In Situ Regulation of DC Subsets and T Cells Mediates Tumor Regression

in Mice
Omar A. Ali et al.
Sci Transl Med 1, 8ra19 (2009);
DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3000359

Editor's Summary

Forcing Cancer to Retreat

Key to many immune-based approaches to cancer therapy, dendritic cells survey the body for pathogens and
activate immune responses against them. When immature dendritic cells recognize the molecular features
characteristic of some pathogens, like DNA rich in guanosine and cytosine, the cells mature, migrate to lymph nodes,
and activate T cells that recognize antigens presented on the dendritic cell surface. One approach to cancer vaccine
production is to isolate dendritic precursor cells from the patient's blood, to use in vitro treatments to convert them to
dendritic cells, and then to expose them to tumor antigens. The cells are then infused back into the patient so that
they will induce tumor-directed immune attack. Although responses occur, in general the vaccines do not increase the
patients' survival time relative to standard treatments or cause solid tumors to regress. A more effective cancer
vaccine might require the induction of more than one class of dendritic cells, because different dendritic cell
populations have different specialties, such as antigen presentation and the production of cytokines that control
regulatory T cell activity.
Mooney's group aimed to generate a varied population of dendritic cells by creating a device that imitates an
infection site in the host itself. Previously, they developed an implantable polymer matrix that releases an
inflammatory cytokine to recruit dendritic cells and displays short strands of pathogen-like DNA and tumor antigens to
activate those cells. In the present work, these researchers showed that implanting this system in mice leads to the
activation of multiple dendritic cell types and the generation of tumor-fighting cytotoxic T cells, as well as to the
inhibition of regulatory T cell activity. The multiple components of the system have different and synergistic effects on
the host's immune system. Notably, when used as a vaccine in mice with established melanoma, it caused complete
remission of tumors and long-term survival of a substantial portion of the population. This system, which has practical
advantages over approaches in which the patient's cells are cultured, may serve as a paradigm for the design of
human vaccines.

Science Translational Medicine (print ISSN 1946-6234; online ISSN 1946-6242) is published weekly, except the
last week in December, by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1200 New York Avenue
NW, Washington, DC 20005. Copyright 2009 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science; all
rights reserved. The title Science Translational Medicine is a registered trademark of AAAS.

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It was a momentous moment in medical history when the English doctor Edward Jenner inoculated a young boy
with cowpox, thus preventing him from catching smallpox and heralding the arrival of an era in which many infectious
diseases are routinely prevented by vaccination. Today, scientists are striving to design vaccines to treat cancera
much more complex biological challenge by enhancing the body's immune response against tumor cells. One
critical problem is that tumors actively inhibit the immune response: They secrete factors that suppress the immune
system and induce regulatory T cells that restrain the activity of tumor-fighting immune cells. Now, Mooney and
colleagues describe an anticancer vaccine that triggers a sustained antitumor immune response and inhibits
regulatory T cell activityand shows promising results in mice with cancer.

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Science Translational Medicine (print ISSN 1946-6234; online ISSN 1946-6242) is published weekly, except the
last week in December, by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1200 New York Avenue
NW, Washington, DC 20005. Copyright 2009 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science; all
rights reserved. The title Science Translational Medicine is a registered trademark of AAAS.

RESEARCH ARTICLE
CANCER IMMUNOTHERAPY

In Situ Regulation of DC Subsets and T Cells Mediates

Tumor Regression in Mice
Omar A. Ali,1,2,3 Dwaine Emerich,2 Glenn Dranoff,4,5 David J. Mooney1,3*

Vaccines are largely ineffective for patients with established cancer, as advanced disease requires potent and
sustained activation of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) to kill tumor cells and clear the disease. Recent studies
have found that subsets of dendritic cells (DCs) specialize in antigen cross-presentation and in the production of
cytokines, which regulate both CTLs and T regulatory (Treg) cells that shut down effector T cell responses. Here,
we addressed the hypothesis that coordinated regulation of a DC network, and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) and CD8+
DCs in particular, could enhance host immunity in mice. We used functionalized biomaterials incorporating
various combinations of an inflammatory cytokine, immune danger signal, and tumor lysates to control the
activation and localization of host DC populations in situ. The numbers of pDCs and CD8+ DCs, and the endogenous
production of interleukin-12, all correlated strongly with the magnitude of protective antitumor immunity and the
generation of potent CD8+ CTLs. Vaccination by this method maintained local and systemic CTL responses for
extended periods while inhibiting FoxP3 Treg activity during antigen clearance, resulting in complete regression
of distant and established melanoma tumors. The efficacy of this vaccine as a monotherapy against large invasive
tumors may be a result of the local activity of pDCs and CD8+ DCs induced by persistent danger and antigen
signaling at the vaccine site. These results indicate that a critical pattern of DC subsets correlates with the evolution of therapeutic antitumor responses and provide a template for future vaccine design.

INTRODUCTION
Dendritic cells (DCs) are promising effectors of immunotherapy as they
are essential for initiating and regulating T cell immunity. The interaction between DCs and pathogens can lead to antigen capture and processing by DCs. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, including
lipopolysaccharides and cytosine-guanosine (CpG)rich sequences
in pathogenic DNA, activate DCs via ligation of particular Toll-like
receptors (TLRs), which stimulate DC expression of specific costimulatory molecules and cytokines capable of propagating the appropriate T cell response. Activated DCs migrate to lymphoid tissues where
they present pathogenic antigens and stimulatory molecules to nave
T cells, leading to T cell activation, expansion, and specific responses.
Chronic exposure to tumor antigens with inappropriate costimulation and immunomodulation by T regulatory (Treg) cells allows solid
tumors to develop by dysregulating DC activity and the cytotoxic T
lymphocyte (CTL) responses required to kill tumor cells (1, 2). Cancer
vaccines are frequently developed with easily accessible, patientderived blood monocytes that are transformed into DCs ex vivo with
cytokine mixtures and pulsed with tumor antigens to promote antigen
presentation (35). These antigen-loaded DCs are then infused back
into cancer patients with the goal of inducing antitumor immune responses mediated primarily by T helper 1 (TH1) cells and CTLs (35).
Although clinical trials using such ex vivo DC vaccines in patients
with advanced cancer have resulted in antigen-specific T cell expan1
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 29 Oxford Street, 319 Pierce Hall,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 2InCytu Inc., 701 George Washington
Highway, Lincoln, RI 02865, USA. 3Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering,
Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 4Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Vaccine
Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. 5Department of Medicine,
Brigham and Womens Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected]

