EE301/UNIT2/1
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
UNIT 2
OSCILLATORS
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
: To understand sinusoidal oscillator circuits.
Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :
Draw block diagram of an oscillator
Construct the oscillator circuits
Determine the oscillation frequency by using the formula
Compare the performance of the oscillators
EE301/UNIT2/2
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.0 Oscillators
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a
sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in innumerable electronic devices. Common
examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television
transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by
electronic beepers and video games. Because of the large number of different types of oscillator
circuits and design technology, it is very difficult to classify them in any simple manner. The
classification schemes that will be used here are somewhat oversimplified, but they should be
sufficient to categorize many of the modern op-amp oscillator circuits and the linear integrated
circuit oscillator modules.
Oscillators may be classified as either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal. By the terms, it follows that
sinusoidal oscillators produce sinusoidal waveform, and all other oscillators can be classified as
nonsinusoidal.
2.1
Sinusoidal oscillator circuits
Here we consider the principles of oscillators that produce approximately sinusoidal waveforms.
(Other oscillators, such as multivibrators, operate somewhat differently). Because the waveforms
are sinusoidal, we use phasor analysis.
A sinusoidal oscillator ordinarily consists of an amplifier and a feedback network. Let's consider
the following idealized configuration to begin understanding the operation of such oscillators.
EE301/UNIT2/3
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.1.1 Block diagram of an oscillator
Oscillator is a device that can change DC voltage to AC voltage without any external resource at
certain level of frequency.
DC input
OSCILLATOR
AC output
Fig. 2.1.1a: Basic oscillator block diagram
Oscillator divided into 2 classes depending on the type of wave its produce:
i.
Harmonic Oscillator sinus wave.
ii.
Inharmonic Oscillator square wave, rectangle wave, etc.
HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
Fig. 2.1.1b: Harmonic Oscillator
INHARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
Fig. 2.1.1c: Inharmonic Oscillator
Mostly right now, digital circuit is commonly used in consumer appliances and since this circuit
need a timer, an inharmonic oscillator is an essential device.
In this unit we will discuss more about the oscillator that produces sinus wave only.
EE301/UNIT2/4
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.1.2 Requirement of oscillator circuits
An oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network. Now, let us see which basic
components are required to obtain oscillations.
'Active device' either Transistor or Op Amp is used as an amplifier.
'Feedback circuit' with passive components such as R-C or L-C combinations .
To start the oscillation with the constant amplitude, positive feedback is not the only sufficient
condition. Oscillator circuit must satisfy the following two conditions known as Barkhausen
conditions:
1. The first condition is that the magnitude of the loop gain (A) must be unity. This means the
product of gain of amplifier 'A' and the gain of feedback network '' has to be unity.
2. The second condition is that the phase shift around the loop must be 360 or 0. This means,
the phase shift through the amplifier and feedback network has to be 360 or 0.
Oscillator
Output
Frequency
Generator
Circuit
Feedback
Fig. 2.1.2: Basic oscillator circuit diagram
2.1.2.1 Amplifier
Amplifier circuit needs DC power supply to bias the transistor. Previously it has been explained
that oscillator needs DC power supply to produce output. Actually the meant DC power supply is
the one that been given to the amplifier.
EE301/UNIT2/5
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.1.2.2 Feedback
Feedback is a condition where some portion of the output signal is being re-supply to the input
part.
Since the oscillator do not have an input signal, hence the feedback signal has become the input
signal for the amplifier in the oscillator circuit.
There are 2 feedback principles available; negative feedback and positive feedback. Oscillator
used a positive feedback principle. Figure 8.5 below shows the basic block diagram for a
commonly used feedback system:
Ve
Vi
Amplifier
AV
Output
Vf
Fig. 2.1.2.2a: Basic feedback block diagram
= feedback factor
Vf = Vo or AVe
Af =
Vo
A
formula to get the amplifier gain with
Vi 1 - A
positive feedback
In the oscillator concept, it does not need input voltage, hence the formula for input portion is Vi =
0. This mean the value of the formula | 1 A | must be nil or | A | = 1.
Take a look at below circumstances:
i.
