Revision flashcards

1
Newtons laws of motion
Newtons first law: A body remains at rest or continues
in motion with constant velocity unless an externally
applied force acts on it.
Newtons second law: Force is proportional to the rate
of change of momentum. Force is defined as rate of
change of momentum: F = (mv)/t
When the mass m of a body is constant (at speeds
much less than the speed of light), Newtons second law
becomes F = ma where a is acceleration.
Newtons third law: If a force acts on a body then an
equal and opposite force of the same type acts on
another body.

2
Momentum
Linear momentum (a vector) = mass velocity: p = mv
Impulse of a force = change in momentum = F t

3
Circular motion
Angle in radians = arc length/radius. 180 = rad

4
Gravitational fields (1)
Gravitational field strength g is force per unit mass.
g = F/m
On the Earths surface, the gravitational field strength
g = 9.81Nkg1 is approximately equal to the
acceleration of free fall: g = 9.81ms2
A gravitational field may be represented by field lines.
In a uniform field, the lines are parallel; around the
Earth, the lines are radial.
Newtons law of gravitation: The force of attraction F
between point masses m1 and m2 at a separation r is
F = Gm1m2/r2 where G = 6.67 1011Nm2kg2 is the
universal constant of gravitation.

Angular velocity (or angular frequency) is the rate of

change of angle. = /t = 2/T = 2f where T is
the time period and f is the frequency.
A body moving in a circle at constant speed is
changing direction, and therefore changing velocity. It
is thus accelerating. The centripetal acceleration and
force are directed towards the centre of the circle.
For a body moving at speed v in a circle of radius r
with period T:
v = 2r/Ta = v2/rF = ma = mv2/r

Area under a forcetime graph = impulse

Principle of conservation of momentum: In any
collision or explosion, momentum is conserved,
provided that no external force acts.
In an elastic (or perfectly elastic) collision there is no
loss of kinetic energy. Most collisions are inelastic,
with some loss of kinetic energy.
Intermolecular collisions are perfectly elastic, with no
loss of kinetic energy.

5
Gravitational fields (2)
At a distance r from a mass M, the gravitational field
strength g = GM/r2
Equating GMm/r2 = mv2/r for the force on a mass m in
orbit round a mass M, and using v = 2r/T leads to
GMT2 = 42r3 and if the radius of orbit r and period T
are known, M may be calculated.
Johannes Kepler stated this result as his third law for
planets in orbit round the Sun: T 2 r 3
A satellite in a geostationary orbit round the Earth has
a period of 24h, so that it remains above one point on
the equator.

6
Simple harmonic motion (1)
Examples of SHM are the vertical oscillations of a
mass on a spiral spring, and the simple pendulum.
The horizontal oscillation of a trolley between
stretched springs is damped harmonic motion.
In SHM the period T of oscillation is independent of
amplitude A.
The displacement x of a body in SHM from the central
position is: x = A cos t = A cos 2ft if time t = 0 at an
extremity of motion; x = A sin t = A sin 2ft if time
t = 0 at the centre of the motion.
The maximum speed of an oscillator is:
vmax = A = (2f)A

7
Simple harmonic motion (2)
Definition: SHM occurs when the acceleration a of a
body is directed to a fixed point and is proportional to
the displacement x from that point. Acceleration
a = 2x = (2f)2xamax = (2f)2A
The displacementtime, velocitytime and
accelerationtime graphs for SHM are all sinusoidal,
with cycle, i.e. /2rad, phase differences.
The total energy of a body in SHM is constant. The
energydisplacement graph for SHM shows zero KE
at x = A, maximum KE at x = 0, and maximum PE
(gravitational and/or elastic) at x = A

8
Damping and forced oscillations
Damping does not change the period of motion, but
leads to exponentially decreasing amplitude.
Resonance is the maximum amplitude of a forced
oscillation when the driving frequency equals the
natural frequency of the driven oscillator. When this
happens there is maximum energy transfer.
Resonance is used in microwave ovens, in radio
tuners, and in musical instruments. Resonance is a
nuisance in suspension bridges.

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9
Matter
Solids, liquids and gases are distinguished by the
spacing, ordering and motion of their atoms or
molecules.
Brownian motion is demonstrated by viewing smoke
particles in air under a microscope. The experiment
shows that there is much empty space in air, but that
the motion of the smoke particles is changed by the
random collisions of the much smaller (air) particles
moving randomly at very high speed.
Pressure p is force F per unit area A: p = F/A
The elastic collisions of millions of molecules per
second on a surface cause gas pressure.

10
Internal energy; temperature
The internal energy of a system is the sum of the
random distribution of kinetic and potential energies of
the molecules in the system.
Absolute zero (zero kelvins, 0K) is the temperature at
which a substance has minimum internal energy.
The thermodynamic scale of temperature is an
absolute scale that does not depend on the property
of any particular substance.
Temperatures in kelvins and in degrees Celsius may
be converted using: T/K = /C + 273.15

11
Specific heat capacity and latent heat
The heating of a body leads to an increase in internal
energy and to either an increase in temperature or a
change of state.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the
energy provided by heating to raise the temperature
of unit mass by 1C or 1K.
If a mass m of a substance of s.h.c. c is raised
through a temperature difference , the energy E
transferred is: E = mc
Latent heat (of fusion or of vaporisation) is the energy
provided by heating to change the state without
changing the temperature.