sion and the production of protective cytokines in vivo (26), many

vaccines do not increase patients survival over traditional treatments
(for example, chemotherapy) (2) and have failed to consistently cause
the regression of solid tumors (14). In both murine models and humans, these strategies are likely unable to generate the necessary
numbers of functional CD8+ CTLs for the duration required to induce
regression of solid invasive tumors in both mice and humans. Instead,
they may amplify defective CTLs that never become fully functional
effectors at the tumor site because of high local concentrations of immunosuppressive cytokines [for example, transforming growth factorb
(TGF-b) and interleukin-10 (IL-10)] and Treg cells, which dampen
immune responses (1, 2).
Hematopoietic precursor cells of both the myeloid and lymphoid
lineage have the capacity to differentiate into two main categories of
DCs: conventional DCs (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) (79).
Effective cancer vaccines may require both types of DCs, as each is
equipped with a specific defense mechanism in response to invading
pathogens. cDCs include CD11c+CD11b+ and CD11c+CD8+ cells and
exhibit classic DC morphology, protruding dendrites that make these
cells especially adept at antigen processing and antigen presentation to
T cells (79). Plasmacytoid DCs exhibit a spherical morphology (7)
and can produce large amounts of type 1 interferons (IFNs) in response to danger signals, such as unmethylated CpG dinucleotide
sequences found in bacterial or viral DNA (7, 10, 11). Plasmacytoid
DCderived type 1 IFNs link innate and adaptive immunity to viral
infection by directly inducing nave T cell differentiation to TH1 cells
(1012) and by triggering antigen cross-presentation to CD8+ T cells
(13, 14) and IL production (for example, IL-12) by cDCs that facilitate
the clonal expansion of CTLs. The plasticity of hematopoietic precursors
likely allows for the recruitment and generation of the DC population
most proficient at eliciting the appropriate immune response in a particular situation (79, 13). Current vaccines are unable to recapitulate

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ex vivo the development of this broad DC response, which is critical to

the development of potent CTL immune responses (3, 4).
Here, we have hypothesized that one can manipulate the in situ
generation of a heterogeneous DC network capable of CTL induction,
and activate robust CD8+ T cell effector responses to established tumors,
by providing a secondary immunostimulatory site of tumor antigen
presentation. Inflammation or infection can produce DC populations
A
GM-CSF

BLANK

1.2 106

**

1 10 6
8 10 5

**

10

CD11b

CD11c+ dendritic cells

(cell no.)

**

6 10 5

10
10

1.24

RESULTS

4 10 5
2 10 5

10
0

70.4

Blanks 400 ng 3000 ng7000 ng

8 10

7 10

6 10

5 10

4 10

3 10

2 10

1 10

E
*

**

**

**

3.59

0 10

CD11c+CCR7+ dendritic cells

(cell no.)

D
CD11c+CD86+ dendritic cells
(cell no.)

24.7

that are not found in the steady state (15), which suggests that stimuli
in tissue microenvironments provoke a response from the network of
DCs. The cytokine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
(GM-CSF) is present at increased concentrations during inflammation
(16, 17), which may cause the recruitment of both monocytes and DCs
while inducing local monocytes to differentiate into DCs (15, 1719).
Recently, we described the development of implantable synthetic polymer matrices that spatially and temporally control the in vivo presentation of cytokines, tumor antigens, and danger signals (20). GM-CSF is
released from these polylactide-co-glycolide (PLG) [a Food and Drug
Administration (FDA)approved biomaterial] matrices into the surrounding tissue to recruit DC precursors and DCs. CpG-rich oligonucleotides are immobilized on the matrices as danger signals, and
antigen (tumor lysates) is released to matrix-resident DCs to program
DC development and maturation. These matrices quantitatively regulate DC activation and trafficking in situ and induce prophylactic immunity against inoculations of murine B16-F10 melanoma cells (14).
Here, we have investigated the ability of this system to control the recruitment and activation of multiple DC and T cell subsets and to provide therapeutic vaccination against established tumors.

1 10

8 10

6 10

4 10

2 10

Blank 400 ng 3000 ng 7000 ng

10
CD11c

**

**

10

10

**

**

Blanks 400 ng 3000 ng 7000 ng

6

CD11c+MHCII+ dendritic cells

(cell no.)

1 10
Fig. 1. GM-CSF delivery from PLG
matrices promotes CD11b+ DC re8 105
**
cruitment and activation. (A) H&E
5
staining of sectioned PLG scaffolds
6 10
**
explanted from subcutaneous pock4 105
ets in the backs of C57BL/6J mice
**
**
**
after 14 days: blank scaffolds (BLANK)
2 105
and GM-CSF (3000 ng)loaded scaffolds (GM-CSF). (B) Number of CD11c+
0
Blank 400 ng 3000 ng 7000 ng
DCs isolated from PLG scaffolds at
day 14 after implantation in response to doses of 0, 1000, 3000, and 7000 ng
of GM-CSF. (C) FACS plots of cells isolated from explanted scaffolds and stained
for CD11c and CD11b. Cells were isolated from PLG matrices incorporating
3000 ng of GM-CSF at day 10 after implantation. Numbers in FACS plots indicate the percentage of the cell population positive for CD11c and CD11b or
for both markers. (D to F) Number of CD11c+CD86+ (D), CD11c+CCR7+ (E),
and CD11c+MHCII+ (F) DCs isolated from PLG scaffolds at day 14 after implantation in response to doses of 0, 400, 3000, and 7000 ng of GM-CSF. Scale
bar in (A), 100 mm. Values in (B) and (D) to (F) represent mean and SD (n = 4 or 5).
*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 versus blank matrices unless otherwise noted.

Local GM-CSF delivery promotes recruitment of CD11b+ DCs

As described previously (20), macroporous PLG matrices were fabricated for GM-CSF release to recruit DCs and with an interconnected porous structure that allows for cell infiltration (10). Matrices
were loaded with 0, 3000, and 7000 ng of GM-CSF and implanted into
the subcutaneous pockets of C57BL/6J mice. Histological analysis at
day 14 after implantation of PLG matrices loaded with 3000 ng of
GM-CSF revealed enhanced cellular infiltration when compared to
blank controls (Fig. 1A). Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)
analysis for CD11c+ DCs showed that GM-CSF delivery recruited significantly more DCs (a factor of 8 increase) than blank PLG matrices
(Fig. 1B). The matrix-resident DCs were almost exclusively CD11b+
(87%) (Fig. 1C), in accordance with other studies of GM-CSF effects
on DC recruitment in vivo (21, 22). The total number of DCs recruited
and their expression of the costimulatory molecule CD86 increased with
GM-CSF delivery in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 1D). However,
the highest dose (7000 ng) of GM-CSF reduced the number of activated DCs at the implant site, as indicated by diminished major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) and CCR7 expression at day
14 after implantation (Fig. 1, E and F, and fig. S1). Because total DC
recruitment and activation both peaked at 3000 ng of GM-CSF, this
dose was used to recruit and generate DCs in subsequent studies. GMCSF delivery promoted greater cellular penetration into and association
with the PLG material, as indicated by histological analysis (Fig. 1A) and
measurement of DC numbers (Fig. 1, B and D), potentially allowing
for the subsequent programming of resident DC precursors and DCs.
In situ delivery of CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide promotes
pDC recruitment and IFN production
The ability of local presentation of danger signals to regulate the ratio of
distinct DC subtypes was next examined by immobilizing TLR-activating,
polyethylenimine (PEI)condensed CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN)
molecules into the matrices. As described previously for plasmid DNA
(20), condensation of oligonucleotides with the polycationic polymer