If | A | = 1 ..
value of Vf = AVe will be Vf = ( 1 )Ve
or Vf = Ve. This mean feedback voltage will be as same as input
voltage to amplifier.
EE301/UNIT2/6
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
In this condition, the oscillator will perform at its best or the input
signal will keep oscillating.
Fig. 2.1.2.2b: Condition | A | = 1
ii.
If | A | < 1 e.g: if the value of | A | = 0.5 .
1
(lesser than 1). Hence Vf = Ve . This
2
mean the feedback voltage will getting lesser than input voltage to
amplifier.
In this conditon, the output voltage will decrease and disperse in few
cycles because the feedback voltage is not large enough to sustain
the output voltage.
Fig. 2.1.2.2c: Condition | A | < 1
iii.
If | A | > 1 . e.g: if | A | = 2 hence
Vf = 2Ve. This mean, the feedback voltage will be greater than
input voltage to amplifier.
In this condition, the output voltage will be increased until it
reached saturated level and will be cut-off.
Fig. 2.1.2.2d: Condition | A | > 1
EE301/UNIT2/7
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Practically: When the power supply is turned on, some small value of noise signals will be
produced in multi-range of frequency. This signal is amplified and drives feedback channel that
consist of frequency generator circuit (resonance circuit). But only the signal that has the same
frequency as the resonance frequency that will be feedbacked into the input portion.
This condition will be explained in the input of Frequency Generator Circuit below.
2.1.2.3 Frequency Generator Circuit.
The feedback and amplifier signals could not confirm the oscillation. It needs a control division /
frequency generator. It is normally placed at the feedback portion.
Generally, the frequency generator circuit for oscillator in the consumers products are divided into
two:
i.
Oscillator that generates Audio frequency : RC Channel Oscillator (Resistor-Capacitor). It
is for producing a low and medium frequency signal.
Examples of RC type oscillator are Phase-Shift Oscillator and Wein-Bridge Oscillator.
ii.
Oscillator that generates Radio frequnecy : LC Channel Oscillator (Inductor-capacitor). It is
also known as Tank Circuit. It is for producing a high frequency signal (>1MHz) and it
usually produces a more stable frequency.
Examples of LC type oscillator are Armstrong, Colpitts, Hartley and Crystal
Oscillator.
2.2
Types of sinusoidal oscillator
The name sinusoidal oscillator itself indicates that, this oscillator produces sine wave output. In
the previous section, we had mentioned that the frequency of oscillation is determined by the
feedback circuit components. Hence, according to the frequency determined components, there are
three basic types of oscillators such as RC oscillator, LC oscillator and crystal oscillator.
EE301/UNIT2/8
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
RC oscillators
They use a resistance-Capacitance network to determine the oscillator frequency. They are
suitable for low (audio range) and moderate frequency applications (5Hz to 1MHz). They are
further divided as,
o
o
o
RC phase shift oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator and
Twin-T oscillator
LC oscillators
Here, inductors and capacitors are used either in series or parallel to determine the frequency.
They are more suitable for radio frequency (1 to 500 MHz) and further classified as,
o
o
o
o
Hartley
Colpitts
Clapp and
Armstrong oscillators
Crystal oscillator
Like LC oscillators it is suitable for radio frequency applications. But it has very high degree of
stability and accuracy as compared to other oscillators.
