Lightning protection system [edit]

A lightning protection system is designed to protect a structure from damage due to lightning strikes by
intercepting such strikes and safely passing their extremely high currents to ground. A lightning protection system
includes a network of air terminals, bonding conductors, and ground electrodes designed to provide a low
impedance path to ground for potential strikes.
Lightning protection systems are used to prevent or lessen damage to structures done by lightning strikes.
Lightning protection systems mitigate the fire hazard which lightning strikes pose to structures. A lightning
protection system provides a low-impedance path for the lightning current to lessen the heating effect of current
flowing through flammable structural materials. If lightning travels through porous and water-saturated materials,
these parts of a building may literally explode if their water content is flashed to steam by heat produced from
lightning current.
Because of the high energy and current levels associated with lightning (currents can be in excess of 150,000
amps), and the very rapid rise time of a lightning strike, no lightning protection system can guarantee absolute
safety from lightning. Lightning current will divide to follow every conductive path to ground, and even the divided
current can cause damage. Secondary "side-flashes" can be enough to ignite a fire, blow apart brick, stone, or
concrete, or injure occupants within a structure or building. However, the benefits of basic lightning protection
[13]
systems have been evident for well over a century.
Laboratory-scale measurements of the effects of [any lightning investigation research] do not scale to
[14]
applications involving natural lightning. Field applications have mainly been derived from trial and error based
on the best intended laboratory research of a highly complex and variable phenomena.
The parts of a lightning protection system are air terminals (lightning rods or strike termination devices), bonding
conductors, ground terminals (ground or "earthing" rods, plates, or mesh), and all of the connectors and supports
to complete the system. The air terminals are typically arranged at or along the upper points of a roof structure,
and are electrically bonded together by bonding conductors (called "down conductors" or "downleads"), which are
[15]
connected by the most direct route to one or more grounding or earthing terminals. Connections to the earth
electrodes must not only have low resistance, but must have low self-inductance.
An example of a structure vulnerable to lightning is a wooden barn. When lightning strikes the barn, the wooden
structure and its contents, may be ignited by the heat generated by lightning current conducted through parts of
the structure. A basic lightning protection system would provide a conductive path between an air terminal and
earth, so that most of the lightning's current will follow the path of the lightning protection system, with
substantially less current traveling through flammable materials.
A controversy over the assortment of operation theories dates back to the 18th century, when Franklin himself
stated that his lightning protectors protected buildings by dissipating electric charge. He later retracted the
[citation needed]
statement, stating that the device's exact mode of operation was something of a mystery at that point.
Originally, scientists believed that such a lightning protection system of air terminals and "downleads" directed
the current of the lightning down into the earth to be "dissipated". However, high speed photography has clearly
demonstrated that lightning is actually composed of both a cloud component and an oppositely charged ground
component. During "cloud-to-ground" lightning, these oppositely charged components usually "meet" somewhere
in the atmosphere well above the earth to equalize previously unbalanced charges. The heat generated as this
electrical current flows through flammable materials is the hazard which lightning protection systems attempt to
mitigate by providing a low-resistance path for the lightning circuit. No lightning protection system can be relied
upon to "contain" or "control" lightning completely (nor thus far, to prevent lightning strikes), but they do seem to
help immensely on most occasions of lightning strikes.
Steel framed structures can bond the structural members to earth to provide lightning protection. A metal flagpole
with its foundation in the earth is its own extremely simple lightning protection system. However, the flag(s) flying
from the pole during a lightning strike may be completely incinerated.

[15]

The majority of lightning protection systems in use today are of the traditional Franklin design. The
fundamental principle used in Franklin-type lightning protections systems is to provide a sufficiently low
[16]
impedance path for the lightning to travel through to reach ground without damaging the building. This is
accomplished by surrounding the building in a kind of Faraday cage. A system of lightning protection conductors
and lightning rods are installed on the roof of the building to intercept any lightning before it strikes the building.

Structure protectors [edit]

Landscape suited for purpose of explanation: (1) Represents Lord Kelvin's "reduced" area of the region[clarification needed];[17] (2) Surface
concentric with the Earth such that the quantities stored over it and under it are equal; (3) Building on a site of
excessiveelectrostatic charge density; (4) Building on a site of low electrostatic charge density. (Image via U.S. Patent 1,266,175.)

Lightning arrester [edit]

Lightning rod on a statue on the top of a roof

Main article: Lightning arrester

In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrester is placed where wires enter a structure, preventing damage to
electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near them. Lightning arresters, also
called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each electrical conductor in a power or
communications system, and the Earth. They prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground,
but provide a path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their
purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a
lightning strike.

