitude stabilization mode.
The attitude elements needed at a given time are as follows:

time of application;

quaternion at this time;

description of body frame;

description of reference frame.

NOTE The following definitions use an inertial reference frame (J2000, for example)
and a connected body frame.
The attitude of the body frame with respect to the reference frame is represented by a unique
rotation around a vector u, which is invariant in both frames, with an angular amplitude .
The vector u is oriented in such a way that makes positive directly around the u vector in
the movement from reference frame to body frame.
At this rotation is associated a unit quaternion Q = { cos(/2), U sin(/2)}.
This gives the following relation between a vector X and its transformation X:
U = Q * U* QT
The attitude quaternion is defined by a 4-dimension vector Q (QC,Q1,Q2,Q3) with:

QC = cos(/2);

Q1 = e1*sin(/2);

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Q2 = e2*sin(/2);

Q3 = e3*sin(/2).

Where is the rotation angle between the reference frame and the body frame and e1, e2,
and e3 are the components of the unit rotation vector u in the body axis (or in the reference
frame) with the relation
QC*QC + Q1*Q1 + Q2*Q2 + Q3*Q3 = 1
We also define the conjugate quaternion QT = ( QC )
( Q1 )
( Q2 )
( Q3 ).
With
xi
xf

the components of a vector in the reference frame, with xi= (xi1,xi2,xi3)

the components of a vector in the body frame, with xf = (xf1,xf2,xf3)

xf and xi are linked by

xf = Q * xi * QT and xi = QT * xf* Q.
(These products are defined by the quaternion algebra.)
This link can also be expressed using a rotation matrix M.
xf = M xi
2(qC2 + q12 ) 1 2(q1q2 + qC q3 ) 2(q1q3 qC q2 )
M = 2(q1q2 qC q3 ) 2(qC2 + q22 ) 1 2(q2 q3 + qC q1 )

2(q q + q q ) 2(q q q q ) 2(q 2 + q 2 ) 1

1 3
C 2
2 3
C 1
C
3

The following formulae give the relations for the associated quaternion:
qc = +/- (M11+M22+M33+1)1/2
q1 = 1/4* qc (M23 - M33)
q2 = 1/4* qc (M31 - M13)
q3 = 1/4* qc (M12 - M21)
This matrix can be used to elaborate a set of attitude angles like Eulers (Roll Pitch Yaw)
giving the rotation angles around X=1=roll, Y=2=pitch, Z=3=yaw axes. The rotation order
must be defined to have a set of values consistent with the desired rotation.

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For example if the rotation order is around axis 3, around axis 2, around axis 1 the
Cardan angles can be obtained by the following relations:
= angle( 2*( qc2 +q12)-1 , 2*( q1* q2 + qc* q3) )
= -arcsin( 2*( q1 +q3 - q2 *qc )
= angle( 2*( qc2 +q32)-1 , 2*( q1* q23+ qc* q1) )
NOTE The angles are undefined if COS() = 0.
Note that the transformation matrices above, while assuming a particular order of scalar (QC)
and vector (Q1, Q2, Q3) portions of the quaternion, are invariant as it is an expression to
transform a vector between the two frames of the quaternion. If one were to attempt
quaternion multiplication, then order of the quaternion vector is of prime importance.
Another method of expressing 3-axis attitude is given in terms of roll, pitch, and yaw (R, P, Y)
coordinates. However, the definition of roll, pitch, and yaw axes vary from mission to
mission and often even change within a mission (reference [23]). In determining rotations or
rotation rates about these axes, care must be taken to define the axes, which are often
misunderstood. Using quaternions avoids the need to use R, P, Y attitude representation and
its resulting complexity.
5.3.5

EPHEMERIS REPRESENTATIONS OF ATTITUDE

Under the proper conditions, attitude states allow for the use of a propagation technique
(analytical or numerical) to interpret the orientation of an object connected frame at times
different from the specified epoch. Another manner to represent attitude is to use a tabular
format, with attitude states at pre-determined time intervals. This format (referred to as an
ephemeris representation) allows for the use of interpolation techniques to interpret the
attitude at times different from the tabular epochs.