12
Ideal gases
Boyles law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature T the pressure p is inversely proportional
to the volume V: pV = constant
For a fixed mass of gas: pV/T = constant or
p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
Kinetic theory assumptions: Gases consist of large
numbers of indivisible molecules moving at high
speeds. Intermolecular collisions are (perfectly)
elastic. Volume of molecules space in which they
move. Duration of collisions time between
collisions. Forces between distant molecules are
negligible.

13
The equation of state for an ideal gas
The Avogadro constant: NA = 6.02 1023mol1
One mole of any substance contains 6.02 1023
particles.
The equation of state: The pressure p, volume V and
temperature T (in kelvins) of an ideal gas are related
by pV = nRT or pV = NkT where n is the amount of
substance in moles, R is the molar gas constant, N is
the number of particles, and k = R/NA is the
Boltzmann constant.
The mean translational kinetic energy E of an atom in
an ideal gas is directly proportional to the temperature
of the gas in kelvins: E = 32kT

14
Electric fields (1)
Electric field strength E is defined as force F per unit
positive charge Q: E = F/Q
E is a vector quantity, measured in NC1 (or Vm1).
Between charged parallel plates there is uniform
electric field, shown by parallel field lines, of
magnitude E = V/d.
If a charged particle is moving across a uniform field
E, it will follow a parabolic path (similar to a golf ball
moving in air under gravity).
The electric field lines around a point charge or a
charged sphere are in a radial pattern.

15
Electric fields (2)
Coulombs law: The force between two point charges
Q and q at a separation r in air or space is
F = Qq/40r2 where 0 is the permittivity of free
space.
The electric field at distance r from a point charge Q is
E = Q/40r2.
The gravitational field strength around a point mass
and the electric field strength around a point charge
are both inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the point mass or point charge.
Electrostatic forces may be attractive or repulsive, but
gravitational forces are only attractive.

16
Magnetic fields
The magnetic field pattern around a long currentcarrying conductor is of concentric circles.
The magnetic field pattern around a long solenoid is
similar to that around a bar magnet; within the
solenoid the field is uniform.
The direction of the force on a current-carrying
conductor placed at right angles to a magnetic field is
found using Flemings left-hand rule:
first finger = field
second finger = current
thumb = motion
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17
Magnetic flux density
The force on a conductor of length L carrying current I
at an angle to a field of flux density B is
F = BIL sin
Magnetic flux density B is the force per unit length per
unit current on a conductor placed at right angles to
the field: B = F/IL
A field has flux density of 1 tesla (1T) if the force on a
conductor of length 1m carrying a current of 1A at
right angles to the field is 1N.
A particle of charge Q moving at speed v at right
angles to a magnetic field of flux density B
experiences a force F = BQv.

18
Motion of charged particles in magnetic fields
The force F on a charge Q moving at speed v across
a magnetic field B causes it to move in a circular path
of radius R because the force is always perpendicular
to the field and to the motion.
The force on the moving charged particle is the
centripetal force. Therefore BQv = mv2/R and so:
BQR = mv
A charged particle moving across electric and
magnetic fields at right angles has an undeflected
path if FB = FE, i.e. if BQv = EQ. This is a velocity
selector for speed v = E/B and is used in a mass
spectrometer.

19
Magnetic flux
The magnetic flux through an area A inclined at an
angle to a magnetic field of flux density B is
= BA sin .
If an area of 1m2 is perpendicular to a magnetic field
of flux density 1T then the magnetic flux through the
area is 1 weber (1Wb).
The magnetic flux linkage through a coil is the
magnetic flux times the number of turns N on the coil:
magnetic flux linkage = N = BAN sin

20
Electromagnetic induction
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction: The
induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkage.
Lenzs law: The induced e.m.f. acts in such a direction
as to oppose the change causing it. This follows from
the conservation of energy.
Faradays and Lenzs laws become: induced e.m.f. =
- (rate of change of flux linkage); e = (N)/t
Alternating current (a.c.) can be generated using a
coil rotating in a magnetic field or a magnet rotating
inside a coil.

21
Transformers
A transformer is made using two separate coils of wire
wound on a laminated iron ring or core. Transformers
work only on a.c., not d.c.
In an ideal transformer with a primary coil of NP turns
and a secondary coil of NS turns, the ratio of the
secondary and primary voltages is: VS/VP = NS/NP
Step-up and step-down transformers are used to
transmit electrical energy over long distances. In a
high-voltage power line the low current wastes little
energy as heat in the resistance of the wires.