Protection of electric distribution systems [edit]

In overhead electric transmission (high-tension) systems, one or two lighter gauge conductors may be mounted
to the top of the pylons, poles, or towers not specifically used to send electricity through the grid. These
conductors, often referred to "static", "pilot" or "shield" wires are designed to be the point of lightning termination
instead of the high-voltage lines themselves. These conductors are intended to protect the primary power
conductors from lightning strikes.
These conductors are bonded to earth either through the metal structure of a pole or tower, or by additional
ground electrodes installed at regular intervals along the line. As a general rule, overhead power lines with
voltages below 50 kV do not have a "static" conductor, but most lines carrying more than 50 kV do. The ground
conductor cable may also support fibre optic cables for data transmission.
In some instances, these conductors are insulated from direct bonding with earth and may be used as low
voltage communication lines. If the voltage exceeds a certain threshold, such as during a lightning termination to
the conductor, it "jumps" the insulators and passes to earth.
Protection of electrical substations is as varied as lightning rods themselves, and is often proprietary to the
electric company.

Lightning protection of mast radiators [edit]

Radio mast radiators may be insulated from the ground by a gap at the base. When lightning hits the mast, it
jumps this gap. A small inductivity in the feed line between the mast and the tuning unit (usually one winding)
limits the voltage increase, protecting the transmitter from dangerously high voltages. The transmitter must be
equipped with a device to monitor the antenna's electrical properties. This is very important, as a charge could
remain after a lightning strike, damaging the gap or the insulators. The monitoring device switches off the
transmitter when the antenna shows incorrect behavior, e.g. as a result of undesired electrical charge. When the
transmitter is switched off, these charges dissipate. The monitoring device makes several attempts to switch back
on. If after several attempts the antenna continues to show improper behavior, possibly as result of structural
damage, the transmitter remains switched off.

Lightning conductors and grounding precautions [edit]

Ideally, the underground part of the assembly should reside in an area of high ground conductivity. If the
underground cable is able to resist corrosion well, it can be covered in salt to improve its electrical connection
with the ground. While the electrical resistance of the lightning conductor between the air terminal and the Earth
is of significant concern, the inductive reactance of the conductor could be more important. For this reason, the
down conductor route is kept short, and any curves have a large radius. If these measures are not taken,
lightning current may arc over a resistive or reactive obstruction that it encounters in the conductor. At the very
least, the arc current will damage the lightning conductor and can easily find another conductive path, such as
building wiring or plumbing, and cause fires or other disasters. Grounding systems without low resistivity to the
ground can still be effective in protecting a structure from lightning damage. When ground soil has poor
conductivity, is very shallow, or non-existent, a grounding system can be augmented by adding ground
rods, counterpoise (ground ring) conductor, cable radials projecting away from the building, or a concrete
building's reinforcing bars can be used for a ground conductor (Ufer Ground). These additions, while still not
reducing the resistance of the system in some instances, will allow the [dispersion] of the lightning into the earth
[18]
without damage to the structure.

Additional precautions must be taken to prevent side-flashes between conductive objects on or in the structure
and the lightning protection system. The surge of lightning current through a lightning protection conductor will
create a voltage difference between it and any conductive objects that are near it. This voltage difference can be
large enough to cause a dangerous side-flash (spark) between the two that can cause significant damage,
especially on structures housing flammable or explosive materials. The most effective way to prevent this
potential damage is to ensure the electrical continuity between the lightning protection system and any objects
susceptible to a side-flash. Effective bonding will allow the voltage potential of the two objects to rise and fall
[19]
simultaneously, thereby eliminating any risk of a side-flash.

Lightning protection system design [edit]

Considerable material is used to make up lightning protection systems, so it is prudent to consider carefully
where an air terminal will provide the greatest protection. Historical understanding of lightning, from statements
[20]
made by Ben Franklin, assumed that each lightning rod protected a cone of 45 degrees. This has been found
to be unsatisfactory for protecting taller structures, as it is possible for lightning to strike the side of a building.
A modeling system based on a better understanding of the termination targeting of lightning, called the Rolling
Sphere Method, was developed by Dr Tibor Horvth. It has become the standard by which traditional Franklin
Rod systems are installed. To understand this requires knowledge of how lightning 'moves'. As the step leader of
a lightning bolt jumps toward the ground, it steps toward the grounded objects nearest its path. The maximum
distance that each step may travel is called the critical distance and is proportional to the electrical current.
Objects are likely to be struck if they are nearer to the leader than this critical distance. It is standard practice to
[21]
approximate the sphere's radius as 46 m near the ground.
An object outside the critical distance is unlikely to be struck by the leader if there is a solidly grounded object
within the critical distance. Locations that are considered safe from lightning can be determined by imagining a
leader's potential paths as a sphere that travels from the cloud to the ground. For lightning protection, it suffices
to consider all possible spheres as they touch potential strike points. To determine strike points, consider a
sphere rolling over the terrain. At each point, we are simulating a potential leader position. Lightning is most likely
to strike where the sphere touches the ground. Points that the sphere cannot roll across and touch are safest
from lightning. Lightning protectors should be placed where they will prevent the sphere from touching a
structure. A weak point in most lightning diversion systems is in transporting the captured discharge from the
[22]
lightning rod to the ground, though. Lightning rods are typically installed around the perimeter of flat roofs, or
[23]
along the peaks of sloped roofs at intervals of 6.1 m or 7.6 m, depending on the height of the rod. When a flat
roof has dimensions greater than 15 m by 15 m, additional air terminals will be installed in the middle of the roof
[24]
at intervals of 15 m or less in a rectangular grid pattern.