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

RESEARCH ARTICLE
A

10
10
10
0

2.57 10 5 5.70

2.90

10

10

10
0 ug 0
0 10

10

10

1 ug
2

0 10

10

10

5
7.71 10 4.62

105 5.98

CD11c

10

PEI results in positively charged particles that bind electrostatically to

the anionic PLG matrix. PLG matrices incorporating CpG-ODN alone
recruited CD11c+PDCA-1+ pDCs to the PLG matrix (Fig. 2A), and this
effect was enhanced with coadministration of GM-CSF (Fig. 2B). We
altered the dose of CpG-ODN presented in combination with 3000 ng
of GM-CSF to regulate the numbers of resident pDCs, resulting in
190,000, 520,000, and 1,200,000 cells at doses of 0, 10, and 100 mg
of CpG-ODN, respectively (Fig. 2B). Copresentation of CpG-ODN had
little effect on the ability of GM-CSF to enhance CD11c+CD11b+ cDCs
(Fig. 2C). High doses of CpG-ODN promoted the local production of
IFN-a (1010 pg/ml) and IFN-g (600 pg/ml) particularly in the presence of GM-CSF (Fig. 2, D and E). These results indicate that controlled
GM-CSF and CpG-ODN danger signaling from synthetic extracellular
matrices cooperates to regulate resident pDC and CD11c+CD11b+ cDC
numbers, along with the production of protective cytokines commonly
linked to TH1 and CTL immunity.

4.86

10

12.0

104

10

103

10

102

10
10 ug 0

0
0 102

103

104

105

100 ug
0 10

10

10

10

PDCA-1

1.6 10 6

**

1.4 10 6

3 106

CD11c+Cd11b+ DCs
(cell no.)

Plasmacytoid DCs
(cell no.)

1.2 10 6

4 10 5

2 106

1 106
5 105

2 10 5

**

1.5 106

6 10 5

**

2.5 106

1 10 6
8 10 5

3.5 106

Blank 100 GM

1
10 100
+GM +GM +GM

Blank 100 GM

2000

* *

1
10 100
+GM +GM +GM

1000

**
800

1500

600

1000

500

400
200

Blank 100

GM

1
10 100
+GM +GM +GM

Blank 100

GM

1
10 100
+GM +GM +GM

Fig. 2. CpG-ODN and GM-CSF delivery from PLG matrices promotes pDC
generation and the production of antitumor cytokines. (A) FACS plots of cells
isolated from explanted scaffolds and stained for the pDC markers CD11c and
PDCA-1. Cells were isolated from PLG matrices incorporating 0, 1, 10, and 100
mg of CpG-ODN at day 10 after implantation. Numbers in FACS plots indicate
the percentage of the cell population positive for CD11c only or for both markers. (B and C) The number of pDCs (B) and CD11c+CD11b+ cDCs (C) at day 10
after implantation in blank scaffolds (Blank) or in response to doses of 100 mg
(100) of CpG-ODN or 3000 ng of GM-CSF alone (GM) or GM-CSF in combination
with 1 mg (1+GM), 10 mg (10+GM), or 100 mg (100+GM) of CpG-ODN. (D and E)
The in vivo concentrations of IFN-a (D) and IFN-g (E) at day 10 after implantation at the implant site of blank PLG matrices (Blank) or matrices loaded
with 3000 ng of GM-CSF alone (GM) or 10 mg or 100 mg (100) of CpG-ODN
alone or GM-CSF in combination with 10 mg (10+GM) or 100 mg (100+GM) of
CpG-ODN. Values in (B) to (E) represent mean and SD (n = 4 or 5). *P < 0.05,
**P < 0.01 as compared to blank matrices unless otherwise noted.

Tumor lysate co-delivery with CpG-ODN and GM-CSF

stimulates CD8+ DC generation and IL-12 production
We then hypothesized that copresenting cancer antigens with CpGODNs to matrix-resident DCs would promote further DC development,
activation, and CTL antigen sensitization. In this context, necrotic tumor
cells may be particularly immunostimulatory, as they release a variety
of endogenous mediators (for example, heat shock proteins and damaged nucleic acids) that trigger innate immune recognition (23). Thus,
freeze-thaw lysates of B16 melanomas were prepared, and antigenpresenting matrices were fabricated by encapsulating these lysates into
the PLG material, resulting in localized and sustained antigen presentation to the infiltrating cell population (20). These antigen-presenting
matrices unexpectedly stimulated CD8+ DC generation in situ (Fig. 3A).
On viral invasion, CD8+CD11c+ cDCs are especially efficient at crosspresenting exogenous antigen on MHCI molecules (13, 14, 2426) and
at producing the TH1-promoting cytokine IL-12 (13, 2730), which are
two mechanisms that aid in priming CTL immunity to viruses and
tumors. This activity, however, is normally associated with lymphoid
tissues (7, 9, 14, 2426). Copresentation of tumor lysates with CpGODN led to the presence of 200,000 CD8+ DCs, which increased to
670,000 (a factor of 9 increase over blank matrices) when GM-CSF
was added to stimulate recruitment (Fig. 3B). Additionally, tumor lysate
in combination with GM-CSF and CpG enhanced the numbers of recruited pDCs at day 10 after implantation by a factor of 2 over matrices
without lysate and by a factor of 10 over blank controls (Fig. 3C). No
significant difference in pDC numbers was observed with tumor lysate in
combination with only GM-CSF or CpG signaling. The CD11c+CD11b+
DC population at the vaccine site depended mainly on GM-CSF (Fig.
3D), as tumor lysate or CpG signaling alone or in combination had
no significant effect on the recruitment and expansion of these DCs
(Fig. 3D).
It is interesting that the in situ production of the T cell growth
factor IL-12 at matrices that deliver both tumor lysate and CpG-ODN
to cell populations recruited by GM-CSF was about four times that of
blank matrices and at least twice that of all other matrix formulations
(Fig. 3E). However, tumor lysates in the matrix did not increase the
high concentrations of IFN-a and IFN-g induced by CpG-ODN and
GM-CSF (Fig. 3, F and G). These results suggest that the engineered
matrices manipulated both the number and the function of specific
DC subsets, as well as the accompanying CTL-polarizing activity.

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10

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Blank

CpG+GM

4.31

0.78

10 5

0 10 2

10 3

CD8+

**

4 10

2 10

0 10 2

10 4

1.5 10

1 10

5 10

**

CD8+

10 4

10 5

**

5 10

4 10

3 10

*
**

2 10

1 10
0

Blank GM CpG GM+ GM+ CpG+ GM+

CpG Ant Ant CpG+
Ant

Blank GM CpG GM+ GM+CpG+GM+

CpG Ant Ant CpG+
Ant

2000

* **

10 3

6 106

**

2 106

600

0 10 2

3 106

2.2

61

10 5

CD8+

Blank GM CpG GM+ GM+ CpG+ GM+

CpG Ant Ant CpG+
Ant

500

10 3

2.5 106

6 10

103

1.1

75

10 5

9.09

102
0

10 2
0

1 106
8 10

CD11c+CD8+ DCs
(cell no.)