EE301/UNIT2/9
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.2.1 Hartley
2.2.1.1 Circuit Connection:
Its circuit is similar to Colpitts Oscillator but it used Tapped Inductance. Refer figure
2.2.1.1 below:
Fig. 2.2.1.1: Hartley Oscillator
2.2.1.2 Circuit Operations:
Its circuit operations is also similar to Colpitts Oscillator circuit operations. (Ref. Colpitts
Oscillator circuit operations)
2.2.1.3 Oscillation Frequency:
Formula to get the resonance frequency for the circuit is:
1
fr
Eq. 1
2 CLT
Since the connection of capacitor in the tank circuit is serial, hence:
Eq. 2
LT L1 L2
Oscillation occurred when the feedback factor () is given;
V
L
f 1
Eq. 3
Vout L2
EE301/UNIT2/10
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
And the condition for the oscillation to occur is | A | = 1
L
Eq. 4
AV 2
L1
Therefore, to ensure the oscillation triggered by itself:
C
Eq.5
AV 1
C2
Advantages of the Hartley oscillator include:
The frequency may be adjusted using a single variable capacitor
The output amplitude remains constant over the frequency range
Either a tapped coil or two fixed inductors are needed
Disadvantages include:
Harmonic-rich content if taken from the amplifier and not directly from the LC circuit.
2.2.2 Colpitts
2.2.2.1 Circuit Connection:
Colpitts oscillator used 2 capacitors and 1 inductor at its frequency generator circuit. Refer
figure 2.2.2.1.1 below:
EE301/UNIT2/11
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Fig. 2.2.2.1.1: Colpitts Oscillator
2.2.2.2 Circuit Operations:
Please observe circuit 8.4a above. Transistor and resistor R1, R2, R3 and R4 is a
combination of Amplifier circuit (Common Emitter Amplifier with Voltage Divider
Technique). Capacitor C3 and C4 is used to intercept alternate signal to the earth.
Amplifier will give an 180o phase different to the output signal. LC circuit in the feedback
coil will produce phase shifting as big as 1800. So the feedback voltage will have the same
phase as the input voltage at transistor.
EE301/UNIT2/12
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.2.2.3 Oscillation Frequency:
Oscillation frequency for tank circuit L1, C1 and C2 as per below:
1
2 LCT
Eq. 7
Since the connection of C1 and C2 at the tank circuit is serial, hence:
CT
C1.C2
C1 C2
Eq. 8
Oscillation will occurred when the feedback factor () is given:
Vf
Vout
X C1 C2
X C 2 C1
Eq. 9
Do you still remember that, in order to ensure the oscillation occurred, |A| must be equal
to 1. Hence, the amplifier Voltage gain must be:
AV
C1
C2
Eq. 10
To ensure the oscillation is triggered by itself:
AV
C1
C2
Eq. 11
2.2.2.4 Example:
What is the frequency of oscillation in Figure 2.2.2.4.1? What is the feedback fraction?
How much voltage gain does the circuit need to start oscillating?
EE301/UNIT2/13
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Solution:
This is a Colpitts oscillator using the CE connection of a transistor. With Eq. 8, the
equivalent capacitance is:
C = (0.001F)(0.01 F)
0.01 F + 0.01 F
= 909 pF
The inductance is 15H. With Eq. 7, the frequency of oscillation is:
fr =
1
2 (15H)(909pF)
= 1.36 MHz
2.2.3 Phase Shift (RC)
Phase-Shift Oscillator consists of amplifier and feedback channel with three RC circuits.
2.2.3.1 Circuit Connection:
EE301/UNIT2/14
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Fig. 2.2.3.1.1: Phase-Shift Oscillator
2.2.3.2 Circuit Operations:
Output signal from the amplifier has a phase different as much as 180 compared to input
signal. In order to produce a positive feedback signal, the output signal must be phase
shifted as much as 180 to have a same phase as the input. RC channel could produced a
180 phase shifting where each of the RC channel will phase shifting as much as 90.
2.2.3.3 Oscillation Frequency:
1
2RC 6
2.2.4 Crystal
The most stable and accurate oscillator is the one that used piezoelectric crystal in the
feedback circuit. When the alternate voltage is applied to this crystal, mechanical vibration
is occurred and this vibration has a natural resonance frequency that depends on the crystal
thickness. In order to get a higher frequency, the crystal must be thinner.