Should a lightning rod have a point? [edit]

Pointed lightning rod on a building

This was a controversy as early as the 18th century. In the midst of political confrontation between Britain and its
American colonies, British scientists maintained that a lightning rod should have a ball on its end. American
scientists maintained that there should be a point. As of 2003, the controversy had not been completely
[25]
resolved. It is difficult to resolve the controversy because proper controlled experiments are nearly impossible
in such work; in spite of the work of Moore, et al. [described below] most lightning rods seen on buildings have
[26]
sharp points. Work performed by Charles B. Moore, et al., in 2000 has helped this issue, finding that
moderately rounded or blunt-tipped lightning rods act as marginally better strike receptors. [described below] As a
result, round-tipped rods are installed the majority of the time on new systems in the United States. To quote:
Calculations of the relative strengths of the electric fields above similarly exposed sharp and blunt rods show that
while the fields are much stronger at the tip of a sharp rod prior to any emissions, they decrease more rapidly
with distance. As a result, at a few centimeters above the tip of a 20-mm-diameter blunt rod, the strength of the
field is greater than over an otherwise similar, sharper rod of the same height. Since the field strength at the tip of
a sharpened rod tends to be limited by the easy formation of ions in the surrounding air, the field strengths over
blunt rods can be much stronger than those at distances greater than 1 cm over sharper ones.
The results of this study suggest that moderately blunt metal rods (with tip height to tip radius of curvature ratios
of about 680:1) are better lightning strike receptors than sharper rods or very blunt ones.
In addition, the height of the lightning protector relative to the structure to be protected and the Earth itself will
[27][28]
have an effect.

Charge Transfer theory [edit]

The Charge Transfer theory states that a lightning strike to a protected structure can be prevented by reducing
the electrical potential between the protected structure and the thundercloud. This is done by transferring electric
[29][30]
charge (such as from the nearby Earth to the sky or vice versa).
Transferring electric charge from the Earth
to the sky is done by installing engineered products composed of many points above the structure. It is noted that
[31][32]
pointed objects will indeed transfer charge to the surrounding atmosphere
and that a considerable electric
current can be measured through the conductors as ionization occurs at the point when an electric field is
present, such as happens when thunderclouds are overhead.
The National Fire Protection Association, NFPA, does not currently endorse a device that can prevent or reduce
lightning strikes. The NFPA Standards Council, following a request for a project to address Dissipation Array[tm]
Systems and Charge Transfer Systems, denied the request to begin forming standards on such technology

(though the Council did not foreclose on future standards development after reliable sources demonstrating the
[33]
validity of the basic technology and science were submitted).

Early streamer emission (ESE) theory [edit]

ESE lightning rod mounted at the Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapausas ( ),Meteora, Greece
[34]

The controversial theory of early streamer emission proposes that if a lightning rod has a mechanism
producing ionization near its tip, then its lightning capture area is greatly increased. At first, small quantities of
[35]
radioactive isotopes (Radium-226 or Americium-241) were used as sources of ionization between 1930 and
1980, later replaced with various electrical and electronic devices. According to an early patent, since most
lightning protectors' ground potentials are elevated, the path distance from the source to the elevated ground
point will be shorter, creating a stronger field (measured in volts per unit distance) and that structure will be more
[36]
prone to ionization and breakdown.
AFNOR, the French national standardization body, issued a standard, NF C 17-102, covering this technology.
The NFPA also investigated the subject and there was a proposal to issue a similar standard in the USA. Initially,
an NFPA independent third party panel stated that "the [Early Streamer Emission] lightning protection technology
appears to be technically sound" and that there was an "adequate theoretical basis for the [Early Streamer
[37]
Emission] air terminal concept and design from a physical viewpoint". (Bryan, 1999 ) The same panel also
concluded that "the recommended [NFPA 781 standard] lightning protection system has never been scientifically
or technically validated and the Franklin rod air terminals have not been validated in field tests under
thunderstorm conditions."
In response, the American Geophysical Union concluded that "[t]he Bryan Panel reviewed essentially none of the
studies and literature on the effectiveness and scientific basis of traditional lightning protection systems and was
erroneous in its conclusion that there was no basis for the Standard." AGU did not attempt to assess the
[38]
effectiveness of any proposed modifications to traditional systems in its report. The NFPA withdrew its
proposed draft edition of standard 781 due to a lack of evidence of increased effectiveness of Early Streamer
Emission-based protection systems over conventional air terminals.
Members of the Scientific Committee of the International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP) have issued
[39]
a joint statement stating their opposition to Early Streamer Emission technology. ICLP maintains a web page
[40]
with information related to ESE and related technologies. Still, the number of buildings and structures equipped
with ESE lightning protection systems is growing as well as the number of manufacturers of ESE air terminals
[citation needed][41]
from Europe, Americas, Middle East, Russia, China, South Korea, ASEAN countries, and Australia.