22
Capacitors
The capacitance C of a capacitor is the charge Q
stored per unit potential difference V: C = Q/V.
A capacitor has a capacitance 1 farad (1F a very
large unit) if it stores 1 coulomb of charge when the
p.d. across it is 1 volt.
For three capacitors in parallel: CP = C1 + C2 + C3

23
Discharging capacitors
When a capacitor discharges through a resistor R the
p.d. V across it, charge Q on it, and current I through
R all fall exponentially with time.
In an exponential decay each quantity (V, Q or I) falls
by a constant factor in each successive time interval.
The time constant for a capacitance C discharging
through a resistance R is T = RC.
The p.d., charge and current all fall with time t
according to the same pattern:
V = V0et/CRQ = Q0et/CRI = I0et/CR

24
The nuclear atom (1)
Rutherfords alpha-scattering experiment shows that
each atom has a tiny massive positively charged
nucleus and much empty space.
The nucleus of an atom comprises protons and
neutrons and is surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Nuclear diameters are measured in fm (1015m);
atomic diameters are of the order of 1010m.
The density of a proton of diameter 1.2fm is of the
order of 1017kgm3. Nucleons are tightly packed, thus
all nuclei have similar densities.

For three capacitors in series:

1/CS = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by
W = QV = CV 2 and is represented by the area
under a graph of p.d. against charge.

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25
The nuclear atom (2)
Two protons in a nucleus have a strong electrostatic
repulsion (Coulombs law) and a weak gravitational
attraction (Newtons law of gravitation).
There must therefore be a very strong short-range
attractive force (the strong nuclear interaction)
between nucleons.
For a nuclide
is the nucleon number or mass
number, the number of nucleons in the nucleus; Z is
the proton number or atomic number of the element,
the number of protons in the nucleus.
For isotopes of an element, Z is the same, but A is
different.
27
Radioactivity
The activity A of a radioactive source is its rate of
decay in becquerels (Bq).
Decay constant is probability of decay per unit time.
If there are N undecayed nuclei present, then the
activity A = N.
The half-life t1/2 of a decay process is the time for the
number of undecayed nuclei or the activity to fall to
half of its original value.
Half-life and activity are related: t1/2 = ln 2 = 0.693.
The activity A and number of undecayed nuclei N fall
exponentially with time according to: A = A0et
N = N0et

26
Fundamental particles
Baryons, massive particles such as protons and
neutrons, are not fundamental and are made up of
charged particles called quarks.
The six types of quark are: up, down, strange, charm,
top and bottom.
The quarks in a proton are u, u, d; in a neutron, u, d, d.
Weak nuclear interaction: a quark may change its
flavour causing decay of the nucleus. In decay
the emissions are an electron and an antineutrino; in
+ decay, a positron and a neutrino.
Electrons and neutrinos are leptons, which are
fundamental particles.
28
Nuclear fission
Einsteins equation: If an object is given energy E, its
mass increases by m = E/c2 where.c is the speed
of light in vacuo.
A thermal neutron may cause the fission of a large,
neutron-rich nucleus such as U-235 into two large
fragments and more neutrons.
Fission reactors, with fuel rods, control rods and
moderators, are energy sources, but produce longlived radioactive waste.
The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy needed
to break the nucleus into its separate protons and
neutrons.

29
X-rays
X-rays are short-wavelength (~1010m) electromagnetic
waves produced when high-energy electrons hit a
metal surface.
When they interact with matter, X-rays may be
scattered by the Compton effect, and may cause the
photoelectric effect or produce an electronpositron
pair and then two photons.
The intensity of an X-ray beam is the power per unit
cross-sectional area.
The intensity I of a collimated X-ray beam varies with
the thickness x of the medium according to I = I0ex
where is the linear attenuation coefficient.

30
Medical diagnosis
A gamma camera detects -rays emitted by the
Tc-99m radioisotope absorbed by parts of the body.
A positron emission tomography (PET) scanner is
used to scan the brain and map changes in the blood
flow. Carbon-11, absorbed into the blood, decays by
positron emission and produces -ray photons.
In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) a patient is
placed in a strong magnetic field. A radiofrequency
pulse of e-m radiation produces precession of nuclei
at the Larmor frequency.

31
The universe (1)
1 astronomical unit (AU) = 1.5 1011m
1 light-year (ly) = 9.5 1015m1 parsec (pc) = 3.1
1016m = 2.1 105AU = 3.3ly
Doppler effect: For an e-m wave source moving at a
speed v relative to an observer, the apparent change
in wavelength is given by = (v/c).
Hubbles law: The recession velocity v of a distant
galaxy is proportional to its distance d: v = H0d.
H0 = 70kms1Mpc1 = 70000/
(106 3.1 1016) = 2.26 1018s1
The age of the universe = 1/H0 = 1.4 1010y
= 14 billion years

32
The universe (2)
Olbers' paradox: An infinite universe full of stars
should mean that the light reaching us from all
directions would give a bright night sky. This theory
fails as the universe is not static: stars are evolving.
The cosmological principle: The universe is
homogeneous.
The 3K microwave background radiation is evidence
of radiation from the matter and antimatter annihilation
following the big bang.
The universe may be open, flat or closed,
depending on its density. The critical density of the
2
universe is:
0 = 3H
0 /8G
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Education
Ltd 2009
This document may have been altered from the original

 Pearson Education Ltd 2009

This document may have been altered from the original