10 4

27.4

104

10 3

0.7

94.1

105

CD11c+

CD11c+

103
102
0

1.56

10 4

Plasmacytoid DCs
(cell no.)

CD11c+

104

CpG+GM+Ant

22.3

CD11c+CD11b+ DCs
(cell no.)

105

IL-12 concentration
(pg/ml tissue)

Fig. 3. Tumor lysate, CpG-ODN, and GMCSF co-delivery from PLG matrices stimulates CD8 + DC generation and IL-12
production. (A) FACS density plots of
CD11c and CD8 staining of cells infiltrating blank PLG matrices (Blank) or matrices
loaded with 3000 ng of GM-CSF and 100 mg
of CpG-ODN without (CpG+GM) or with
tumor lysates (CpG+GM+Ant) at day 10.
Numbers in FACS plots indicate the percentage of the cell population positive
for CD11c (upper left quadrant of each
plot) and CD8 (lower right) or for both
markers (upper right). (B to D) Number
of CD11c+CD8+ cDCs (B), pDCs (C), and
CD11c+CD11b+ cDCs (D) at day 10 after
implantation in blank matrices (Blank) and
in response to 3000 ng of GM-CSF (GM) or
100 mg of CpG-ODN (CpG) alone or in
combination (CpG+GM) or copresented
with tumor lysates (GM+Ant, CpG+Ant,
and CpG+GM+Ant). (E to G) In vivo concentration of IL-12 (E), IFN-a (F), and IFN-g
(G) at day 10 after implantation in blank
matrices (Blank) and in response to doses
of 3000 ng of GM-CSF (GM) or 100 mg of
CpG-ODN (CpG) alone or in combination
(CpG+GM) or copresented with tumor lysates
(GM+Ant, CpG+Ant, and CpG+GM+Ant).
Values in (B) to (G) represent mean and
SD (n = 4 or 5). *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 versus
blank matrices, unless otherwise noted.

Tumor protection induced by PLG matrices correlates

with DC subsets and IL-12 production
It was previously demonstrated that this system is capable of generating prophylactic immunity against poorly immunogenic B16-F10
melanoma (20). The relation of this antitumor efficacy to the specific DC networks invoked by various vaccine formulations was investigated. C57BL/6J mice were vaccinated with PLG-based matrices
incorporating B16 tumor lysates, GM-CSF, and CpG-ODN in varying combinations and then challenged with live B16-F10 melanoma
tumor cells at day 14 after vaccination. PLG vaccines with both B16F10 tumor lysates and 1, 10, 50, or 100 mg of CpG-ODN danger signaling allowed 10 to 30% of the vaccinated mice to survive, tumorfree (Fig. 5A), after an otherwise lethal cell challenge, whereas 100%
of unvaccinated mice were killed by day 23 due to tumor burden.
When GM-CSFmediated DC recruitment was combined with lysate and CpG-ODN delivery, the mice showed significant protection from tumor-induced lethality. CpG-ODN doses of 10, 50, and
100 mg resulted in 50%, 60%, and 90% survival rates, respectively
(Fig. 5B).

1200

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*

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CpG Ant Ant CpG+
Ant

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CpG Ant Ant CpG+
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indicating that systemic antimelanoma responses were being generated and sustained for extended periods.

PLG matrices co-delivering GM-CSF, CpG-ODN, and tumor

lysates stimulate potent local and systemic CD8+ cytotoxic T cells
To elucidate the adaptive immune mechanisms induced by PLG
vaccines that deliver tumor lysate, GM-CSF, and CpG-ODN, we
examined the activity of both local and systemic CTLs. Flow cytometric analysis of cells infiltrating the vaccine site revealed a significant CD3+CD8+ T cell response by day 5 (representative sample:
1.9 105 cells), which peaked at day 12 when a relatively large
proportion of the matrix-resident cells were CTLs (representative
sample: 8.5% of cells; 8.5 105 cells) (Fig. 4A). Local CD8+ T cell
numbers dropped sharply by day 16 and were negligible at day 21
(Fig. 4B) likely because of antigen clearance. PLG vaccines containing tumor lysates, GM-CSF, and CpG-ODN preferentially tuned
and promoted CD8+ cytotoxic immune responses relative to other
matrix formulations devoid of CpG (Fig. 4C). Further, the activation
and persistence of systemic CTL responses was monitored by staining splenocytes with MHCItyrosinase-related protein 2 (TRP2)
peptide pentamers to identify CTLs with specificity to TRP2, which
is a major antigenic target of melanoma vaccines in mice and humans. A significant expansion of TRP2-specific CTLs was observed
in the spleens of vaccinated mice by day 5, which continued and peaked
between days 7 and 16 before falling at days 21 to 28 (Fig. 4, D and E),

The ability of vaccine systems to create a heterogeneous DC

population correlated with the marked increase in antitumor efficacy. In comparison to antigen matrices delivering GM-CSF alone,
the antigen-loaded matrices delivering CpG and GM-CSF together
resulted in a higher proportion of pDCs (31% versus 7%) and CD8+
cDCs (14% versus 5.5%) (Fig. 5C), which correlated with a significant enhancement in mouse survival (90% versus 20%), although
total DC numbers in situ were statistically similar (3.0 0.6 versus
4.2 0.9 million DCs; two-tailed Students t test, n = 5). Survival
rates were proportional to the number of pDCs and CD8+ cDCs, but
not CD11b+ DCs, generated at the PLG vaccine site at day 10 (Fig. 5,
D to F). Additionally, the endogenous production of IL-12 was correlated with animal survival (Fig. 5G), suggesting the importance of
cross-presentation and TH1-promoting cytokines to vaccine efficacy.
Engineered PLG matrices incorporating CpG-ODN
attenuate immune regulation by FoxP3+ Treg number
and immunosuppressive cytokines
Although several vaccines designed to program DCs either ex vivo
or in situ have achieved significant and long-term prophylactic
protection in mouse models of cancer (1, 4, 15), eradication of
invasive and well-established tumors has not been achieved without
adoptive T cell transfer or systemic therapies (1, 2, 31, 32). This
limitation might reflect, at least in part, the ability of DC-based vaccines to stimulate Treg cells (33, 34) that attenuate the cytotoxic activity of adaptive immune responses. Thus, we characterized the