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5.3.6

ATTITUDE DYNAMICS

Figure 5-2: Rigid Body Angular Momentum

Consider the situation of figure 5-2 in which the rigid body B contains the body-fixed x, y, z
coordinate system attached at the center of mass, O. The angular momentum is

h = r x ( x r )dm
B

where denotes the instantaneous angular velocity vector of the rotating x, y, z coordinate
system. The angular momentum may be written in matrix form as
I x - I xy - I xz
h x

x

h h y = I xy I y - I yz y = I
-I - I
h
I z z
xz
z
yz

where

Ix = (y2 + z2 )dm, I y = (x2 + z2 )dm, Iz = (x2 + y2 )dm

B

Ixy = xydm, Ixz = xzdm, Iyz = yzdm

B

Ix, Iy, Iz are the moments of inertia of the body about the x, y, z axes, respectively, Ixy, Ixz, Iyz
are the products of inertia of B, and the matrix I is known as the inertia matrix or the inertia

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tensor. Thus, any rigid body is characterized by a set of constants Ix, Iy, Iz, Ixy, Ixz, and Ixz for
the purpose of analyzing the angular momentum and, ultimately, attitude control. Therefore,
the torque vector satisfies Eulers Equation,

.
dh
= I + x I
dt

which equals zero in a torque-free environment. Thus, parallel to the conservation of linear
momentum in orbital mechanics, the principle of conservation of angular momentum states
that angular momentum remains constant in magnitude and direction in inertial space, if the
body is not acted on by any external torques.
The kinetic energy
1
T = T I
2

is reminiscent of the familiar

T =

1
mv 2
2

of particle dynamics with the angular velocity playing the role of the linear velocity and the
inertia matrix being the analog of the mass for rotational systems.

A principal axis is any axis P such that the resulting angular momentum is parallel to P

when the spacecraft rotates about P . If the principal axes are used as the coordinate axes of
the spacecraft x, y, z reference frame (see figure 5-2), the inertia matrix is the diagonal
matrix of eigenvalues (characteristic values), called the principal moments of inertia. (See
references [17], [25], [26], and [27].)
5.3.7

ATTITUDE PREDICTION

Attitude prediction is the process of forecasting the orientation of the spacecraft by using
dynamical models to extrapolate the attitude history. Propagation is the process of using the
dynamic equations of motion (EOM) and mathematical models of environmental torques to
model the attitude for an extended period of time. Environmental torques that are typically
included are gravity gradient, aerodynamic torque (if applicable), solar pressure, differential
gravity and self gravity. The choice of torques to include in a model depends on the location
of the spacecraft in inertial space.
Differential and self gravity arise from gravity forces acting on a particular point in space,
and these will eventually be dominant terms if the spacecraft is far enough away from a
gravity source, such as a planet, sun, or moon.

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To propagate the attitude of a spacecraft, a simple algorithm is typically followed:

1) Estimate the environmental torques on the body.
2) Integrate the momentum equation to determine the new momentum state.
3) Recover the rate from the new momentum state.
4) Propagate the attitude quaternion.
5.4

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

5.4.1

PARAMETERS

The parameters for the simplified models discussed in subsections 5.4.2 and 5.4.3 are as
follows: CR, AR, CD, AD (within the Orbit Parameters Message [OPM]). The meanings of
these parameters are defined below.
5.4.2

SOLAR RADIATION PRESSURE (SIMPLIFIED MODEL)

The absorption or reflection of photons associated with solar radiation causes a spacecraft to
accelerate. For most applications of navigation data exchange, a simplified model that
assumes the surface normal of the spacecraft is pointing to the Sun is sufficient to account for
the effect of solar radiation. The following model for the acceleration of a satellite due to
solar radiation pressure may be used:
r
&rv&R = C R AR rS AU 2
m c rS3

where:
CR:
AR:
m:
:
c:
r
rS :
AU:

Solar radiation pressure coefficient

Effective satellite cross section for solar radiation pressure
Spacecraft mass
Solar flux at 1 AU ( 1367 Wm-2)
Velocity of light
Vector spacecraft-Sun
Astronomical unit

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5.4.3

ATMOSPHERIC DRAG (SIMPLIFIED MODEL)

For low altitude satellites, the interaction of particles from the central bodys atmosphere
with the spacecraft surface causes an acceleration. For most applications of navigation data
exchange, a simplified model that assumes a spherical shape of the satellite with a unique
surface is sufficient to account for the effect of atmospheric drag. The following model for
the acceleration of a satellite due to atmospheric drag may be used:

v
&rv& = 1 C AD v 2 v r
D
D
r
2
m
vr
where:
CD:
AD:
m:
:
r:
5.5

Drag coefficient
Effective satellite cross section for drag
Spacecraft mass
Atmospheric density at spacecraft location
Velocity of spacecraft relative to atmosphere

HARDWARE PROPERTIES

Hardware properties are associated with a particular subsystem of the entire spacecraft, and
not the vehicle as a whole. For example, in addition to the effective areas defined in 5.4 for
the entire spacecraft for solar radiation and aerodynamic drag calculations, area information
may be exchanged for individual components of significance on the vehicle (such as a solar
panel or parabolic antenna). Other examples include the mass flow rate (which can depend
on the engines or thrusters being used for a particular maneuver), transmitter and receiver
delays (which can be a function of the transponder or transceiver being used), and oscillator
frequency and stability (multiple frequency standards can exist on a single spacecraft).

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MEASUREMENTS

6.1

RATIONALE

Spacecraft navigation is based on measurements of velocity, distance, and angular direction.

Data for orbit determination is obtained from tracking radio frequency signals, telemetry or
radar tracking signals, and a variety of other sources (references [10] and [12]). Spacecraft
attitude estimation and control are based on onboard measurements of directions using
different kinds of detectors. Data for attitude estimation is obtained from spacecraft
telemetry.
6.2

MEASUREMENT DATA TYPES

6.2.1

ANGLES

Many tracking stations are able to measure the angles from a ground station to a spacecraft.
These angles are a fundamental data type for orbit determination in many missions,
particularly in launch support (initial acquisition, LEOP) and at other times when the
spacecraft is close to the Earth. The angles measured in this fashion are only useable in the
proximity of Earth. The angles help to measure plane-of-sky position.
6.2.2
6.2.2.1

RADIOMETRIC TRACKING DATA

General

The ground-based measurements used to navigate spacecraft are derived from the radio link
between the spacecraft and the tracking stations on the Earth (cf. references [13], [20], and
[21]). Spacecraft tracking is the process that provides the measurements (observables)
needed to determine where the spacecraft is located (its ephemeris) in its trajectory at a
particular time. Tracking data is obtained from the spacecraft in flight as it passes within the
field of signal acquisition from one participant to another. The primary navigation
measurements that are obtained by the radio system are range along the line of sight, rangerate, and Delta-Differential One-Way Range (DOR). Note that these three data types are
complementary since range and range rate provide line-of-sight information while DOR
adds the orthogonal (plane-of-sky) directions. Other data types include differenced range,
differenced Doppler, Differenced Range Versus Integrated Doppler (DRVID), and Pseudo
Noise (PN) Ranging.
6.2.2.2

Uplink and Downlink

The radio signal transmitted from the Earth to a spacecraft is known as uplink. The
transmission from spacecraft to the Earth is downlink. Uplink or downlink may consist of a
pure RF tone, called a carrier. Such a pure carrier is useful in many ways, including radio
science experiments. On the other hand, carriers may be modulated to carry information in

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each direction. Commands may be transmitted to a spacecraft by modulating the uplink

carrier. Telemetry containing science and engineering data may be transmitted to the Earth
by modulating the downlink carrier (reference [28]).
6.2.2.3

One-Way, Two-Way, Three-Way Data

When an Earth-based station is only receiving a downlink from a spacecraft, the

communication is called one-way. When the station is sending an uplink that the
spacecraft is receiving at the same time a downlink is being received at the Earth, the
communications mode is called two-way.