Analysis of strikes [edit]

Lightning strikes to a metallic structure can vary from leaving no evidence, except perhaps, a small pit in the
[42]
metal, to the complete destruction of the structure (Rakov, Page 364). When there is no evidence, analyzing

the strikes is difficult. This means that a strike on an uninstrumented structure must be visually confirmed, and
[42][43][44][45]
the random behavior of lightning renders such observations difficult.
There are also inventors working
[46][47]
on this problem,
such as through a lightning rocket. While controlled experiments may be off in the future,
very good data is being obtained through techniques which use radio receivers that watch for the characteristic
[48][49][50][51]
electrical 'signature' of lightning strikes using fixed directional antennas.
Through accurate timing and
triangulation techniques, lightning strikes can be located with great precision, so strikes on specific objects often
can be confirmed with confidence.
The energy in a lightning strike is typically in the range of 1 to 10 billion joules. This energy is released usually in
a small number of separate strokes, each with duration of a few tens of microseconds (typically 30 to 50
microseconds), over a period of about one fifth of a second. The great majority of the energy is dissipated as
heat, light and sound in the atmosphere.

Aircraft protectors [edit]

Lightning protection for aircraft is provided by mounting devices on the aircraft structure. The protectors are
provided with extensions through the structure of the aircraft's outer surface and within astatic discharger.
Protection systems for use in aircraft must protect critical and non-critical electronic equipment. Aircraft lightning
protection provides an electrical path having a plurality of conductive segments, continuous or discontinuous, that
upon exposure to a high voltage field form an ionization channel due to the system's breakdown voltage. Various
lightning protection systems must reject the surge currents associated with the lightning strikes. Lightning
protection means for aircraft include components which are dielectrics and metallic layers applied to the ordinarily
lightning-accessible surfaces of composite structures. Various ground connection means to the layers comprises
a section of wire mesh fusing the various layers to an attachment connecting the structure to an adjacent ground
structure. Composite-to-metal or composite-to-composite structural joints are protected by making the interface
areas conductive for transfer of lightning current.
Some aircraft lightning protection systems use a shielded cable system. These systems consist of one or more
conductors enclosed by a conductive shield. The cable has both conductors of one end connected to a grounding
element. This is intended to provide protection from electromagnetic interference. Such systems reduce
the electromagnetically induced voltage in a shielded conductor. This is intended to provide protection against
induced electromagnetic interference from lightning. This network provides a normally-high impedance which
breaks down to a very low impedance in response to a momentary voltage surge electromagnetically induced in
the shield. This establishes a conductive path between the shield and ground. Any surge voltage from lightning
creates a current through the cable. This results in an electromagnetic field of the opposite direction, which
cancels or reduces the magnitude of the electromagnetic field within the shielded cable.

Watercraft protectors [edit]

A lightning protection installation on a watercraft comprises a lightning protector mounted on the top of
the mast or superstructure and a grounding conductor in contact with the water. Electrical conductors attach to
the protector and run downward to the conductor. For a vessel with a conducting (iron or steel) hull, the
grounding conductor is the hull. For a vessel with a non-conducting hull, the grounding conductor may be
retractable, part of the hull, or attached to a centerboard.

Risk assessment [edit]

Some structures are inherently more or less at risk of being struck by lightning. The risk for a structure is a
function of the size (area) of a structure, the height, and the number of lightning strikes per year per mi for the
[52]
region. For example, a small building will be less likely to be struck than a large one, and a building in an area
with a high density of lightning strikes will be more likely to be struck than one in an area with a low density of
lightning strikes. The National Fire Protection Agency provides a risk assessment worksheet in their lightning
[53]
protection standard.
IEC lightning risk assessment comprises four parts: loss of living beings, loss of service to public, loss of cultural
[54]
heritage, and loss of economic value. Loss of living beings is the most important and this is the only loss taken

into consideration for many nonessential industrial and commercial applications. IEC risk assessment
calculations can be very complicated unless done by a software