impact of the engineered matrices on the induction of immunosuppressive pathways. Monitoring CD4+ T cell responses to antigenpresenting matrices with GM-CSF and CpG revealed peak activity
at days 5 and 7, which decreased to negligible concentrations by
day 12 after implantation (Fig. 6A). In contrast, matrices containing GM-CSF and tumor lysate led to a significant enhancement of
CD4+ T cell infiltration at day 12 (Fig. 6B), and these cells likely contribute to regulation of CTL responses. Incorporation of GM-CSF and
tumor lysate into the vaccine matrix led to a factor of 10 increase in
TGF-b concentrations (Fig. 6C) and a significant increase in IL-10
(Fig. 6D) at the vaccine site; these are cytokines commonly associated
with Treg activity and immunosuppression. Further, as observed previously in GM-CSFbased vaccines (33, 34), GM-CSF cosignaling with
tumor antigens resulted in a significant CD3+FoxP3+ response at the
vaccine site (Fig. 6, E and F) when compared to all other matrix formulations, resulting in an almost even ratio of CD8+ effectors and
FoxP3 Treg cells (Fig. 6G). CpG-ODN presentation in concert with
both tumor lysate and GM-CSF counteracted these immunosuppressive mechanisms, as TGF-b and IL-10 concentrations and Treg
activity were not enhanced over the control matrices, and CD8+ CTLs
outnumbered FoxP3+ T cells by a factor of 25 at day 12 after implantation (Fig. 6, C to G). Altogether, these findings suggest that this
vaccine system is able to promote and extend CTL responses likely
through nave T cell differentiation induced by pDCs and CD8+
DCs, the corresponding production of type 1 IFNs and IL-12, and inhibition of negative feedback mechanisms.

CD8+ T cells
(cell no.)

CD8+TRP2-Pentamer+
Splenocytes (cell no.)

TRP2 pentamer

TRP2 pentamer

CD3

CD8+ T cells at vaccine site

(cell no.)

Fig. 4. Tumor lysate, CpG-ODN, and GMB

C
A
Day 5
Day 1
CSF co-delivery in PLG matrices stimulates
5
5
0.18
2.52
10 5.13
10 3
potent local and systemic CD8+ cytotoxic T
cells. (A) FACS plots of cells isolated from
1.4 106
3
explanted matrices and stained for the cyto3
10
1.4 106
10
toxic T cell markers CD3 and CD8a. Cells were
1.2 106
1.2 106
isolated from PLG matrices with 3000 ng of
0
0.14 0
1 106
1.41
GM-CSF, 100 mg of CpG-ODN, and tumor
3
5
1 106
3
5
0
10
10
0
10
10
8 105
lysates at days 1, 5, 12, and 21 after imDay 21
Day 12
8 105
0.05
5 6.62
8.52 105 2.12
plantation. Numbers in FACS plots indicate
6 105
10
6 105
the percentage of the cell population that
4 105
3
was either single positive for CD3 (upper
10
3
4 105
10
left quadrant of each plot) or CD8 (lower
2 105
0
2 105
right) or double positive for both markers
0
0.71
1.38
0
+
+
3
5
3
5
(upper right). (B) Total number of CD3 CD8
0
10
10
0
10
10
3
7
16
28
0
CD8a
Blank Lys CpG+Lys GM+Lys GM+Lys
cytotoxic T cells isolated from PLG matrices
Time (days)
+CpG
loaded with GM-CSF, CpG-ODN, and tumor
D
E
6
1 10
lysates as a function of time after implanta5 Vax
5 BLANK
10
10
tion. (C) Number of CD8 T cells at day 12 af2.37
0.49
5
8 10
ter implantation in blank scaffolds (Blank) or
4
4
10
10
in response to lysate alone (Lys) or in combi5
6 10
3
3
nation with CpG-ODN (CpG+Lys) or GM-CSF
10
10
5
(GM+Lys) or both factors (GM+Lys+CpG). (D)
4 10
2
2
FACS plots of splenocytes of mice implanted
10
10
5
0
with blank PLG matrices mice vaccinated
2 10
with PLG vaccines containing 3000 ng of
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
0 10 10 10 10
0 10 10 10 10
0
GM-CSF, 100 mg of CpG-ODN, and tumor lyCD8a
CD8a
1 3 5 7 16 21 28
sates at day 16 after implantation. Cells were
Time (days)
stained with PE-conjugated antibody to CD8
matrices loaded with GM-CSF, CpG-ODN, and tumor lysates as a function
and Kb-TRP2 pentamers. The gates represent the TRP2-specific CD8+ T cells,
of time after implantation. Values in (B), (C), and (E) represent mean and SD
and numbers provide the percentage of gated cells. (E) Total number of
(n = 4 or 5). *P < 0.05 versus all other experimental conditions.
TRP2-specific CD8+ T cells in the spleens of mice vaccinated with PLG

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

as matrices with GM-CSF and CpG did not enhance survival times
significantly (Fig. 7, A and B). Strikingly, 47% of the mice (animals
bearing day 9 tumors) vaccinated twice with PLG vaccines survived
long-term and free of detectable tumors; this treatment regimen
was able to completely eradicate tumors of up to 25 mm2 in size
(Fig. 7C).
To test whether PLG vaccines could be effective against an even
greater tumor burden, we established melanoma tumors for 13
days and then vaccinated the mice. One-time (day 13) and twotime (days 13 and 23) vaccination decreased tumor progression
(Fig. 7D). Two-time vaccination doubled the mean survival time
and led to complete tumor regression in 20% of the animals with
advanced solid tumors (day 13 tumors; n = 15) (Fig. 7, D to F).
Because vaccinations were initiated at days 9 and 13 of tumor
growth, and required 5 days for CTL generation, the effector window
for immune responses was small (about 6 to 10 days) before untreated
animals succumbed to tumor burden. Variations in tumor size at the
time of vaccination likely accounted for the lack of complete regression in all animals; vaccination may not have resulted in generation of
sufficient numbers of killer T cell in time to control and clear larger
tumors. Slight hair loss and depigmentation was observed at the vac-

Engineered PLG matrices cause regression of

established melanoma
Because a high ratio of CD8+ T cell effectors to FoxP3+ Treg cells
has been linked to therapeutic tumor immunity in murine and human systems (33, 35), we tested the activity of PLG vaccines against
B16-F10 tumors that had been established for 9 days (inoculation
of 5 105 cells at day 0). Tumor-bearing mice implanted with
blank PLG matrices displayed rapid tumor growth and were killed
by day 24, as expected (Fig. 7A). Vaccination of mice once with the
PLG vaccine significantly decreased the rate of tumor progression
(Fig. 7A), and an increase in mean survival time over controls was
observed, but all animals required euthanization by day 58, depending on the tumor size at the time of vaccination (Fig. 7B). Vaccination of mice twice (days 9 and 19) with PLG vaccines had a
more dramatic effect on tumor progression and caused complete
regression of tumors in a subset (7 of 15) of the animals (Fig. 7C).
In contrast, a single treatment with irradiated, GM-CSFsecreting
B16-F10 cells, a widely used cell therapy now in clinical trials, attenuated tumor progression modestly, and all animals had to be killed
by day 36 (Fig. 7A). Tumor antigen presentation from PLG matrices
enhanced protection and was required to induce tumor regression,

100

100

80

80

40

% Survival

% Survival

60

10 ug
100 ug
50 ug

20

50 ug+
GM

60

10 ug+GM

40

1 ug+GM

20

BLANK 1 ug

20

40

80

100

20

80

100

1 106
8 105
5

6 10

4 10

2 105

8 105
6 105

40

60

0.6
0.4
0.2

GM

4 105

80

100

3.5 106
3 106

2 106

2 105

1 106
5 105

r=0.896
0

20

40

60

80

100

r=0.496
0

% Survival

% Survival

GM+CpG
90

1.5 106

3 105

CpG
30

2.5 106

5 105

1 105

r=0.896
20

0.8

% Survival 20

CD11c+CD11b+ DCs
(cell no.)