One-Way Doppler

(SPACECRAFT)

(RECEIVER STATION)

The communications mode is still called one-way even when an uplink is being received by
the spacecraft, but the full round-trip light time has not elapsed. Consider the following
situation: The station is receiving downlink and watching telemetry that shows the state of
the spacecrafts own receiver. As long as the spacecrafts receiver is not receiving the
uplink, communications are called one-way. After the spacecrafts receiver has locked
onto the uplink, it is two-way.

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Two-Way Doppler

(SPACECRAFT)

(TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER STATION)

Three-way data results when a station is receiving downlink, but a different station is
providing the uplink. The Round-Trip Light Time (RTLT) must have elapsed since the other
stations uplink began. The same situation with respect to the uplink exists for two-way and
three-way communication, i.e., one One Way Light Time (OWLT) after the spacecraft
receiver locks on the uplink signal, the ground will detect the three-way signal. If telemetry
is arriving at a station from the spacecraft, and the spacecrafts receiver is still in lock on the
uplink provided by another station, the communications are three-way.

Three-Way Doppler

(SPACECRAFT)

(RECEIVER STATION)
(TRANSMITTER STATION)

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6.2.2.4

Four-Way Data

Data is referred to as four-way if there are four directed edges and three nodes or six
directed edges and four nodes in the communications trail. In the former scenario, a signal
might be sent from a ground-based station to a relay satellite, on to another satellite, back to
the relay satellite, and then back to the same ground-based station. In the latter scenario, the
signal might be sent from the station on the ground to a relay station, on to another satellite,
and to a different ground-based station.
6.2.2.5

Coherence

Aside from carrying the information modulated on the downlink as telemetry, the carrier
itself is used for tracking and navigating the spacecraft, as well as for carrying out some
types of science experiments such as radio science or gravity field mapping. For each of
these uses, an extremely stable downlink frequency is required, so that Doppler shifts on the
order of fractions of a Hertz may be detected out of many GHz, over periods of many hours.
But it is currently impossible for any spacecraft to carry the massive equipment required to
maintain such frequency stability. Spacecraft transmitters are subject to wide temperature
changes, which cause their output frequency to drift. The solution is to have the spacecraft
generate a downlink that is coherent to the uplink it receives.
This coherent signal is generated on the Earth with the aid of a hydrogen-maser-based
frequency standard in an environmentally controlled room, sustained by an uninterruptible
power supply. This maser is used as a reference for generating an extremely stable uplink
frequency for the spacecraft to use, in turn, to generate its coherent downlink. (It also
supplies a signal to the master clock that counts cycles and distributes UTC time.) Its
stability is equivalent to the gain or loss of 1 second in 30 million years.
Once the spacecraft receives the stable uplink frequency, it multiplies that frequency by a
predetermined constant (the turnaround ratio), and uses that value to generate its downlink
frequency. In this way, the downlink enjoys all the extraordinarily high stability in frequency
that belongs to the massive, sensitive equipment that generated the uplink. It can thus be
used for precisely tracking the spacecraft and for carrying out precision science experiments.
The reason a spacecrafts transponder multiplies the received frequency by a constant is to
assure the downlink it generates will not cause interference with the uplink being received.
Hence, one-way data is non-coherent, while the others are coherent. The spacecraft carries a
low-mass oscillator to use as a reference in generating its downlink for periods when an
uplink is not available, but it is not highly stable, since its output frequency is affected by
temperature variations. Some spacecraft carry an Ultra-Stable Oscillator (USO), but even the
USO has nowhere near the ideal stability of a coherent link.