EE301/UNIT2/15
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
The crystal electrical characteristics can be determined with resonance circuit in figure
2.2.4.1. Inductance, Lh, represents the electrical equality for the crystal mass. Capacitance,
Ch, represents the crystal elasticity. Resistor, Rh, represents the friction in the crystal
structure. Capacitor, Cm, represents the capacitance of loaded crystal case.
Fig. 2.2.4.2: Electrical Equivalent circuit
Fig. 2.2.4.1: Crystal Symbol
It has 2 resonance frequencies. The 1st frequency is produced by serial circuit Rh-Lh-Ch.
The 2nd frequency occurred when serial component is the same as the reactance, Cm.
z
Parallel Saloon
Serial
Saloon
f
f1
f2
2.2.4.1 Circuit Connection:
Fig. 2.2.4.1.1: Crystal Oscillator
EE301/UNIT2/16
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.2.4.2 Oscillation Frequency:
Serial resonance:
f1
1
2 LhCh
f2
1
2 LmC
Cm .Ch
Cm Ch
Parallel resonance:
2.2.5 Armstrong
2.2.5.1 Circuit Connection:
Fig. 2.2.5.1.1: Armstrong Oscillator circuit
EE301/UNIT2/17
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2.2.5.2 Circuit Operations:
Resistor R1, R2 and R3 are purposely to provide distort voltage to transistor. Capacitor C1
and C2 are used to intercept alternate signal. Do you still remember about the connection of
Common-Emitter Configurations in amplifier? This configuration will give 180o phase
different to the output signal.
Therefore Tr transformer is chosen in order to produce phase shifting as big as 180o to get a
feedback voltage that has a same phase as the input transistor. Usually the winding ratio
between the L1 coil and L2 coil is fixed so that the multiply outcome between the A
square and feedback factor, , is one ( |A| = 1 ).
Example given, if amplifier gain is 10, winding ratio must be 1 : 10 .
A = 10 x 0.1 = 1
2.2.5.3 Oscillation Frequency:
Oscillation frequency is determined by L2.C2 circuit, which is given by:
1
2 L 2C2
Calculation example:
By referring to the circuit in figure 8.3a: If the winding ratio between the transformer is
1:20 and the capacitor used in this resonance circuit is 50H, determine the resonance
frequency of this circuit.
EE301/UNIT2/18
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
f
f
1
2 L2 C 2
1
1050F
7.14Hz
2.3 SUMMARY:
OSCILLATOR
Changed DC into AC voltage
It has amplifier, timing circuit and
positive feedback
Condition to ensure its self-ocillation
i. |A|=1 ii. Phase.Diff = 0
Categorized into 2
categories
Inharmonic Oscillator
Produced non-Sinus waves such as
square, rectangle etc.
Harmonic Oscillator
Produced Sinus waves
EE301/UNIT2/19
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Categorized into 2 types according to component at timing circuit
LC Type Oscillator
RC Type Oscillator
Its timing circuit used inductor and
capacitor combination
Operates in high frequency
Its timing circuit used resistor and
capacitor combination
Operates in low frequency
Phase Shifting Oscillator
Wein-Bridge Oscillator
Crystal Oscillator
Armstrong Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
Oscillators
Type
Wien-bridge
Twin-T
Characteristics
RC oscillators
Uses lead-lag feedback circuits
Needs ganged RS for tuning
Low distortion output from 5Hz to 1MHz (limited
bandwidth)
fr = 1
2RC
Uses a notch filter circuit
Works well at one frequency
Difficult to adjust over a wide output frequency
fr = 1
EE301/UNIT2/20
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
2RC
Phase-shift
Colpitts
Uses 3-4 lead or lag circuits
Cannot be adjusted over wide frequency range
LC oscillators
Uses a pair of tapped capacitors
C = C1C2
fr = 1
C1 + C2
2LC
Widely used
Armstrong
Uses a transformer for feedback
Not used frequently
fr = 1
2LC
Hartley
Uses a pair of tapped inductors
L = L1 + L2
fr =
Crystal
Uses a quartz crystal
Very accurate and stable
fp = 1
2LCp
fs =
1
2LC
1
2LCs