CD11c+CD8+ DCs
(cell no.)

Plasmacytoid DCs
(cell no.)

1.2 10

60

7 105

40

Time (days)

1.4 106

60

Time (days)

1.2

100 ug+GM
DC fraction
(DC subset no. / total DC)

IL-12 concentration
(ng/ml tissue)

Fig. 5. Tumor protection stimulated by

engineered PLG matrices is correlated with
DC subsets and IL-12 production. Survival
times of mice vaccinated with PLG vaccines 14 days before B16-F10 melanoma
tumor challenge (105 cells). (A) Comparison of survival times in mice treated with
blank PLG matrices or with PLG matrices
loaded with tumor lysates and 1, 10, 50,
or 100 mg of CpG-ODN. (B) Comparison
of survival times in mice vaccinated with
PLG matrices loaded with tumor lysates,
3000 ng of GM-CSF, and 1, 10, 50, or
100 mg of CpG-ODN. (C) Fraction of the
total CD11c+ DC population consisting of
CD11b+ cDCs (white bar), PDCA-1+ pDCs
(black bar), and CD8+ cDCs (striped bar)
generated at the PLG vaccine site at day 10.
Vaccines were loaded with either 3000 ng of
GM-CSF or 100 mg of CpG-ODN alone or in
combination. Survival percentages recorded
at day 100 after tumor challenge. (D to G)
Plots of the numbers of CD11c+PDCA-1+
pDCs (D), CD11c + CD8 + cDCs (E), and
CD11c+CD11b+ cDCs (F) and the concentration of IL-12 at the PLG vaccine site (G) at
day 10 versus the percent of animals surviving B16-F10 melanoma tumor challenge at
day 100 [survival data taken from experimental conditions in (A) and (B)]. Values in
(D) to (G) represent mean and SD (n = 4
or 5). r values in (D) to (F) represent the
linear correlation coefficient between DC
numbers or IL-12 concentration and survival percentage.

20

40

60

80

100

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% Survival

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

r=0.852
20

40

60

80

100

% Survival

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

cine site, in agreement with the past study using this vaccination system (20), but no significant toxicities were observed with vaccination.

The combination of tumor cell lysates, GM-CSF, and CpG-ODN in

the vaccine matrix was required for optimal tumor protection, which
was strongly associated with the recruitment of pDCs and CD8+ DCs
and the local production of IL-12. The accumulation of CD8+ DCs at
the vaccine site is a notable feature of this vaccination strategy because
this DC subset is typically localized to secondary lymphoid structures.
Plasmacytoid DC numbers were closely linked with the generation of
type I IFNs, as described in previous studies (10, 21, 38), and these
cells helped to support the activation of CD8+ DCs and their crosspresentation of tumor antigens to TH1 cells and CTLs (79, 13, 27).
Further studies will elucidate which of the correlative observations in
this study underlie the superior antitumor effect, as well as the mechanisms by which the vaccine may modulate other components of the
immune system [for example, myeloid-derived suppressor cells that
suppress GM-CSFbased vaccines (39)]. However, many cancer vaccination strategies use GM-CSFstimulated monocyte-derived cDCs (35)
as immunogens, and our experiments indicate that the presence of a
broader set of DC subtypes may evoke more potent antitumor responses.
Our findings also suggest that a minimum number of DCs may be
required to induce high concentrations of protective immunity. Vaccines

DISCUSSION
Current approaches to cancer vaccination augment cellular and
humoral antitumor reactions in many patients, but most immunized subjects still succumb to progressive disease, indicating that
vaccine responses are insufficient to effect complete tumor cell
killing (14, 36). Nonetheless, the abilities of blocking antibodies
to CTL-associated antigen4 and the adoptive transfer of T cells
in lymphodepleted hosts to accomplish tumor regressions highlight
the potential for immune-mediated destruction of advanced cancer
(35, 37). In this study, we demonstrate that the appropriate regulation of the DC network can induce complete regressions of distant
and established melanomas in mice.
Our engineered PLG vaccine evokes a coordinated response of
multiple DC subtypes, which together trigger sustained and potent
antitumor CD8+ CTLs while inhibiting immunoregulatory pathways.

2 105

CD4 T cells
(cell no.)

8 105

1.5 105

6 105

CD4 T cells
(cell no.)

Day 12

GM+CpG+Lys

1 105
5 104

4 105
2 105

0
1

12

Time (days)

Blank

Lys

F
10

1.84

10

30
20
10
0

Lys GM+Lys CpG+Lys GM+Lys

+CpG

10

0
0 10

10

10

FoxP3

10

GM+Lys
2

3 10

2.5 105
2 105

10

0.1

Blank

Lys GM+Lys CpG+Lys GM+Lys

+CpG

3.5 105

FoxP3 Treg cells

(cell no.)

0.15

1.5 105
1 105

40

30

20

10

10

10

CD3

CD3

10

0.2

0
Blank

10

0.25

0.05

4 105

0.22

0.3

**

**

40

CpG+Lys GM+Lys GM+Lys

+CpG

E
5

D
50

IL-10 concentration
(ng/ml tissue)

1 106

CD8 effectors/FoxP3 Treg cells

(ratio of cell no.)