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6.2.2.6

Range

Range is the distance along the line of sight between the flying spacecraft and another
participant or participants. A range measurement is obtained by determining the round-trip
time of the radio signal, after accounting for delays from the ionospheric, tropospheric, and
solar plasma media and onboard instrument and ground-based antenna system, plus clock
drift on the spacecraft and at the stations.
6.2.2.7

Range-Rate

The spacecraft topocentric range rate is obtained from the Doppler shift in the frequency of
the radio signal produced by the relative motion along the line of sight from the station to the
spacecraft. Because the spacecraft is moving with respect to the Earth, the onboard radio
system receives an electromagnetic wave whose frequency differs from the one transmitted
from the ground. The frequency of the received signal is increased if the spacecraft is moving
toward the Earth and decreased if the spacecraft is receding. Doppler accuracies are often
given in terms of radial velocity, but the fundamental measurement is range change.
The simplest Doppler measurement is the one-way (non-coherent) mode, in which the
frequency of the signal received by the tracking station is compared with the best estimate of
the frequency of the signal sent by the onboard oscillator. The most accurate measurements
are obtained in the two-way coherent mode, for which the transmitting and receiving
stations, and hence the frequency standards, are the same. If the receiving station on the
Earth is different from the station that uplinked the signal to the spacecraft, the tracking
mode is called three-way. The three-way mode is employed where: (1) the round-trip light
time (RTLT) is large enough that the transmitting station rotates out of sight of the spacecraft
before the signal returns to the Earth, and, therefore, a second station must be employed to
receive the signal; or (2) continuous tracking of a spacecraft is desired across the transition
from the view period of one tracking complex to the view period of another.
6.2.2.8

Delta-Differential One-Way Range

The Delta-Differential One-Way Range (DOR) data type provides angular information in
the plane-of-sky orthogonal to the line-of-sight direction. Tracking stations at various
locations around the Earth track a single spacecraft simultaneously. Each station makes
high-rate recordings of the downlinks wave fronts while maintaining precise timing data.
Stations also record the pointing angles of their antennas, which slew directly to the position
of any extragalactic object, when that position is accurately known. The antennas then slew
back to the spacecraft. This data type measures geometric delay of the signal by crosscorrelating the signal from two stations and performs a double-differencing to cancel a large
portion of common error sources such as instrumental effects, clock errors, media effects,
and baseline uncertainties. The result is a very precise triangulation from which angular
position in the plane-of-sky may be determined. The DOR observing geometry is shown in
figure 6-1.

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Quasar

ft
ra
c
e
ac
p
s

y
la
de

Correlator

Baseline B

= B cos()/c

Credit: C.D. Edwards, J.S. Border, J.E. Patterson

Figure 6-1: DOR Observation Geometry

6.2.2.9

Differenced Range

Simultaneous reception of ranging signals by two complexes during view period overlaps
can provide a measure of angular position. Such a measurement type might be considered
when the spacecraft is at a low declination (), because the uncertainty in the declination
determined from other data types is proportional to 1/sin. This data type is referred to as
differenced two-way and three-way range and is illustrated in figure 6-2. The limiting errors
for these observables are uncalibrated biases due to clock offsets and instrumental delays at
the two stations. This data type is operationally difficult because of the round-trip light time
and the uplink handover from one station to the other. Furthermore, as the time between
two-way measurements increases, the differenced observables are increasingly contaminated
by uncalibrated space plasma and other line-of-sight delay variations.

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Station 1

To Spacecraft

Equator
B

2
= B sin
2
1
Station 2

Differenced simultaneous range from two stations, providing

a measure of spacecraft angular position.
Figure 6-2: Differenced Range
6.2.2.10 Differenced Doppler
Doppler signals received simultaneously by two complexes during view-period overlaps can
be differenced to produce the data type known as differenced Doppler. For a planetary
orbiter, the orientation of the orbit plane about the line of sight from the Earth to the planet is
not determined from Doppler or range measurements as accurately as the other components
of state. The orientation component may be directly observed by Doppler data acquired
simultaneously at two stations and then differenced. For two spacecraft in orbit about the
same planet, which may be observed simultaneously in the same beamwidth of Earth-based
tracking antennas, differential measurements may dramatically improve orbit accuracy for
both spacecraft.

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6.2.2.11 Combined Range, Doppler and Interferometric Tracking Data

Combining range and interferometric observables is an alternative to using long, continuous
Doppler arcs for cruise navigation. In this method, the three components of spacecraft
position are directly measured in just a few minutes. Doppler data may then be applied to
infer better force models of the spacecrafts dynamics without the problem of aliasing model
parameters into weakly observed spacecraft state components. Simultaneously fitting all
data types leads to improved navigation reliability and robustness. Range measurements
with sub-meter accuracy would have application to the relative tracking of planetary orbiters,
rovers, and landers (cf. reference [22]).
6.2.3

ACCELERATION

Body acceleration is measured by accelerometers and other devices.

6.3

GPS

The Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging System (NAVSTAR) and the Global
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) provide several observable quantities to the users
receivers, including the code, the carrier, etc. From the phase of the code, the receiver can
extract the pseudorange. From the frequency of the carrier, the receiver can extract the
Integrated Doppler Count. Apart from these observables, the receiver can get the GPS
system time. The relevant GPS measurement is referred to as the PVt (Position, Velocity and
time) measurement.
6.4

ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT DATA TYPES

Many kinds of attitude detectors are available, and the spacecraft equipment depends mainly
on the mission. At this time, however, there is no CCSDS standard for exchange of attitude
measurements; rather, the current Recommended Standards apply to transfer of attitude state
and/or attitude ephemeris. Agency-specific processes use attitude data measurements to
produce attitude states and attitude ephemerides, which are the subject of CCSDS
Recommended Standards.

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SATELLITE-BASED GLOBAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

7.1

OVERVIEW

There is a growing dependency in space applications on Global Navigation Systems (GNS)

such as GLONASS, NAVSTAR, and the Galileo Space Segment (Galileo).
The development of these three satellite-based systems represents a huge change in the
technology of navigation and positioning. GLONASS was developed in Russia, NAVSTAR
was developed in the U.S., and Galileo is now being developed by the European Space
Agency (ESA). Although these systems were initially planned for military purposes, the
civil sector (non-military) has quickly recognized their potential in the areas of civil aviation,
marine and ground navigation, spacecraft navigation, and surveying and geodesy. The
development of products and services has opened a new market with rapid growth.
Several factors make the use of a GNS acctractive for spacecraft navigation:

7.2

Coverage: These systems offer almost complete coverage for spacecraft with Low
Earth Orbit (LEO) trajectories, and reasonable coverage for spacecraft with High
Earth Orbit (HEO) trajectories.

Accuracy: All these systems can or will provide accuracy in orders of magnitude
better than conventional ground tracking (references [6], [7], and [8]).

Integrity: The systems are reliable and typically function continuously without
performance degradation.

Price: The degraded signals of both NAVSTAR and GLONASS are available
without charge to civilian users.
NAVSTAR

The U.S. GPS system, NAVSTAR, is managed by the United States Air Force (USAF). The
NAVSTAR satellite constellation is composed of 24 operational satellites deployed in nearcircular orbits around the Earth. The satellites are located in four orbital planes, with six
active satellites per plane. NAVSTAR uses Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) to
broadcast data.
7.3

GLONASS

GLONASS is operated by the Air Command of the Russian military, and it is similar to
NAVSTAR. GLONASS is composed of 24 satellites having three orbital planes, with eight
satellites (seven active and one on-orbit spare) per plane. GLONASS uses Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to broadcast data (reference [18]).