2.5 105

TGF- concentration
(ng/ml tissue)

GM+Lys+CpG
0 10

10

10

10

FoxP3

Fig. 6. Engineered PLG matrices attenuate FoxP3+ Treg cells and immunosuppressive cytokines. (A) Total number of CD3+CD4+ T cells isolated from
PLG matrices loaded with GM-CSF, CpG-ODN, and tumor lysates as a function of time after implantation. (B) Number of CD4 T cells at day 12 after
implantation in blank scaffolds (Blank) or in response to lysate alone (Lys)
or in combination with CpG-ODN (CpG+Lys) or GM-CSF (GM+Lys) or both
factors (GM+Lys+CpG). (C and D) The in vivo concentrations of TGF-b (C)
and IL-10 (D) at day 12 after implantation at the implant site of blank
scaffolds (Blank) or scaffolds presenting lysate alone (Lys) or in combination with CpG-ODN (CpG+Lys) or GM-CSF (GM+Lys) or both factors
(GM+Lys+CpG). (E) FACS plots of cells isolated from explanted scaffolds
and stained for the Treg cell markers CD3 and FoxP3. Cells were isolated

5 104
0

0
Blank

Lys CpG+Lys GM+Lys GM+Lys

+CpG

GM+Lys

GM+Lys+CpG

from PLG matrices incorporating GM-CSF and lysates (GM+Lys) or GM-CSF,

lysates, and CpG-ODN (GM+Lys+CpG) at day 12 after implantation.
Numbers in FACS plots indicate the percentage of the cell population positive for both markers. (F) Number of FoxP3+ Treg cells at day 12 after
implantation in blank scaffolds (Blank) or in response to lysate alone
(Lys) or in combination with CpG-ODN (CpG+Lys) or GM-CSF (GM+Lys)
or both factors (GM+Lys+CpG). (G) Ratio of CD8a+ T cells versus FoxP3+
Treg cells residing within PLG scaffolds loaded with GM-CSF and lysates
(GM+Lys) alone or in combination with CpG-ODN (GM+Lys+CpG) at day
12 after implantation. Values in (A), (B), (C), (D), (F), and (G) represent
mean and SD (n = 4 or 5). *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 versus all other experimental conditions unless otherwise noted.

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

250

GM-CpG
V ax, 1x
GMB16

200

80

% Survival

Tumor size
(mm2)

Blank

100

150

100

60

V ax, 2x
40

GM+ CpG

V ax, 2x
20

50

10

20

30

40

50

60

Time (days after tumor challenge)

20

100

Blank
Vax, 1x

20

Tumor size
(mm2)

Tumor size
(mm2)

80

200

25

150

15

Vax, 2x

100

10
50

5
0
0

20

40

60

80

Time (days)

100

20

60

15

40

Vax, 2x

Blank
0

20

Vax, 1x
40

60

10

20

30

40

50

60

25

80

20

Time (days after tumor challenge)

Tumor size
(mm2)

% Survival

60

250

30

40

Time (days after tumor challenge)

GMB16 V ax, 1x

Blank
0

80

100

Time (days after tumor challenge)

10

0
0

20

40

60

that generated about 1,200,000 pDCs and 600,000 CD8+ DCs (43% of
total DCs) in a total population of 4.2 million DCs resulted in 90%
survival in a subsequent tumor challenge. The engineered matrices appear to program T cell responses efficiently by providing a site of sustained immunostimulatory tumor antigen presentation, which evokes
robust CTLs, both locally and systemically, and attenuates immune regulation mediated through TGF-b, IL-10, and FoxP3+ Treg cells. The
kinetics of the adaptive immune response to our system suggest that
CTLs manifested potent effector function, as vaccination resulted in a
prototypical activation phase that gradually plateaued, followed by a
contraction phase as antigen was cleared. Other vaccine formulations
achieve only short-lived stimulation with infusions of protein or manipulated cells and may not trigger this T effector profile but instead induce
at least partially dysfunctional T cells that are more likely to undergo exhaustion within the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (14).
Together, our results highlight a critical array of DC subtypes that
are generated during the evolution of therapeutic antitumor responses
in mice, which may provide a template for rational vaccine design
more generally. Indeed, the vaccine system reported here might be
adapted to modulate DC and CTL responses for the control of other
solid cancers and perhaps chronic infections. Our approach might also
facilitate the study of DC subset development and the mechanisms
through which these subsets are coordinated in vivo for the eradication of established diseases. It is striking that tumor regression induced
by these PLG vaccines outperformed gene-modified tumor cell vaccines in direct comparison and outperformed ex vivo DC vaccines reported in literature (1, 2, 4). This acellular biomaterial system was
designed with components that either are FDA approved (PLG and
GM-CSF) or have been used clinically (CpG-ODN) and do not require the maintenance and modification of live cell cultures. Together,
these features suggest that this PLG system may have considerable
advantages in terms of clinical application relative to other approaches
reported to date. Scaling to humans will likely not require significant
modification of the size or structure of the material but will require
using effective human analogs (for example, human GM-CSF and
CpG-ODN sequences) that evoke human DC and CTL responses. It
is not clear whether the current combination of GM-CSF, CpGODN, and tumor antigen is the optimal formulation, and other dosing
regimens or alternative TLR agonists or cytokines should be tested.

80

Time (days)

Fig. 7. Engineered PLG matrices stimulate the regression of established

melanomas. (A and B) A comparison of the tumor growth (A) and survival
(B) of mice bearing established melanoma tumors (inoculated with 5 105
B16-F10 cells and allowed to develop for 9 days) and treated with either
blank PLG matrices (Blank) or matrices loaded with 3000 ng of GM-CSF and
100 mg of CpG-ODN (GM+CpG). Mice were also treated once (Vax, 1; at day 9)
or twice (Vax, 2; at days 9 and 19) with PLG matrices incorporating GM-CSF,
CpG-ODN, and tumor lysates (Vax). Mice were also vaccinated with 5 105
irradiated, GM-CSFtransduced B16-F10 cells. (C) Individual tumor growth
curves for each mouse surviving tumor challenge (5 105 cells) after a two-time
treatment with PLG vaccines at days 9 and 19. (D and E) A comparison of the
tumor growth (D) and survival (E) of mice bearing established melanoma tumors (inoculated with 5 105 B16-F10 cells and allowed to develop for 13 days)
and treated with either blank PLG matrices (Blank) or once with PLG vaccines
(Vax, 1; at day 13) or twice (Vax, 2; at days 13 and 23). (F) Individual tumor
growth curves for each mouse surviving tumor challenge (5 105 cells) after a
two-time treatment with PLG vaccines at days 13 and 23. Values in (A) and (D)
[(A) to (F); n = 15 per condition] represent mean and SEM.

METHODS
Matrix fabrication
An 85:15, 120-kD copolymer of D,L-lactide and glycolide (PLG)
(Alkermes) was used in a gas-foaming process to form porous
PLG matrices (40). In brief, PLG microspheres encapsulating GMCSF were first made with standard double emulsion (41). PLG microspheres were then mixed with 150 mg of the porogen, sucrose (sieved
to a particle size between 250 and 425 mm), and compression molded.
The resulting disc was allowed to equilibrate within a high-pressure
CO2 environment, and a rapid reduction in pressure causes the polymer particles to expand and fuse into an interconnected structure (40).
The sucrose was leached from the scaffolds by immersion in water,
yielding scaffolds that were 90% porous. To incorporate tumor lysates
into PLG scaffolds, we digested the biopsies of B16-F10 tumors that had
grown subcutaneously in the backs of C57BL/6J mice (Jackson Laboratory) in collagenase (250 U/ml) (Worthington) and suspended at a