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7.4

GALILEO

In 1999, ESA approved the development of Galileo, which is expected to be fully operational
by the year 2008. Galileo will be interoperable with NAVSTAR. The Galileo constellation
will consist of a mediumEarth orbit satellite constellation and a number of geostationary
satellites, plus some other local complements. Galileo will carry both commercial and noncommercial signals (reference [19]).
7.5

EXCHANGE OF GNS MEASUREMENTS

The Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) format is used for the exchange of GNS
measurements in ground-to-ground scenarios (reference [9]).

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ANNEX A
GLOSSARY
This annex provides a glossary of spacecraft navigation terminology.
Agency Center: Facility used for executing commands to spacecraft, as well as monitoring
telemetry, tracking, flight dynamics, and other engineering parameters.
Ancillary Information: A data type used to interpret measurements and properties.
Apocenter: The point in an orbit at the greatest distance from the central body (i.e., at this
point the geometric distance between the central body and the orbiting body is at a
maximum).
Attitude: Orientation of the body reference frame with respect to a defined reference frame.
Attitude Equipment: Equipment onboard a spacecraft that is used to take measurements of
the spacecraft attitude.
Barycenter: The center of mass of a collection of bodies, e.g., the solar system barycenter.
Control: The process used to maintain a spacecraft within its prescribed path and attitude.
Clock Bias: A fixed-offset error of a clock from the true time.
Coordinate frame: An associated set of mutually orthogonal Cartesian axes (referred to as
x, y, and z).
Doppler: The apparent change in the frequency of a signal caused by the relative motion of
the transmitter and receiver.
Eccentricity: The ratio of the distance from the center of an ellipse to its focus to the semimajor axis (e = c/a).
Ephemeris: A list of (accurate) positions and velocities or attitudes of a satellite as a
function of time.
Epoch: Epoch signifies the beginning of an era (or event) or the reference date of a system
of measurements.
Flight-to-flight: The set of exchanges between any two spacecraft participants.
Flight-to-ground: The set of exchanges between any one spacecraft participant and a nonspacecraft participant.
Frame origin: The common origin of the Cartesian axes.
CENTER_NAME in the navigation Blue Books.

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Global Positioning System (GPS): A highly accurate, global satellite navigation system
based on a constellation of 24 operational satellites orbiting the Earth at a very high altitude.
In addition to navigation data, the system also provides very precise time data.
Ground-to-ground: The set of exchanges between any two non-spacecraft participants.
Ground-to-flight: The set of exchanges between any one spacecraft participant and a nonspacecraft participant.
Guidance: The process of defining a path to move a spacecraft from one point to another.
Inclination: The angle between the orbital plane of a body and the reference xy plane of the
coordinate system being used (often the equatorial plane of the central body).
In situ assets: Spacecraft in operations at or in close proximity to a remote body; these
participants can include rovers, landers, aircraft, etc.
Mean anomaly: The product of mean motion (average angular velocity) and the time since
pericenter passage in an elliptical orbit.
Mean motion: The average angular velocity in an elliptical orbit.
Measurements: Data types collected specifically to improve the knowledge of properties.
Navigation: The process used to find the present and imminent future position, orbit and
orientation of a spacecraft using a series of measurements. For purposes of this document,
orientation and maneuver information are included as part of the spacecraft navigation
process.
Navigation Data: A set of measurements, properties, and ancillary information exchanged
between participants during a navigation session.
Navigation Message: A particular arrangement of the navigation data whose structure and
content are the subjects of CCSDS flight dynamics Recommended Standards.
Navigation Session: The interchange of data between participants for navigation purposes.
Nutation: The short-period oscillations in the motion of the pole of rotation of a freely
rotating body that is undergoing torque from external gravitational forces. Nutation of the
Earths pole is defined in terms of components in obliquity and longitude.
Orbit: The path followed by a celestial body.
Orbital elements: A set of parameters describing any astronomical or spacecraft orbit.
Osculating elements: The elements at a specified time t of the Keplerian orbit that describe
the flight path the spacecraft would follow if all perturbing forces were suddenly removed at
the time t.

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Participant: An entity that has the ability to acquire or broadcast navigation messages.
Pericenter: The point in an orbit of closest approach to the central body (i.e., at this point
the geometric distance between the central body and the orbiting body is at a minimum).
Polar motion: Motion of the instantaneous axis of the rotation of the Earth with respect to
the solid body of the Earth. Irregular but more or less circular motion with an amplitude of
about 15m and a main period of about 430 days (called Chandler Wobble).
Precession: The change in orientation of a spinning bodys rotational axis.
Property: A data type that describes the physical characteristics of a participant.
Quality: Uncertainty information about a participant or a measurement.
Quaternion: A 4-component attitude representation for a rigid body. Quaternions have
convenient mathematical properties but not a particularly convenient physical interpretation.
Range rate: The rate of change of range between the satellite and receiver. The range to a
satellite changes due to satellite and observer motions. Range rate is determined by
measuring the Doppler shift of the satellite beacon carrier.
Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX): A set of standard definitions and
formats to promote the free exchange of GPS data and facilitate the use of data from any
GPS receiver with any compatible software package.
Reference direction: The direction of the x axis.
Reference plane: The xy plane in a coordinate frame.
Right ascension of ascending node: The angular distance measured from the vernal
equinox, positive to the east, along the celestial equator to the ascending node.
RINEX: See Receiver Independent Exchange Format.
Semimajor axis: One-half the straight-line distance between the pericenter and apoapsis
points in an orbit.
Spacecraft: A vehicle in orbit about any celestial body or celestial point, as single entities or
as part of a set (such as constellations or formations). This category also includes in situ
assets.
Tracking Station: Ground-based facility used to monitor the location of spacecraft. Some
agencies have multiple stations operated by a central entity, referred to as the complex.
True anomaly: The central angle between the position vector and the (reference) pericenter
vector in an orbit.

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ANNEX B
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ALT

Altitude

AZ

Azimuth

AZEL

Azimuth and Elevation antenna configuration

BIH

Bureau International de lHeure

CCSDS

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems

CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

CIO

Conventional International Origin

DE

Development Ephemerides

DEC

Declination

DSN

Deep Space Network

EL

Elevation

ESA

European Space Agency

FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access

Galileo

Galileo Space Segment

GLONASS

Global Navigation Satellite System

GM

Greenwich Mean

GMST

Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time

GNS

Global Navigation System

GPS

Global Positioning System

HA

Hour angle

HEO

High Earth Orbit

IAU

International Astronomical Union

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ICD

Interface Control Document

ICRF

International Celestial Reference Frame

ICRS

International Celestial Reference System

IERS

International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service

IRM

IERS Meridian

IRP

IERS Reference Pole

ITRF

International Terrestrial Reference Frame

ITRS

International Terrestrial Reference System

JPL

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

LEO

Low Earth Orbit

LVLH

Local Vertical Local Horizontal

NAVSTAR

Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging System

OBC

Onboard Computer

OPM

Orbit Parameter Message

OWLT

One Way Light Time

PVt

Position, Velocity and time

RA

Right Ascension

RADEC

Right Ascension (or Hour Angle) and Declination antenna

RINEX

Receiver Independent Exchange Format

RTLT

Round Trip Light Time

SI

International System of Units

TAI

International Atomic Time

TCB

Barycentric Coordinated Time

TDB

Barycentric Dynamical Time

TDT

Terrestrial Dynamical Time

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TOD

True of Date

TT

Terrestrial Time

USAF

United States Air Force

UT1

Universal Time

UTC

Coordinated Universal Time

XEYN

X-east and Y-north antenna configuration

XSYE

X-south and Y-east antenna configuration

X-Y

X-Y antenna mount such as XEYN or XSYE

DOR

Delta-Differential One-Way Range data type

declination

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