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

concentration equivalent to 107 cells per milliliter after filtration through

40-mm cell strainers. The tumor cell suspension was subjected to four
cycles of rapid freeze in liquid nitrogen and thaw (37C) and then
centrifuged at 400 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant (1 ml) containing
tumor lysates was collected, incubated with the PLG microspheres, and
lyophilized, and the resulting mixture was used in the high-pressure
CO2 process to foam macroporous PLG matrices incorporating tumor
lysates. To incorporate CpG-ODNs into PLG scaffolds, we first condensed CpG-ODN 1826, 5-tccatgacgttcctgacgtt-3 (Invivogen), with
PEI (Mn 60,000) molecules by dropping ODN 1826 solutions into
PEI solution while vortexing the mixture (20, 42). The charge ratio between PEI and CpG-ODN (NH3+:PO4) was kept constant at 7 during
condensation. PEI-CpG-ODN condensate solutions were then vortexed
with 60 ml of 50% (w/v) sucrose solution, lyophilized, and mixed with
dry sucrose to a final weight of 150 mg. The sucrose containing PEICpG-ODN condensate was then mixed with blank, GM-CSF, and/or
tumor lysateloaded PLG microspheres to make PLG cancer vaccines.
In situ identification of DC subsets and T cells
Blank PLG matrices and matrices containing 3000 ng of GM-CSF
alone or in combination with 1, 10, 50, or 100 mg of CpG-ODN
(studies were also performed with tumor lysates copresented with
either 3000 ng of GM-CSF or 100 mg of CpG-ODN alone or in
combination) were implanted into subcutaneous pockets on the
back of 7- to 9-week-old male C57BL/6J mice. For histological examination, scaffolds were excised and fixed in Z-fix solution (Anatech),
embedded in paraffin, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E).
To analyze DC recruitment, we excised scaffolds at various time points
and digested the ingrown tissue into single-cell suspensions with a collagenase solution (250 U/ml; Worthington) that was agitated at 37C
for 45 min. The cell suspensions were then poured through a 40-mm
cell strainer to isolate cells from scaffold particles, and the cells were
pelleted and washed with cold PBS and counted with a Z2 coulter
counter (Beckman Coulter). To assess DC infiltration and activation,
we stained subsets of the total cell population isolated from PLG
matrices with primary antibodies (BD Pharmingen) conjugated to fluorescent markers to allow for analysis by flow cytometry. Allophycocyanin (APC)conjugated CD11c (DC marker) and phycoerythrin
(PE)conjugated CD86 (B7, costimulatory molecule) stains were conducted for DC recruitment analysis, and APC-conjugated CD11c, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)conjugated CCR7, and PE-conjugated
MHCII stains were conducted for DC programming analysis. To further delineate the presence of specific DC subsets, we stained cells with
APC-conjugated CD11c and PE-conjugated PDCA-1 (pDC marker),
APC-conjugated CD11c and PE-conjugated CD8 (CD8 DCs), or
APC-conjugated CD11c and FITC-conjugated CD11b (CD11b
DCs). To assess T cell infiltration, we performed PE-Cy7conjugated
CD3 stains in conjunction with APC-conjugated CD8a (CD8 T cells),
FITC-conjugated CD4 (CD4 T cells), and PE-conjugated FoxP3
(Treg) and analyzed with flow cytometry. Cells were gated according
to positive FITC, APC, and PE with isotype controls, and the percentage of cells staining positive for each surface antigen was recorded.
Tumor growth assays, protective cytokines, and TRP2
pentamer analysis
PLG scaffolds with melanoma tumor lysates and various dosages of
GM-CSF and/or various quantities of PEI-CpG-ODN condensates
were implanted subcutaneously into the lower left flank of C57BL/6J

mice. For prophylactic vaccinations, animals were challenged 14 days

later with a subcutaneous injection of 105 B16-F10 melanoma cells
[American Type Culture Collection (ATCC)] in the back of the neck.
Animals were monitored for the onset of tumor growth (1 mm3)
and killed for humane reasons when tumors grew to 20 to 25 mm
(longest diameter).
To assess PLG vaccine efficacy in the therapeutic setting, we
challenged C57BL/6J mice with a subcutaneous injection of 5
105 B16-F10 melanoma cells (ATCC) in the back of the neck. At
either day 9 or day 13 after tumor challenge, PLG vaccines loaded with
3000 ng of GM-CSF, 100 mg of CpG-ODN, and tumor lysates were
implanted subcutaneously into the lower left flank of C57BL/6J mice.
A subset of mice was vaccinated again at 10 days after the initial vaccination (days 19 and 23).
To determine in vivo IL-12p70, IFN-a, IFN-g, and TGF-b concentrations at the matrix implant site, we excised and digested the adjacent
tissue with tissue protein extraction reagent (Pierce). After centrifugation, the concentrations of IL-12, IFN-a, IFN-g, and TGF-b in the supernatant were then analyzed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(R&D Systems) according to the manufacturers instructions.
To determine the generation of TRP2-specific CTLs, we prepared
single-cell suspensions from the spleens of mice immunized with PLG
vaccines (lysate + 3000 ng of GM-CSF + 100 mg of CpG) at various
time points. These cells were initially stained with APC-H-2KbTRP2
pentamers (Proimmune) and subsequently stained with PE-conjugated
monoclonal antibody to CD8 (BD Pharmingen) before being analyzed
by flow cytometry.
Statistical analysis
All values in the present study were expressed as mean 1 SD unless
otherwise noted.
The significant differences between the groups were analyzed by
a Students t test and a P value of <0.05 was considered significant.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
www.sciencetranslationalmedicine.org/cgi/content/full/1/8/8ra19/DC1
Fig. S1. FACS plots of cells isolated from explanted scaffolds and stained for the DC marker
CD11c and for activation markers MHCII and CCR7.

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immunotherapy. Immunol. Rev. 211, 214224 (2006).
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43. Acknowledgments: We thank Jebecka Hudak for assistance with cell culturing and Brian
Tilton and Patricia Rogers for assistance with flow cytometry.
Funding: NIHNational Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research grant R01-DE019917;
Department of Defense (BC084682 Idea Award); Harvard Catalyst, the Harvard Clinical and
Translational Science Center (NIH grant 1 UL1 RR 025758-01); financial contributions from
participating institutions; and InCytu Inc.
Author contributions: The experiments were designed by O.A.A., D.E., D.J.M., and G.D. and
carried out by O.A.A. and D.E. The manuscript was written by O.A.A., D.E., G.D., and D.J.M.
The principal investigator is D.J.M.
Competing interests: O.A.A. and D.E. are now working for InCytu Inc. to commercialize
the technology described in this paper and have stock options with the company.
D.J.M. is on the Board of Directors of, and owns stock options with, InCytu Inc. O.A.A.,
G.D., and D.J.M. have filed an application for a patent on the technology described in
this manuscript.

Submitted 31 August 2009

Accepted 5 November 2009
Published 25 November 2009
10.1126/scitranslmed.3000359
Citation: O. A. Ali, D. Emerich, G. Dranoff, D. J. Mooney, In situ regulation of DC subsets and T
cells mediates tumor regression in mice. Sci. Transl. Med. 1, 8ra19 (2009).

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